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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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Manning is a Principal Scientist (Rank Grade 9) in the Coasts & Oceans Group at HR Wallingford (UK) and has over 23 years of scientific research experience (in both industry and academia) examining natural turbulent flow dynamics, fine-grained sediment transport processes, and assessing how these interact, (including both field studies and controlled laboratory flume simulations). Andrew also lectures in Coastal & Shelf Physical Oceanography at the University of Plymouth (UK). Internationally, Andrew has been appointed Visiting / Guest / Adjunct Professor at five Universities (Hull, UK; Delaware, USA; Florida, USA; Stanford, USA; TU Delft, Netherlands), and is a highly published and world-renowned scientist in the field of depositional sedimentary flocculation processes. Andrew has contributed to more than 100 peer-reviewed publications in marine science, of which more than 60 have been published in international scientific journals, plus over 180 articles in refereed international conference proceedings, and currently has an H-index of 24. He supervises graduates, postgraduates and doctoral students focusing on a range of research topics in marine science. Andrew has led numerous research projects investigating sediment dynamics in aquatic environments around the world with locations including: estuaries, tidal lagoons, river deltas, salt marshes, intertidal, coastal waters, and shelf seas.",institutionString:"HR Wallingford",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"HR Wallingford",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"304",title:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0eb11af1d03ad494253c41e1d3c998e9",slug:"sediment-transport-in-aquatic-environments",bookSignature:"Andrew J. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"60187",title:"Chloroplast Pigments: Structure, Function, Assembly and Characterization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75672",slug:"chloroplast-pigments-structure-function-assembly-and-characterization",body:'\nChlorophyll and carotenoid are important pigments that have been used as intrinsic optical molecular probes to observe plant performance during different phases of development. Chlorophyll and carotenoid are biosynthesized in chloroplast and their metabolism is closely related with the chloroplast development. Chlorophyll biosynthesis begins with the formation of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) from glutamate (Glu) via Glu-tRNA synthetase, Glu-tRNA reductase (GluTR) and Glu-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase (GSA-AT) [1]. Eight molecules of ALA are condensed, eventually forming the symmetric metal-free porphyrin, protoporphyrin IX (Proto IX), which is a common precursor of haem and chlorophyll. The biosynthesis of chlorophyll continues by insertion of Mg2+ into Proto IX and followed by several steps in the chlorophyll cycle to create protochlorophyllide.
\nFurther, reaction is one of the most interesting steps because this is the first step in chlorophyll biosynthesis that requires light: the NADPH:protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase converts protochlorophyllide into chlorophyllide. This reaction is then continued to produce chlorophyll (chl)
Plant carotenoids are synthesized and accumulated exclusively in plastids, most importantly, chloroplast and chromoplast [3]. There are two types of plant carotenoid: carotene, which is cyclized and uncyclized hydrocarbons, and xanthophylls, which are oxygenated derivatives of carotenes. Carotenoid synthesis is initiated by the formation of C40 compound phytoene by the head-to-head condensation of two molecules of geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGDP) by phytoene synthase and then to a series of 4 sequential desaturation reactions, by two separate enzymes to produce lycopene, which has 11 conjugated double bonds [4]. Lycopene is then cyclized to α-carotene or β-carotene, which is then further hydroxylated to produce colorful xanthophylls such as lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, violaxanthin and neoxanthin. The biosynthesis and accumulation of carotenoids in the dark-grown etiolated seedling are essential for the assembly of membrane structure and benefits the development of chloroplast when seedlings emerge into the light [5]. Understanding the relationship between structure and photophysical properties of these pigments can provide insights into a better study of how photosynthesis works at the molecular level in chloroplast.
\nThe photophysical properties and functions of chlorophyll and carotenoid reside in their chemical structure. Chlorophylls are defined as cyclic tetrapyrroles carrying a characteristic isocyclic five-membered ring that are functional in light-harvesting or in charge separation in photosynthesis [6]. The chemical structure with IUPAC numbering scheme of chl
Chemical structure of Chl
(a) UV–Vis absorption of Chl
Structure of carotenoid is characterized by a linear chain of conjugated π-electron double bonds (Figure 1). In oxygenic organisms, carotenoid usually contains ring structures at each end, and most carotenoids contain oxygen atoms, usually as part of hydroxyl or epoxide groups. The primary molecular factor that gives rise to their strong absorption bands in the visible spectral region is the number of π-electron conjugated double bonds, N. The position of the absorption maxima is affected by the length of the chromophore, the position of the end double bond in the chain or ring and the taking out of conjugation of one double bond in the ring or eliminating it through epoxidation. Progressive movement to longer wavelengths (bathochromic shift) is illustrated by the absorption spectra of the acyclic carotenoid of increasing chromophore length. Carotenoids show different optical characteristics in various solvents, depending on the polarizability of the solvent [9, 10]; however, generally they have a typical three-peaked absorption spectrum with well-defined maxima and minima (fine structure) (Figure 2a). A ring closure as in β-carotene produces a less-defined fine structure. The introduction of a carbonyl group in conjugation with the polyene system produces a bathochromic shift and the loss of fine structure [4]. The influence of other substituents such as OH is negligible, for example, β-carotene, cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin all have very identical absorption spectrums. Owing to the double bonds in the molecule, all carotenoids exhibit
In the chloroplast interior, there are four main constituents in plant thylakoids, that is, photosystem II (PSII), cytochrome b6f, photosystem I (PSI) and the ATP synthesis. Chlorophylls and carotenoids are embedded in PS II and PSI, large pigment-protein clusters, the structures of which are perfectly adopted to ensure that almost every absorbed photon can be utilized to drive photochemistry. Both PSII and PSI consist of two moieties, that is, core complex or the reaction center that is responsible for charge separation and light-harvesting antenna complexes that surround the core complex and have functions to increase the capture of light energy and energy transfer to the reaction center in the core complex.
