Major forest types in India with their sub types according to Champion and Seth [6] and characterstic species composition of different forests. Species composition follows Reddy et al. [14, 15].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6389",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship - Trends and Challenges",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Trends and Challenges",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Entrepreneurship is a powerful attitude that, in such a way, in the last few years, has become a discipline increasingly transversal to different areas of knowledge. Many times, we think about the things we want such as a good house, a brand new car, a beautiful relationship, a good friendship, and a good way to be in the world. Is that possible that you convert into an entrepreneur? This book shows some examples of that possibility, from simple people to a big organization. In all cases, if you become an entrepreneur, it will be for your taste and pleasure, a means to survive and enjoy the uncertainty, and rejoice that you have all these in your hands and will. Can you find out the trends and overcome the challenges? We would say yes. It all depends on whether you want to develop and apply this attitude.",isbn:"978-953-51-3964-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3963-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4092-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69977",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"entrepreneurship-trends-and-challenges",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f30626e6cc598d69d90838d24db873b8",bookSignature:"Sílvio Manuel Brito",publishedDate:"April 4th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6389.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13103,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:44,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 1st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 30th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170935",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sílvio Manuel",middleName:"Da Rocha",surname:"Brito",slug:"silvio-manuel-brito",fullName:"Sílvio Manuel Brito",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9HrQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-04-25T07:50:04.png",biography:"Sílvio Brito obtained a degree in Human Resources Management and Work Psychology from the Higher Institute of Languages and Administration (ISLA), Portugal. He has a master\\'s degree in Management (Organizational Behaviour) from Lusíada University, Portugal, and a PhD in Psychology from the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is a scientific editor and reviewer for several journals and books. He is also a member of several societies, including the Portuguese Society of Psychology, National Association of Evolutionary and Educational Psychology of Childhood, Adolescence, Elderly and People with Disabilities (NAEEPCAEPD), Psyche-EX Research Centre of the University of Extremadura, and the University of Salamanca Chair of Entrepreneurs Scientific Committee. He is also vice president of the Association for Training, Research, and Development of Entrepreneurship.\n\nAlso, he is a Senior teacher and scientific projects and internships manager at the Human Resources and Organizational Behaviour Department of Management at the School of Polytechnic, Institute of Tomar.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico de Tomar",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico de Tomar",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"453",title:"Entrepreneurial Economics",slug:"entrepreneurial-economics"}],chapters:[{id:"59795",title:"Introductory Chapter: Entrepreneurship as a Trend and as a Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75097",slug:"introductory-chapter-entrepreneurship-as-a-trend-and-as-a-challenge",totalDownloads:1289,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sílvio Manuel da Rocha Brito Brito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59795",authors:[{id:"170935",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sílvio Manuel",surname:"Brito",slug:"silvio-manuel-brito",fullName:"Sílvio Manuel Brito"}],corrections:null},{id:"58034",title:"Arts and Entrepreneurship: Disentangling the Literature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72014",slug:"arts-and-entrepreneurship-disentangling-the-literature",totalDownloads:1866,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Arts entrepreneurship is not a new area of investigation, but it is far from constituting a consolidated topic. Scholars coming from several fields rediscovered it only in recent years, after a period in which it has been slow to emerge. Since the early 2000s, they developed a heterogeneous literature, which is difficult to disentangle. The purpose of this study is to shed light on arts entrepreneurship literature, outlining the most significant issues emerged and their trajectories for future development. We attempted to achieve the purpose of this chapter through a qualitative analysis of the relevant literature on the topic. Results revealed the most relevant issues to which scholars are devoting their efforts. With respect to these, we tried to identify subthemes and we attempted to trace the trajectories for future research. The first main theme concerns the entrepreneur in the arts, focusing on aspects such as identity and characteristics, and examining training and entrepreneurial education. Another theme regards entrepreneurship and training, which is attracting increasing attention, thanks also to the emergence of specific curricula and arts incubators. Besides these themes, other collateral issues emerged. Ultimately, literature is complex and multifaceted, but it is possible to read it with greater clarity.",signatures:"Francesca Rivetti and Mirella Migliaccio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58034",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58034",authors:[{id:"208613",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Rivetti",slug:"francesca-rivetti",fullName:"Francesca Rivetti"},{id:"208617",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirella",surname:"Migliaccio",slug:"mirella-migliaccio",fullName:"Mirella Migliaccio"}],corrections:null},{id:"57880",title:"Entrepreneurial Orientation and