\nOne can detect chlorophyll and carotenoid bound in PSII and PSI in chloroplast by measuring their absorption and fluorescence spectra. Figure 3a (solid red line) shows the absorption spectrum of diluted chloroplast that is indicated by red shift of Chl
(a) Overlaid of UV–Vis absorption (red) and fluorescence excitation (black) (λem = 682 nm) spectra of chloroplast and (b) emission spectra of chloroplast with excitation at 434 (black), 475 (red) and 512 (blue) nm. Measurements were conducted at ambient temperature. The isolation of chloroplast was carried out as follows: 20 g of suji leaves (
The current high-resolution structural models of antenna complexes have been obtained only for LHCII (2.72 Å) and recently for CP29 (2.8 Å) from PSII of spinach [17, 18]. Here we focus more on the LHCII structure. LHCII shows trimeric structure. Each monomeric contains three transmembrane α-helices, a, b and c (Figure 4a). One monomeric subunit contains eight chlorophyll (Chl)
(a) A view looking down on the top of trimeric complex of LHCII structure from spinach. Each monomer is colored magenta, yellow and pale green. The three-transmembrane helices (a, b and c) present in a monomer are labeled and are easily visible. Chl
The current high-resolution crystal structure of PS II and PSI core complexes is limited to that from cyanobacteria and from pea, respectively [21, 22]. The core of PSII is a multi-subunit complex. Most of the chromophores involve light harvesting as well as electron transfer reaction and are bound to four main subunits, that is, D1, D2, CP43 and CP47. When the core of PSII and PSI reaction center structures is compared, the arrangement of the pigments and other electron transfer co-factors is also very similar (Figure 4c and d). Here, first we look at the PSII core reaction center. The core of reaction center of PSII is made from two major polypeptides called D1 and D2; each contains five membrane-spanning α-helices. These two helices clasp each other like two cupped hands holding on to each other. The redox cofactors are arranged into two arms that lie on either side of the point where the two groups of helices interact. This arrangement of the helices and the cofactors introduces a pseudo two-fold symmetry axes that runs through the center of reaction center normal to the plane of the membrane. In Figure 4e, it is seen that the electron transport pathway in PSII begins with a pair of chlorophyll molecules called P680 (PD1 and PD2). Then each arm contains, in order, one monomeric chlorophyll molecule, one pheophytin (a chlorophyll derivative) and one plastoquinone molecule. Here, only the D1 arm is active in electron transport. Upon excitation P680 becomes oxidized and one electron is injected out and passes down the active branch to the quinone QA. P680 is re-reduced by electron transfer from a special tyrosine residue called Z (Tyrz). A second turnover of P680 delivers a second electron to the plastoquinone and the secondary quinone QB is now reduced to QBH2. The hole on Tyrz is filled by electron transfer from the manganese cluster, the oxygen evolving complex. Every four turnovers of P680 stores four positive charges in the manganese cluster that are then used to oxidize water and evolve oxygen. While in CP43 and CP47, there are a total of 49 Chl
Unlike PSII, in PS I, the same single polypeptides contain both antenna complexes (Lhca) and the reaction center core. The 3.3 Å resolution crystal structure of PSI from pea showed that plant PSI binds at least 173 Chl
The core complex of PSI is composed of smaller number of subunits (15 subunit) than PSII. The large PsaA and PsaB subunit, which contain 11 trans-membrane helices each, forms a hetero-dimer that binds ~80 Chl
Chlorophyll and carotenoid can be isolated as free pigments, detached from the pigment-protein complexes, by organic solvent extraction. Important aspects such as the choice of organic solvents, light exposure and working temperature should be considered while isolating pigments. Based on the structure, chlorophyll is characterized with polar macrocycle ring with non-polar hydrocarbon tail. The structural difference between Chl
After successful isolation, liquid chromatography has been widely used as an effective technique to separate individual type of pigments and for further purification. In this technique, the pigment separation is based on the polarity which depends on the interaction of pigment with the stationary and mobile phases. Elution method either normal phase or reversed phase is chosen according to the type of pigment to be separated. In addition, the choice of liquid chromatographic methods, namely thin layer chromatography (TLC), column chromatography (CC) and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), is referred to the speed, resolution and quantity of sample [30]. Currently, ultra-fast liquid chromatography (UFLC), a recent development of HPLC, has been used as a standard for liquid chromatography to achieve high-resolution data with low time consumption [31]. Purification with non-chromatographic method has also been developed, that is, purification method using dioxane has been effective to separate chlorophyll from most of the carotenoids and some lipids [32].