Firm Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72009",slug:"entrepreneurial-orientation-and-firm-performance",totalDownloads:1693,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter assesses the important contribution of entrepreneurial orientation’s strategic determinant that influences export performance. Based on survey data from 247 Portuguese small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), findings suggest that entrepreneurial orientation has a positive and significant influence on export performance. This study deepens our understanding and provides novel insights into entrepreneurship and strategic management literature, since it combines multiple factors and has obtained the importance of each construct in SMEs business growth. Moreover, this chapter presents further evidences of the strategies that small firm managers should pursue and policy makers should promote.",signatures:"Orlando Lima Rua, Alexandra França and Rubén Fernández Ortiz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57880",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57880",authors:[{id:"207969",title:"Prof.",name:"Orlando Lima",surname:"Rua",slug:"orlando-lima-rua",fullName:"Orlando Lima Rua"},{id:"215881",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"França",slug:"alexandra-franca",fullName:"Alexandra França"},{id:"215882",title:"Prof.",name:"Rubén",surname:"Fernández Ortiz",slug:"ruben-fernandez-ortiz",fullName:"Rubén Fernández Ortiz"}],corrections:null},{id:"60145",title:"The Digitalisation of Rural Entrepreneurship",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75925",slug:"the-digitalisation-of-rural-entrepreneurship",totalDownloads:1754,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main primary purpose of this chapter is to present new established understanding and knowledge of the digitalization of rural entrepreneurship, how it can help entrepreneurial survival and growth in rural industries, and what are the theoretical and practical implications. The digitalization concept of businesses is the issue of interest in the world today; however, it is still of concern in the rural South African entrepreneurship sector. Collection of primary data was done from 501 owners/managers operating in rural of the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province. The mixed questionnaire of quantitative and qualitative was used as the survey instruments. The questionnaire was distributed at the entrepreneur’s business premises, and they were given 7 days to respond while researcher and research assistants were always available to assist where necessary. The findings of this survey revealed that the large number of participants are not using their digital technology for the business purpose, but rather they use it for other things such as private communications and social friendship. The survey was confined in one province of South Africa; therefore, the generalization of the results should be done with care. This study has indicated some recommendation and suggested further research which may include other provinces as well as other countries.",signatures:"Lawrence Mpele Lekhanya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60145",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60145",authors:[{id:"208001",title:"Dr.",name:"Lawrence Mpele",surname:"Lekhanya",slug:"lawrence-mpele-lekhanya",fullName:"Lawrence Mpele Lekhanya"}],corrections:null},{id:"59850",title:"Micro-Finance: A Driver for Entrepreneurship",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75031",slug:"micro-finance-a-driver-for-entrepreneurship",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Micro-finance lending has long been the answer to many rural developments around the world. It has successfully led to women empowerment and helped in enhancing the socio-economic status of women globally. Development policies and programs have often ignored women as the integral source in alleviating the growth process. The study thus examines the impact of handicrafts on the socio-economic status of women in Pakistan. It also focuses on the role played by micro-finance institutions in enabling women’s micro-entrepreneurship. Women are successfully achieving a high social and economic status in countries like Pakistan through earnings from handicrafts’ industry. The data is analyzed quantitatively, using inferential statistics to support the descriptive analysis. Results of the findings showed that handicrafts prove to be improving the socio-economic status of women in Pakistan and micro-finance has been at its backbone.",signatures:"Asma Salman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59850",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59850",authors:[{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman"}],corrections:null},{id:"58202",title:"A Practical and Theoretical Approach to Social Venturing Entrepreneurship",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72011",slug:"a-practical-and-theoretical-approach-to-social-venturing-entrepreneurship",totalDownloads:1518,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Research in social venturing entrepreneurship promoted by Professor Gert Van Dijk is gaining ground. The concept of social venturing entrepreneurship is not new. It is rooted in entrepreneurship as described by classical authors like Von Mises, Kirzner, Schumpter Knight and social reformer like Raiffeisen. It is anchored in new institutional and behavioral economics and exit strategy theory. A social venturing entrepreneur is a creator of effective social change in the context of economic, social and political conditions. Social venturing entrepreneur masters the skills of networking and lobbying. A social venturing entrepreneur is recognized by the social venturing and co-operative entrepreneurship business model they employ to execute their teleology. Social venturing entrepreneurship has advantages above conventional entrepreneurship as it has reintroduced the concept as entrepreneurship as a calling. They aim to empower the stakeholders for whom they setup the social venture and exit when the stakeholders are able to self-manage the enterprise. This chapter explains the commonly used concepts, ontologies, the social venturing entrepreneur’s social venturing and co-operative business model, the economic theories and conceptual framework and practical application from appreciative inquiry point of view.",signatures:"Moulen Siame",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58202",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58202",authors:[{id:"207670",title:"Mr.",name:"Moulen",surname:"Siame",slug:"moulen-siame",fullName:"Moulen Siame"},{id:"215998",title:"Prof.",name:"Gert",surname:"Van Dijk",slug:"gert-van-dijk",fullName:"Gert Van Dijk"}],corrections:null},{id:"57036",title:"From Entrepreneurial Intentions to Behaviors: Wandering In- Between and Wondering about Challenges and Avenues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70836",slug:"from-entrepreneurial-intentions-to-behaviors-wandering-in-between-and-wondering-about-challenges-and",totalDownloads:1220,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In order to wander and understand the chasm between intentions and actions/behaviors, this chapter presents and discusses the leading theories (such as theory of reasoned action and theory of planned behavior), alternative ones (such as implementation intention theory and theory of goal-directed behavior), potential concepts bridging the intention-behavior gap (entrepreneurial motivation and commitment) and empirical intention-based models and their applicability and predictive validity in entrepreneurship field. For that purpose, it is argued that a socio- and cognitive psychological approach is the most suitable to understand entrepreneurship and in particular the intention-behavior link. This chapter invites entrepreneurship scholars to wonder about challenges in entrepreneurship research and education field and about potential research avenues. At the end, the chapter re-launches the debate by pointing out certain questionings for future research on entrepreneurial intentions and behaviors to produce novel knowledge.",signatures:"Wassim J. Aloulou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57036",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57036",authors:[{id:"207130",title:"Dr.",name:"Wassim",surname:"Aloulou",slug:"wassim-aloulou",fullName:"Wassim Aloulou"}],corrections:null},{id:"57901",title:"From Entrepreneurship to Social Activist: The Role of Indonesian Migrant Entrepreneurs in Taiwan and Socio- Economic Functions of Return-Migrant Entrepreneurship in Malang, East Java",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72013",slug:"from-entrepreneurship-to-social-activist-the-role-of-indonesian-migrant-entrepreneurs-in-taiwan-and-",totalDownloads:1035,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the case of Taiwan, Indonesian migrant entrepreneurs’ active in social activities; they are linked strongly to the petty conditions of co-migrants. In various cases, entrepreneurs play the role of friends in need, acting as third-party resources, to co-migrants, who turn to the former for help and self-actualization. Their activities contribute to bridging the relations between the larger community and Indonesian migrants living as a minority and as marginal foreign newcomers in Taiwan. Meanwhile, the case study of Indonesian return-migrant entrepreneurship at the home village of Malang found that migration and returning home experiences increase socio-economic mobility and develop socio-economic activities at home villages. The migrants’ experiences and enterprise activities have emerged as a critical source of sustainable livelihoods, migration knowledge of production application, self-transformation, and the economic reintegration process for return migrants in their home villages, all of which can create a new life for returnees after migration. Practically and theoretically speaking, the manner in which migrant and return-migrant entrepreneurs perform economic adaptation or social adjustment, indicates that the socio-economic function, comprising valuable ties that cut across classes, can prevent the social and economic isolation of disadvantaged entrepreneurs, co-migrants, and return migrants in the community.",signatures:"Paulus Rudolf Yuniarto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57901",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57901",authors:[{id:"208588",title:"Dr.",name:"Rudolf",surname:"Yuniarto",slug:"rudolf-yuniarto",fullName:"Rudolf Yuniarto"}],corrections:null},{id:"57358",title:"Social Entrepreneurship: Case Study in Unilever Food Solutions’ Trusted Hands Food Safety Online Training Program",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70955",slug:"social-entrepreneurship-case-study-in-unilever-food-solutions-trusted-hands-food-safety-online-train",totalDownloads:1507,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The social entrepreneurship is important in meso (organizational) and macro (policy-making) levels. This paper focuses on a case study in Turkey. “Trusted Hands Food Safety Online Training Program” by Unilever Food Solutions is examined as an example of social entrepreneurship. It is aimed to support food safety awareness in the industry to create and certificate the chefs. Unilever Food Solutions has received the Food Security Special Award, a project developed and implemented by the Food Safety Association. In the first year, 5000 chefs in Turkey intended to complete the education of this field and to have a certificate. It started with the support of professional associations. The sustainability and private sector involvement plays an essential role in this case, which is such an important issue such as health and hygiene.",signatures:"Pınar Başar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57358",authors:[{id:"208540",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Başar",slug:"pinar-basar",fullName:"Pınar Başar"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6929",title:"Active Learning",subtitle:"Beyond the Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fe54807c3ff7c1b500127e814988f5e2",slug:"active-learning-beyond-the-future",bookSignature:"Sílvio Manuel Brito",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6929.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170935",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sílvio Manuel",surname:"Brito",slug:"silvio-manuel-brito",fullName:"Sílvio Manuel 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Forests across the globe have been utilized and many times exploited by humans ever since life style changed from nomadism to settled agri-based system. Forests used to supply many resources including fuel wood, medicine, timber, food etc. But over the years the demand has increased and forests are rather exploited instead of sustainable use.