\nVarious types of column absorbents used for chromatographic separation of plant pigments have been well reviewed [30]. Here, we used a silica C30 column attached to UFLC analytic to achieve well separation of carotenoids from
UFLC chromatogram of pigment extract from chloroplast of
Peak No | \nt | \nλmaxs [nm] | \nMolecular ion | \nFragment ions [ | \nIdentification | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HPLC eluent | \nHexane | \nEthanol | \nAcetone | \nspecies [ | \n||||
1 | \n7.3 | \n412,436,464 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \nViolaxanthin | \n
2 | \n12.8 | \n470,601,650 | \n451,595,642 | \n465,601,649 | \n458,596,646 | \n907.7 [M]+ | \n881.7 [M – COH]+ 855.7 [M – COH – Mg]+ | \nChlorophyll | \n
3 | \n13.4 | \n422,445,472 | \n422,444,473 | \n−,446,474 | \n−,448,476 | \n568.4 [M]+ | \n551.4 [M – OH]+ 476.4 [M – 92]+ 430.3 [M – 138]+ | \nLutein | \n
4 | \n15.3 | \n−,451,477 | \n425,449,478 | \n425,451, 478 | \n428,454,481 | \n568.6 [M]+ | \n476.4 [M – 92]+ | \nZeaxanthin | \n
5 | \n16.6 | \n431,618,664 | \n427,613,661 | \n430,616,664 | \n431,617,662 | \n893.5 [M]+ | \n871.5 [M – Mg]+ 615.2 [M – phytyl]+ | \nChlorophyll | \n
6 | \n20.1 | \n421,446,473 | \n421,445,474 | \n421,446,476 | \n422,445,473 | \n536.6 [M]+ | \n445.4 [M + H – 92]+ | \n|
7 | \n21.2 | \n–,452,478 | \n–,451,479 | \n–,453,480 | \n–,454,482 | \n536.6 [M]+ | \n444.5 [M – 92]+ | \n
Chromatographic, spectrophotometric and mass properties of pigments separated from the chloroplast of
Larger-scale separation of Chl
Silica and alumina are frequently used as the absorbent in the CC with the normal phase elution to separate the distinct carotenoids; however, it is not easy to use this method to separate carotenoid isomers, that is, geometrical isomers, diastereoisomers, and so on. In this case HPLC/UFLC can be used to overcome the difficulty in the separation of carotenoids by CC. Turcsi et al. (2016) revealed that the polar carotenoids including optical isomers, and region and geometrical isomers as well as non-polar carotenes, could be well separated by HPLC on C18 and C30 columns, respectively [36]. High purity of isolated pigment can be achieved by HPLC and crystallization processes. UFLC analysis of the purified zeaxanthin shows that this carotenoid had a high purity of around 99.3% (Figure 2, left). All purified pigments have purity higher than 95% (Figure 6).
\nPurification of zeaxanthin: (a) chromatogram detected at 450 nm. Insert figure is UV–Vis spectrum measured by UFLC diode array detector in the eluent and (b) ESI-MS/MS spectrum identification. The conditions of UFLC and ESI-MS/MS analysis were as follows: UFLC analysis of the purified zeaxanthin was performed using UFLC equipped with PDA (Shimadzu) on C30 column (150 × 4.6 mm I.D; YMC) with a gradient elution program of water, methanol and MTBE at the flow rate of 1 mL/min at 30°C. The purified zeaxanthin was directly analyzed to LCMS 8030 (Shimadzu) with an isocratic elution of 0.1% formic acid (FA) in water (10%) and 0.1% FA in methanol (90%) at the flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. MS analysis was operated under the following conditions: (1) heat block temperature = 400°C; (2) desolvation line temperature = 250°C; (3) nebulizing N2 gas flow = 3 L/min; (4) drying N2 gas flow = 15 L/min; (5) interface voltage = 4.5 kV; (6) interface current = 0.1 μA; (7) mass range 400–700 m/z; (8) ionization mode = positive and negative.
Chromatographic, spectrophotometric and mass properties of pigment are minimum requirements for pigment identification [35]. These properties for all purified pigments are shown in the Table 1. In Figure 7 (right), absorption spectra of the purified chlorophyll a and the purified β-carotene in acetone have the same maximum absorption wavelength (λmax) and other spectral properties, such as the fine structure and spectrum shape, compared to these pigments in the references [37, 38]. Absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a in acetone shows typical Soret (431 nm), Qx (617 nm) and Qy (662 nm) bands, while two well-defined peaks in the absorption spectrum of β-carotene are found at 454 and 482 nm. This pigment analysis based on the results of spectrophotometer UV–Vis could support the advance pigment analysis using HPLC/UFLC equipped with photodiode array detection and coupled with the mass spectrometry. The LCMS technique has provided a power tool for pigment identification [39, 40]. Tentative identification for zeaxanthin peak separated by HPLC/UFLC analysis with PDA revealed that zeaxanthin has similar retention time (tR), maximum absorption wavelength (λmax) and the shape of absorption spectrum (data not shown) compared to the isolated zeaxanthin from corn which is a well-known source of zeaxanthin [41]. In addition the mass analysis provides the precursor and fragment ions at the specific
Purification of Chl: (a) chromatogram detected at 660 nm. Insert figure is UV–Vis spectrum measured by UFLC diode array detector in the eluent and (b) ESI-MS/MS spectrum. The condition of UFLC and ESI-MS/MS analysis was as follows: UFLC analysis of the purified chlorophyll a was performed using HPLC equipped with PDA (Shimadzu) on C30 column (150 × 4.6 mm I.D; YMC) with a gradient elution program of water, methanol and MTBE at the flow rate of 1 mL/min at 30°C. The purified chlorophyll a was directly analyzed to LCMS 8030 (Shimadzu) with an isocratic elution of 0.1% formic acid (FA) in water (10%) and 0.1% FA in methanol (90%) at the flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. MS analysis was operated under the following conditions: (1) heat block temperature = 400°C; (2) desolvation line temperature = 250°C; (3) nebulizing N2 gas flow = 3 L/min; (4) drying N2 gas flow = 15 L/min; (5) interface voltage = 4.5 kV; (6) interface current = 0.1 μA; (7) mass range 400–1000 m/z; (8) ionization mode = positive and negative.