Historically Indian forests attracted traders for its diversity in spices. The discovery of sea route to India resulted in exodus of European traders. The Portuguese, English, Dutch, French and Germans arrived in India in their quest for the plant species that were important as spices. Records are available that Romans and Arabs were briskly trading with Kings especially along the Western Ghats for variety of spices such as pepper, ginger, cardamom and other condiments.
India is richly endowed with climatic, edaphic and orographic gradients. Geographical extent of India ranges from tropical latitude to temperate latitude with tropic of Cancer passing through India dividing into almost half with one part predominantly tropical nature while the other is subtropical and temperate in nature. Hence the natural vegetation of India is also ranging from rainforests in the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas to desert in Rajasthan.
Ancient description of vegetation largely confined to composition of species primarily of medicinal use and utilization in rituals. Ancient India had a rich tradition of life sciences. There are reviews relating to the knowledge of plant sciences in ancient India [1]. The study of plants in ancent India was mainly under two heads namely, 1. Plants utilized for medicinal purposes and 2. Plants relating to agriculture [1]. However, the study on description of plants and animals was not popular. Takshashila University encouraged the collection, identifying and description of plants found around Takshashila. The traditional medicine in India which is primarily plant based has description of several plant species occurring in different forest types. Though, the descriptions largely confined to medicinal properties and parts of the plants used.
Significant contribution to botany of India was made during the colonial period with a strong pursuit of harvesting botanical resources. There were several European botanists and explorers contributed to the knowledge of botanical resources of India. Van Rheede H. A. (17th Century) the then Dutch Governor of Cochin made an effort to scientifically document the wealth of plants and indigenous medical knowledge with the native Malabaris. He produced a well written book, ‘
First systematic classification of Indian forest types was by Sir. H.G. Champion in 1936 which was later revised in the year 1968 by Champion H.G. and S.K. Seth [6]. They identified 16 major forest types based on rainfall and temperature (Table 1). Contemporaneously, the French Institute of Pondicherry (IFP; http://www.ifpindia.org) produced vegetation maps at the one million scale for peninsular India (by publishing 12 sheets between 1959 and 1973) in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Subsequently published six vegetation maps (scale 1: 250000) covering south and central Western Ghats region in collaboration with state forest departments of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. These maps were produced considering bioclimate of the region, floristic series (dominant species based on climax species, structural and floristic composition) of the forest types, limits of forest types, altitudinal zonation, degree of degradation of forests, relationships between different stages of succession and the potentiality of a disturbed forest to return to the climax. Since then there are studies to improve the classification of forest types considering the feasibility for the forest managers to manage their forests. Attempts have been made by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) to revisit different forest types and reassign the forest types based on ground survey [13] (Table 2). In 2014, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) has revisited Champion and Seth [6] forest type classification by rapid assessment mode.
Group 1: Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests | |
Sub group 1A: Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests | Includes giant evergreen forests, moist forests of Andamans, montane forests of southern India, west coast evergreen forests. Imortant species include |
Sub group 1B: Northern Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests | Forests in Assam Valley, Upper Assam Valley Evergreen forests, Cachar evergreen forests (Dima Hasao district, Assam). Important species include |
Sub group 1C: Edaphic and seral types of evergreen forests | Includes cane brakes, wet Bamboo and pioneer Euphorbiaceous scrub. |
Group 2: Tropical Semi-evergreen Forests | |
Sub group 2A: Southern tropical semi-evergreen forests | Includes Andaman’s semi-evergreen forests, west coast semi-evergreen forests, west coast secondary evergreen Dipterocarp forests. Some of the dominant species include |
Sub group 2B: Northern tropical semi-evergreen forests | Assam valley and alluvial semi-evergreen forests, sub-Himalayan secondary et mixed forests, Cachar and Orissa semi-evergreen forests. Important species are |
Sub group 2C: Edaphic and seral types of semi-evergreen forests | Moist bamboo brakes, lateritic semi-evergreen forests, secondary moist bamboo brakes. Important species are |
Group 3: Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests | |
Sub group 3A: Andaman’s moist deciduous forests | Andaman’s moist and secondary moist deciduous forests. Dominant species include |
Sub group 3B: South Indian moist deciduous forests | Moist teak bearing forest, southern moist mixed and secondary mixed deciduous forest. Important species include |
Sub group 3C: north Indian moist deciduous forests | Moist Sal forests founding east Himalayas, Khasi hills, Siwalik hills and Assam. Dominant species include |
Sub group 3D: Edaphic and seral types of moist deciduous forests | |
Group 4: Littoral and swamp forests | |
Sub-group 4A: Littoral forests | Some of the common species are |
Sub-group 4B: Tidal swamp forests | Mangrove scrub, Mangrove forests. Dominant species are |
Sub-group 4C: Tropical fresh water swamp forests | |
Group 5: Topicl dry deciduous forests | |
Sub-group 5A: Southeren tropical dry deciduous forests | Dry teak bearing forest, dry teak forest, dry red-sanders bearing forest, southern dry mixed deciduous forest. Some of the important species include |
Sub-group 5B: northern tropical dry deciduous forests | Dry Sal- bearing forest, dry Siwalik Sal forest, Dry plains Sal forest, Dry peninsular sal forest, Northern mixed dry deciduous forest. Some of the important species are |
Sub-group 5C: Degrdation of tropical deciduous forests, edaphic type of dry eciduous forests and general seral types. | Dry deciduous scrub, dry savanna forest, dry tropical riverain forest, secondary dry deciduous forest. Important species are |
Group 6: Tropical thorn forests | |
Sub-group 6A: Southern tropical thorn forests | Southern thon forest, southern thorn scrub, Important species include |
Sub-group 6B: Nothern tropical thorn forests | Desrt thorn forest, riverain thorn forest, tropical |
Sub-group 6C: Genral degraded edaphic seral types. | |
Sub-group 8A: Southern subtropical broadleaved hill forests | Nilgiri subtropical hill forest, western subtropical hill forest, central Indian subtropical hill forests. Important species include |
Sub-group 8B: Northern subtropical broadleaved hill forests | East Himalayan subtropical wet hill forest, Khasi subtropical wet hill forest. |
Group 9: Subtropical Pine forests | Himalayan subtropical pine forest, Assam subtropical pine forests. Dominant species are |
Group 10: Subtropical dry evergreen forests | Subtropical dry evergreen forest. Dominant species are |
Sub-group 11A: Southern montane wet temperate forests | Southern montane wet temperate forest.Dominant species are |
Sub-group 11B: Northern montane wet temperate forests | East Himalayan wet temperate forests, Naga hills wet temperate forests. Dominant species are |
Group 12: Himalayan moist temperate forests | Lower western Himalyan tempeate forest, upper Himlayan temperate forest, East Himalayan temperate forest, East Himalayan mixed coniferous forest. Some of the important species include |
Group 13: Himalayan dry temperate forests | 1. Western type: Dry broad-leaved and confireous forest, dry temperate coniferous forest, west Himalayan dry temperate deciduous forest, west Himalayan high level dry blue pine forest, west Himalayan dry Juniper forest, east Himalayan dry temperate conifer forest, east Himalayan Juniper/birch forest. Dominant species are |
Group 14: Sub-alpine forests | West Himalayan sub-alpine birch/fir forest, east Himalayan sub-alpine birch/fir forest. The subalpine forests occur throughout the Himalaya above 3000 m elevation up to the tree limit., rainfall 83-600 mm. The forests are mainly evergreen, |