Chlorophyll and carotenoid are chloroplast pigments which are bound non-covalently to protein as pigment-protein complex and play a vital role in photosynthesis. Their functions include light harvesting, energy transfer, photochemical redox reaction, as well as photoprotection. The exact number and stoichiometry of these pigments in higher plants are varied, but their compositions include Chl
Tatas Hardo Panintingjati Brotosudarmo (THPB) acknowledges the competence research grant (No. 120/SP2H/LT/DRPM/IV/2017) from Kemenristekdikti for the financial support. We also acknowledge Chandra Ayu Siswanti who helped in preparation of chloroplast isolation, pigment isolation and UFLC separation works. We acknowledge Dr. Hendrik Octendy Lintang for supporting fluorescence measurements of photosystem II and I in chloroplast.
\nThe endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a versatile, dynamic and largely pleiotropic subcellular organelle forming an essential part of eukaryotes. It is one of the largest in size, complex in functionality and variable in architecture [1]. It plays a significant role in maintaining the spatial organisation of endomembrane organelles by acting as an architectural framework. It also synthesises essential cellular building blocks like lipids and proteins. ER lies at the core of the endomembrane system, which comprises unified endocytic and biosynthetic cellular processes and is composed of two different structural subdomains. One is the nuclear envelope enclosing the nucleus, and the other is the peripheral ER comprising the interconnected network of flattened sacs and tubules [2, 3]. At a submicron level, the ER network is organised in morphologically distinct domains that assume specific functions [4]. The ER represents the organelle with the largest membrane surface area owing to its network of interconnected tubules and flattened cisternae. Several genetic studies aided with live-cell imaging have illustrated the underlying drivers and the implausible dynamism of ER. The ER exemplifies a secretory pathway gatekeeper that controls protein quality control, its folding, signalling, and degradation across multiple checkpoints and impacts the general plant growth cellular homeostasis.
The ER is responsible for synthesising an array of proteins such as enzymes, ion channels, receptors and cargo molecules that modulate several essential physiological processes, which are ultimately either retained in or distributed from the ER [5, 6, 7]. Besides syntheses, ER also serves as a storehouse for carbohydrates and calcium [8, 9] and plays an essential role in abiotic and biotic stress resistance through the control of protein folding and signalling [10]. These characteristics of ER make it a functionally and structurally non-uniform yet morphologically continuous cellular compartment.
In plant cells, the ER plays a critical role in the organism and bears a strong connection with other plant organelles like the vacuole, Golgi apparatus [7, 11, 12] and chloroplast [13, 14] forming the shape of a spider-webbed membrane network and any defect in its functionality can give rise to several developmental defects [15, 16, 17, 18]. Based on electron microscopy studies, the ER can be differentiated into smooth ER-bearing subdomains with associated ribosomes, rough ER with subdomains of ribosomes-free regions, and nuclear envelope regions which are enwrapped by the ER forming a double membrane demarcating the nucleus [4, 19, 20]. The ER forms connections with the neighbouring cells through channels called plasmodesmata that protrude into the cell wall and interconnect with the cytoplasm of the neighbouring cells [21, 22], forming a unique organelle that cannot be delimited by a cell boundary. Electron microscopy-aided studies have also reported that the plant ER form connections with other membranes, including vacuoles, plastids, mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. In addition to the ER- plasma membrane contact sites (EPCSs) and plasmodesmata [4, 23]. The optical trapping and tweezer system has established physical contact of the chloroplast and Golgi apparatus with the ER [24, 25].
It has been thought that the movement of the ER influences the movement of other organelles, which is possible by the several network connections from the ER to the other cell organelles. While the ER enlarges, contracts or reorganises its morphology, its integrity is maintained by unfolded protein response (UPR) [26] signalling demonstrating the relationship between the ER morphology and its functional integrity [27, 28, 29]. Therefore, the connection of ER with other cellular organelles and compartments is crucial for the exchange of constituents as well as for their function and spatial distribution [29, 30].
The most fascinating feature of the ER in the plant cell is its extraordinary dynamicity which can be easily observed through microscopic analysis resulting in the overall evolving architecture of the tubules and cisternae of the ER that are in a state of continuous movement and rearrangement [27, 29, 31]. This morphological reorganisation of the ER has been reported previously where in the initial phases of cell growth, the ER was observed as a compact entanglement of membranes which undergo reorganisation into an open network as the cell growth advances [27, 32]. The ER organisations become even more complicated in root cells where the ER assumes a condensed form, primarily where the root hairs originate [27, 33]. Evidence of a link between ER shape and ER function can be demonstrated when mutations in Root Hair Defective3 (RHD3) ER-shaping protein compromise the functional organisation of the ER by elongation of the cells and transitioning to a reticulate pattern from a more sheet-like form [29, 30].
The changing climate poses a significant risk to the plants owing to the transitions in its natural environment from typical to very harsh conditions. When plants are exposed to adversities like low water availability, high or chilling temperature, salt concentrations in the soil or pest and disease infestations, they usually respond by changing their response in a dynamic way. Although several studies have aimed to investigate the response of plants to individual environmental stress, in the field, the scenario is such that the plants may be exposed to multiple stresses, and their response may be quite different from that in the laboratory [34]. These dynamic responses in plants include changing the proteome by changing the gene expression patterns [35]. In plants, the ER is the prime organelle that regulates the stress responses [36, 37], as any stress which affects protein folding leads to a cellular homeostatic response mediated by the UPR in response to ER stress [36, 38]. ER is the point of synthesis of the majority of plant cell proteins and also the point of folding of unfolded or misfolded proteins, which are aided by chaperons and co-chaperons [39, 40]. The ER quality control (ERQC) and ER-associated degradations (ERAD) are two mechanisms that maintain the folding of proteins and degrade the misfolded proteins, respectively [39]. Nevertheless, sometimes, these mechanisms are surpassed by the UPR when there is an accumulation and persistence of misfolded and/or unfolded proteins leading to a state where the organelles trigger specific signalling pathways to restore the ER mechanism and recover from the stress [41].
Heat stress often poses a serious threat to plants, as it negatively affects photosynthesis and fertility and can at times result in death. At the cellular level, symptoms of heat stress include the accumulation of misfolded or denatured proteins, production of ROS, microtubule disorganisation, and membrane instability. As the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the site of production for many proteins and lipids, this organelle is tightly linked with the heat stress response. While heat stress response mechanisms include the accumulation of osmolytes and antioxidants, perhaps the most canonical response is the production of Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs): molecular chaperones which facilitate proper protein folding and/or disaggregation of misfolded proteins [42].
Two critical components of the ER’s Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) are also the major regulators of the heat stress response: the transcription factor bZIP28 and cytosolic RNA-splicing enzyme IRE1. bZIP28 was first determined to be involved in the heat stress response in
More recent studies have discovered roles for the ER in the metabolism under heat stress, specifically in the starch and lipid biosynthesis pathways. Although the role of the ER in starch metabolism is less clear than its role in lipid metabolism, several studies have implicated its involvement. In rice, heat stress during grain set can result in a “chalky” grain appearance and decreased starch content. Several studies have found altered expression of starch biosynthetic genes in mutants of the UPR, particularly in seeds [48, 49]. Other studies have found that the application of heat stress during the pre-cellularisation stage of grain set results in increased chalkiness and decreased starch levels [50]. A final study found that components of the UPR regulate starch content and chalkiness in rice seeds under heat stress [51]. When considered together, these results implicate that the ER/UPR regulates starch metabolism under heat stress. While the exact mechanisms underpinning this regulation are unclear, it has been known for some time that the ER is a site of lipid biosynthesis in plants. Tight control of lipid metabolism under heat stress is required as plants alter the lipid composition of membranes in order to combat heat-induced membrane instability.
In many plants, including
One of the open questions in ER stress regulation is how the stress is perceived by the ER and what molecules or phenomena serve as the stress signal(s). Extracellular Ca2+ was one of the first candidates hypothesised to be the cellular signal for heat stress [60]. Seminal studies hypothesised the following signalling response: the influx of extracellular Ca2+ via Cyclic Nucleotide Gated Channels activates Calmodulin, which activates kinases, which finally activates Heat Shock Transcription Factors [61]. Other early putative signals included a nuclear-localised histone sensor and two ER-localised unfolded protein sensors [61]. More recent studies have implicated other molecules to act as a signal for heat stress, specifically Jasmonic Acid (JA) and phytochromes. In a recent study in rice grains, JA biosynthesis and signalling activity was enriched among genes upregulated one hour after heat shock, and JA accumulated three hours after heat. Furthermore, treatment with Methyl JA (MeJA) increased the abundance of IRE1-spliced OsBZIP50(s), an ER-stress response biomarker [50]. In another study conducted in
Heat stress can be particularly damaging to anthers and to the developing pollen. Recent evidence points to the UPR being constitutively active in male reproductive tissues [64], and therefore it is critical to understand how the UPR is affected by heat stress in these tissues. In a recent study, several ER-stress genes, including BiP, other chaperones/HSPs, and genes involved in the ER protein cleaning system, were all upregulated under heat stress in pollen germinating
Drought stress is a major driver of yield losses -- with a tremendous potential to limit plant growth than any other abiotic stress [67]. An important drought response mechanism is the closure of stomata. This at once conserves water by decreasing evapotranspiration and lowers photosynthesis rates, leading to decreased growth rates. If a period of drought occurs during the reproductive or grain filling stage, yield losses can occur due to pollen sterility or embryo abortion. Plant responses and adaptions to drought stress include the aforementioned stomatal closure, deeper root growth, reduced leaf size and altered leaf orientation. At the cellular level, these drought responses result in loss of turgor, which stimulates the production of the hormone Abscisic acid (ABA). ABA is a canonical “stress response” hormone [68], bringing about morphological changes through the following signal transduction cascade: ABA molecules bind to their receptors, which causes inhibition of PP2C phosphatases, leading to the autophosphorylation and activation of SUCROSE NONFERMENTING1-RELATED SUBFAMILY 2 (SnRK2) kinases, which phosphorylate ABA-responsive transcription factors (AREBs), ultimately leading to the expression of stress-responsive genes.