Group 15: Moist alpine scrub | Birch/Rhododendron scrub forest, deciduous alpine scrub, alpine pastures Moist Alpine Scrub occurs throughout Himalaya, above timber line to 5500 m altitude, composed entirely of species of |
Group 16: Dry alpine scrub | They are found in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand, and Arunachal Pradesh. Vegetation predominantly xerophytic dwarf shrubs; rainfall < 370 mm per year. Important species |
Sl No | Forest types | Area in Sq. Km | Percent area |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Group 1: Tropical wet evergreen forests | 20,054 | 2.61 |
2 | Group 2: Tropical semi-evergreen forests | 71,171 | 9.27 |
3 | Group 3: Tropical mist deciduous forests | 135,492 | 1.65 |
4 | Group 4: Littoral and Swamp forests | 5596 | 0.73 |
5 | Group 5: Tropical dry deciduous forests | 313,617 | 40.86 |
6 | Group 6: Tropical thorn forests | 20,877 | 2.72 |
7 | Group 7: Tropical dry evergreen forests | 937 | 0.12 |
8 | Group 8: Subtropical broadleaved hill forests | 32,706 | 4.26 |
9 | Group 9: Subtropical pine forests | 18,102 | 2.36 |
10 | Group 10: Subtropical dry evergreen forests | 180 | 0.02 |
11 | Group 11: Montane wet temperate forests | 20,435 | 2.66 |
12 | Group 12: Himalayan moist temperate forests | 25,743 | 3.35 |
13 | Group 13: Himalayan dry temperate forests | 5627 | 0.73 |
14 | Group 14: Sub alpine forests | 14,995 | 1.96 |
15 | Group 15: Moist alpine scrub | 959 | 0.13 |
16 | Group 16: Dry alpine scrub | 2922 | 0.38 |
17 | Plantation/TOF | 64,839 | 8.45 |
Total forest cover+ scrub | 754,252 | 98.26 | |
18 | Grassland in different forest type groups (without forest cover) | 13,329 | 1.74 |
Grand total | 767,581 | 100.00 |
Standard forest types of India according Forest Survey of India (FSI) classification.
There was a discernible change in describing vegetation in India. The trend was not to describe species found in any vegetation type but quantitatively describe the vegetation of a locality. There were several studies on quantitative description of vegetation in India. It was initiated by Rai [16], who inventoried all trees ≥10 cm dbh in four plots of 2.7, 2.7, 2.63 and 1.09 hectares respectively at Devimane, Malemane, Kodkani and Katlekan areas of the Western Ghats. Most such studies in the Indian evergreen forests have been conducted during the last decade of the 20th century, and many of them are once census plots. Interest in tree mortality and forest dynamics has increased recently because forest dynamics is thought to be involved in determining tree species diversity [17], and also thought to be related to global climate change, in particular [18]. Phillips and Gentry (
India’s first biosphere reserve the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR) was established in 1986 and the responsibility of conducting research was given to Center for Ecological Sciences (CES), Indian Institute of Science (IISc). As a principle institute responsible in setting NBR, IISc has a commitment towards ecological research in the biosphere. The climatic and altitudinal gradient in NBR harbours different vegetation types ranging from dry thorn forests to rainforests. The altitudinal range has dry forests in the lower elevation to high altitude montane forests. Hence there is a tremendous variation in species composition across both climatic and altitudinal gradient.
When IISc began its research in NBR there were several issues regarding the choice of study area. Based on both logistical and academic reasons, IISc decided to join the international network of 50-ha forest dynamics plots promoted by Prof. Hubbell [21]. CES selected species poor deciduous forests of Mudumalai for variety of reasons. Firstly, Mudumalai would complement plot at Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panama (tropical semi-evergreen forest, neotropics) and Malaysian plot, FRIM, Malaysia (equatorial rainforest). Secondly the factors influencing the dynamics in dry forests are totally different from factors influencing dynamics of forests at both Panama and Malaysia [22].
IISc has selected 50 hectare area in 17th compartment of the Kargudi range in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve as because, 1. The area is relatively free of anthropogenic disturbances as settlements are far off, 2. This area was selectively felled during late 1960s and we could identify the trees that were removed from the plot. They could identify the species of the stumps left behind and map them spatially in the plot, 3.This area lies in the transition zone between dry and moist deciduous vegetation and has both elements represented in the plot.