Some abiotic stresses, notably salt and heat stress, stimulate ER stress by markedly increasing the numbers of misfolded proteins in a cell. However, the mechanism by which drought stress is related to ER stress has yet to be determined. Toward this end, several studies have found multiple components of the ER protein folding machinery to be essential for proper drought response, including several E3 ubiquitin ligases, the transcription factor bZIP60, and Binding Protein (BiP). BiP is a molecular chaperone that contributes to proper protein folding, especially under ER stress. Overexpression of BiP has been found to confer drought tolerance - specifically less stomatal closure, less wilting, and maintenance of turgor - in
Several studies have uncovered an interesting link between ER stress and ABA signalling under drought stress -- suggesting that ER functions are mechanistically related to drought stress through ABA. One study mentioned above transformed bZIP60 from
In addition to serving as a site for protein synthesis and transport, ER also plays a crucial role in protein homeostasis under environmental stresses [77]. Stress-induced cellular disruptions such as improper protein folding, excessive protein degradation, accumulation of unfolded protein or overexpression of a protein or increase in the signalling molecules induce ER stress [47].
Three interactive mechanisms, namely, ER quality control (ERQC), ER-associated degradation (ERAD) and the unfolded protein response (UPR) or ER-nucleus signalling pathway, have been described in relation to ER proteostasis function. Salt stress results in the accumulation of misfolded proteins leading to increased transcription of ER-localised proteins, including chaperons such as binding protein (BiP) [78] and Calreticulin (CRT) which aid in restoring proteostasis [79]. On accumulation of misfolded proteins, BiP physically binds to the misfolded proteins, prevents their aggregation and activates UPR signalling [80]. Overexpression of BiP has been reported to enhance salt stress tolerance. Wang et al. [78] identified
ER stress signalling is also known to induce transcription of salt-responsive genes. Under salt stress, ABA levels increases which initiate proteolytic cleavage of an ER membrane-associated transcription factor bZIP17 by Golgi apparatus-resident site-1 protease (SIP). Processed bZIP17 is translocated to the nucleus to activate salt-responsive genes [83]. Liu et al. [44] showed that mutants of bZIP17 have increased sensitivity to salt stress. Ramakrishna et al. [84] reported increased salt tolerance in tobacco plant overexpressing bZIP17 from finger millet. Similarly, overexpression of ER-small heat shock protein (ER-sHSP), another ER-localised chaperon, has been reported to enhance salt tolerance in tomato (Fu et al., 2016). Guan et al. [85] characterised an ER-localised chaperon, namely Sensitive to Salt1 (SES1), which is induced by salt stress and activated by ER stress sensor bZIP17 by direct binding on the promoter region. These studies highlight the role of ER chaperones in stress signalling and acting as an important positive regulator of salt tolerance in plants.
In addition to chaperons, some enzymes involved in protein modifications also play an essential role in ERQC under salt stress. Blanco-Herrera et al. [86] observed that the mutants of UDP-glucose: glycoprotein Glucosyltransferase (UGGT), an enzyme involved in N-glycan protein modification of the misfolded proteins, are more sensitive to salt stress and negatively impacts plant growth.
Various ERAD components have been reported to act as both positive and negative regulators of salt tolerance in plants. In
Upregulation of UPR pathway genes has been associated with stress tolerance. Babitha et al. [90] reported that overexpression of a stress-responsive finger millet bZIP60 in tobacco leads to upregulation of UPR pathway genes such as BiP1, CRT1 and PDIL. The study proposed that the improved tolerance, in this case, could be through the UPR pathway.
As part of the salt stress signalling cascade, the components associated with the ERQC, ERAD and UPR mechanisms may work independently or may have regulatory connections with each other [45, 91, 92, 93, 94]. Although many studies have reported the role of ER stress signalling in salt stress response, the underlying molecular mechanism and client proteins for the ER-associated regulatory mechanisms are still unknown. Zhang et al. [95] performed the first ER proteome analysis of wheat seedlings to understand the role of ER proteostasis pathways in salt-induced growth reduction. They proposed a putative mechanism whereby salt stress generates ROS, which triggers Redox reactions in the cell leading to the accumulation of misfolded proteins. This increase in misfolded proteins in the ER lumen then triggers ER stress which further activates UPR to relieve ER stress and maintain proteostasis.
Early perception of temperature fluctuation and remodelling of the cell membrane (or lipid bilayer) is the key to acclimation to sub-optimal growth conditions. Because ER is the site of fatty acid synthesis, changes in phospholipid composition in response to cold stress are expected to be determined in the ER. In this context, Tasseva et al. [96] investigated the ability of ER membranes to alter lipid composition in
Interactions of plants with various organisms play an essential role in its adaptability to the changing environment, not just in protecting it against various pathogens but also in enhancing its defence mechanisms [105, 106, 107]. When plants are subjected to microbial attack, pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins are synthesised as a response to it. A form of the immune response, Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR), is established as a result of the NONEXPRESSOR OF PR GENE1 (NPR1)-regulated expression of PR genes in
Several studies have demonstrated the involvement of ER bodies in plant defence mechanisms. Even if there is an artificial induction of a wound on a plant using the wound hormone jasmonic acid, which mimics the pest chewing damage, ER bodies are stimulated [111, 112]. In a study involving Brassicaceae plants, which are resistant to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) symbiosis, the plants were found to be susceptible to non-AMF groups (
Plants experience several stresses during their lifetime and in order to survive them, they should have a fast and dynamic response mechanism. Since nearly one third of the plant cell proteins responsible for being affected by stress are located in the ER, it has been studied that ER expresses differential responses in the plant in response to the situation. These dynamic responses in plants include changing the proteome by changing the gene expression patterns. It is the prime organelle that regulates the stress responses as any stress which affects protein folding leads to a cellular homeostatic response mediated by the UPR in response to ER stress. Figure 1 highlights critical ER responses against perceived biotic/abiotic stress conditions.
Summary of ER responses to biotic/abiotic stress conditions. Under biotic/abiotic stress conditions in plants such as virus infection, stress-related hormones and heat and osmotic stress, several factors including BiP, IRE1, bZIP60, bZIP17/28, genes involved in NPR1-depenedent pathways. Uncharacterized molecular pathways are indicated in dashed arrows. (adapted from).
V.J.B. and B.S. thankfully acknowledge the Department of Biotechnology, Govt. of India for providing research grant to Assam Agricultural University and Dibrugarh University [Grant No. BT/PR25099/NER/95/1014/2017, dated 29 May 2018 and Grant no. BT/PR36255/NNT/28/1728/2020, dated 01/12/2021]. V.J.B. also acknowledge the support rendered by DBT e-Library Consortium (DeLCON) to Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics at Dibrugarh University.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. 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The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. 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Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10456,totalCrossrefCites:107,totalDimensionsCites:242,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:6203,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"3",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"77607",title:"Mentorship in Postgraduate Medical Education",slug:"mentorship-in-postgraduate-medical-education",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98612",abstract:"Mentorship is critical to the development and professional growth of graduate medical education (GME) trainees. It is a bidirectional relationship between a mentor and a mentee. Mentorship has consistently been shown to be beneficial for both the mentor and mentee, with the mentee gaining valuable skills in education, personal growth, and professional support, and the mentor attaining higher career satisfaction and potentially greater productivity. Yet, there is a lack of research and in-depth analysis of effective mentorship and its role in postgraduate medical education. This chapter outlines different approaches toward mentorship and provides the reader with basic concepts relevant to the effective and competent practice of mentorship. The authors discuss the challenges that physician mentors and mentees face, the organizational models of mentorship, the approaches and techniques for mentorship, and the deleterious effects of mentorship malpractice. Our general discussion touches on best practices for both the mentor and mentee to allow for self-improvement and lifelong learning. The variety of applicable models makes it difficult to measure effectiveness of mentorship in GME, but there is an ongoing need for expanded research on the benefits of mentorship, as greater amount of supporting evidence will likely incentivize organizations to create mentorship-friendly policies and support corresponding institutional changes.",book:{id:"6947",title:"Contemporary Topics in Graduate Medical Education - Volume 2",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6947.jpg"},signatures:"Lena Deb, Shanaya Desai, Kaitlyn McGinley, Elisabeth Paul, Tamam Habib, Asim Ali and Stanislaw Stawicki"},{id:"81585",title:"Self-Management Strategies in Outpatients with Hypertension Under Treatment in Rural Communities",slug:"self-management-strategies-in-outpatients-with-hypertension-under-treatment-in-rural-communities",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104447",abstract:"Hypertension is already a problem faced by South African urban populations, but little is known about the predominance, chance factors, and self-management strategies of hypertension in rural areas. Hypertension has an increased mortality and morbidity rate, thus has been identified as the killer disease in rural communities as its prevalence is increasing year by year. Non-attendance of hypertensive patients in rural communities has been identified as one of the most pressing issues in chronic illness, including hypertension, management and results into uncontrolled illnesses. Hypertensive patients lack self-management strategies to maintain their quality of life when diagnosed. Therefore, this book chapter is aimed at exploring the knowledge of self-management and strategies used in outpatients with hypertension under treatment in rural communities. Seven major themes were identified: paradoxical description; adherence to treatment and medication instructions, medical follow-up visits at the health facility, healthy lifestyle; management of emotions; defense mechanisms and religious interventions. Patients faced obstacles such as not eating a healthy diet since they are not the ones cooking, and children are always generating problems for them, leading their blood pressure and blood glucose levels to rise. Additional efforts are needed in rural communities to promote hypertension and self-management measures through educational programs.",book:{id:"11292",title:"Hypertension",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11292.jpg"},signatures:"Peter Modupi Mphekgwana, Tebogo Maria Mothiba and Nancy Kgatla"},{id:"82673",title:"Utilising Proteomics and Organoid Cultures for Predicting Treatment Response in Colorectal Cancer",slug:"utilising-proteomics-and-organoid-cultures-for-predicting-treatment-response-in-colorectal-cancer",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106028",abstract:"Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the most frequently diagnosed tumours worldwide. Despite advances in surgical intervention and therapeutics, development of chemoresistance remains a challenge to treating CRC. Predicting treatment response in CRC has strongly relied on genomics, transcriptomics and epigenomics, combined with different cancer staging and classification systems. Despite being beneficial, these omics technologies fail to provide any assessment at a protein level. Thus, having high-throughput tools that assess tumour response to therapy at a protein level will definitely complement the current approaches. In this regard, the field of proteomics holds promise to understand treatment response in tumours. Additionally, patient-derived tumour organoids are replacing the traditional cell lines and xenograft models as the preferred in vitro models for predicting clinical response due to being a better representative model of typical tumour characteristics in vivo. Combining proteomics and tumour organoids can provide more personalised and optimal treatments for CRC in the coming years. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the progress made in proteomic research and use of organoids for understanding CRC treatment response, together with discussing the strengths and limitations of these two approaches when linked together. This overview will then be used to propose future perspectives.",book:{id:"11595",title:"Recent Understanding of Colorectal Cancer Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11595.jpg"},signatures:"Isaac Micallef and Byron Baron"},{id:"81897",title:"Left Atrial Appendage Closure for Stroke Prevention",slug:"left-atrial-appendage-closure-for-stroke-prevention",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105140",abstract:"Atrial fibrillation is the most common chronic arrhythmia worldwide, and stroke is its most common complication. Approximately 20% of all ischemic strokes attributed to atrial fibrillation. Left atrial appendage thrombi are 90% responsible for embolic strokes in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation. In patients with atrial fibrillation, systemic anticoagulation is highly effective in lowering the risk of stroke. Bleeding problems and non-adherence hamper adequate anticoagulation therapy. As an alternative to stroke prevention with medical treatment, left atrial appendage closure is feasible and has proven to be an alternative to anticoagulation in non-valvular atrial fibrillation patients. Various left atrial appendage closure methods and devices have been defined and applied surgically and percutaneously. Exclusion of the left atrial appendage potentially minimizes the risk of embolic stroke and may eliminate chronic anticoagulation requirements. This chapter reviews left atrial appendage closure for stroke prevention in non-valvular atrial fibrillation.",book:{id:"11655",title:"Atrial Fibrillation - Diagnosis and Management in the 21st Century",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11655.jpg"},signatures:"Serkan Asil"},{id:"83106",title:"Portal Vein Thrombosis in Patients with β-Thalassemia",slug:"portal-vein-thrombosis-in-patients-with-thalassemia",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106564",abstract:"Beta (β)-thalassemia major, a chronic inherited hematological disease, leads to chronic anemia in affected children. One of the options for treatment is splenectomy. However, this treatment involves risk of many complications, one of which is portal vein thrombosis (PVT). The risk factors include exposure of phosphatidyl-serine of abnormal red blood cells (RBCs), increased activation, aggregation and a number of platelets and nucleated RBCs after splenectomy, increased endothelial activation, decreased nitric oxide, organ dysfunction, and thrombophilia. PVT is either complete or partial obstruction and has fatal complications, especially after splenectomy and late diagnosis without effective treatment. Diagnosis is typically made with X-ray. Generally, the incidence of PVT is between 1.7% and 9.2%. Initially, it is asymptomatic; symptoms appear gradually as thrombosis progresses. The easiest way to differentiate it from other conditions is via imaging study like Doppler ultrasound. It is usually associated with prolonged prothrombin time (PT). D-dimer and alkaline phosphatase are generally high. The treatment is the same for both the acute and chronic forms and includes the treatment of causal factors, prevention of thrombus extension, and achievement of patency of the portal vein via regular RBC transfusion and antithrombotic agents.",book:{id:"11725",title:"The Erythrocyte - A Unique Cell",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11725.jpg"},signatures:"Ahmed Shemran Mutlaq Alwataify, Husain Naji Alshammary and Ali Hadi Mahdi"},{id:"83108",title:"Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia",slug:"congenital-adrenal-hyperplasia",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106520",abstract:"Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a rare pathology with an estimated incidence of 1:14,000–18,000 births. It includes a group of inherited diseases with autosomal recessive transmission. The genetic defect consists of mutations of the genes encoding the enzymes involved in adrenal and eventually gonadal steroidogenesis. The most common mutation is the gene encoding 21 hydroxylase the enzyme involved in cortisol and aldosterone synthesis. However, other enzymatic defects can be identified. The excess of steroid precursors in the adrenal cortex will be directed towards adrenal androgen synthesis. Finally, the clinical picture includes a series of manifestations specific to the enzymatic deficiency, the severity depending on the degree of the genetic defect. Thus, we can meet severe deficits with clinical expression in newborns and toddlers or partial, non-classical forms with manifestation in adolescence or adulthood. Once the diagnosis of CAH is established, patients will require specific therapy and long-term monitoring.",book:{id:"11853",title:"Adrenal Glands - The Current Stage and New Perspectives of Diseases and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11853.jpg"},signatures:"Adina Mariana Ghemigian and Nicoleta Dumitru"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:780},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:332,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:142,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. 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He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human Activity, Pollutants, Reduced Risks, Population Growth, Waste Disposal, Remediation, Clean Environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). 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