Establishment of plot involved two steps a. gridding and b. enumeration of the plot. Gridding involves dividing the plot into blocks of 20 X 20 metres after correcting for slope. Correction for slope is important to give equal opportunity for all individuals to compete for resources.
Enumeration involves measuring of all woody individuals and mapping them. Block of 20 X 20 meters is further divided into blocks of 10 X 10 meters temporarily by laying ropes. All woody individuals >1 cm dbh (diameter at breast height) are identified, measured for size, marked with unique number and mapped by taking X and Y coordinates. Point of measurement (POM) was marked where size measurement was made.
There were 25,929 stems duing the first census belonging to 71 species. Most abundant species was understorey tree
Species | Family | Abundance (50 ha) | Relative abundance (%) | Cumulative abundance (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Malvaceae | 5175 | 19.96 | 19.96 | |
Lythraceae | 3980 | 15.35 | 35.31 | |
Combretaceae | 2776 | 10.71 | 46.01 | |
Malvaceae | 2571 | 9.91 | 55.93 | |
Combretaceae | 2280 | 8.79 | 64.72 | |
Lamiaceae | 2143 | 8.26 | 72.99 | |
Fabaceae | 1881 | 7.25 | 80.24 | |
Rubiaceae | 770 | 2.97 | 83.21 | |
Phyllanthaceae | 577 | 2.22 | 85.44 | |
Tiliaceae | 539 | 2.08 | 87.52 |
Top ten dominant species in the plot during the first census (1988–1989).
Most species showed clumped dispersion.
Population of woody species in the plot has shown considerable fluctuations over different census periods. Population has grown from 25,935 individuals >1 cm dbh in 1988 to 48,360 individuals in 2016 (Figure 1). The population across different census years has shown fluctuations. There was a negative trend during 1988–1992 (−31.9%), 1992–1996 (−13.2%) and 2000–2004 (−14.2%). There was huge surge of 138.9% in populations between 2004 and 2008 census. There was a positive trend during 1996–2000 (18.3%), 2008–2012 (1.1%), 2012–2016 (28.7%).
Total population in different census years (all woody stems >1 cm dbh).
There is an overall increase of 86.4% with the total population during 1988–2016. However, individual species showed an interesting trend in the populations (Table 4). Among canopy species
Among the understorey species,
Entire plot (50 hectares) was annually censused for mortality and recruitment till 2008. Since 2009, annual census was done in sample plots of 40 meters X 40 meters inside the plot. There were 100 such randomly placed plots accounting for little more than 1/3rd of the total area. The reports on annual mortality for the plot from sample plots from 1989 to 2016 were published [23].
The community wide mean annual mortality rate was 7.67±5.75% (range 1.57–21.5%, N = 28) while mean annual recruitment rate was 11.1±14.0% range = 0.65–58.5%, N = 28). Though recruitment rate was higher than the mortality rate, recruitment rate had high variability compared to mortality rate. There was considerable fluctuation in the mortality and recruitment rate across census periods (Table 5). Mean annual mortality due to fire across different census years was 2.87±5.75% (range = 0–20.6%, N = 28). Elephants resulted in mortality rate of 2.33±2.04% (range = 0.28–7.56%, N = 28) while mortality due to other causes was 2.47±2.49 (range = 0.46–12.58%). Mortality rates due to fire spiked in the years of dry season fire (1991, 1992, 1996, 2002 and 2010), resulting in mortality rates over 10%. Highest mortality of 12.58% was seen in the year 2016 where there was no dry season fire. Elephant related mortality was high in year 2008 after the massive “episodic recruitment” observed in one of the favoured speies
Species | Family | Census 1988 | Census 2016 | % Change |
---|---|---|---|---|
Canopy species | ||||
Combretaceae | 2281 | 1702 | −25.38 | |
Fabaceae | 75 | 427 | 469.33 | |
Ebenaceae | 130 | 135 | 3.85 | |
Lamiaceae | 59 | 16 | −72.88 | |
Tiliaceae | 540 | 592 | 9.63 | |
Lythraceae | 3982 | 4516 | 13.41 | |
Fabaceae | 113 | 12 | −89.38 | |
Sapindaceae | 75 | 96 | 28.00 | |
Dipterocarpaceae | 78 | 14 | −82.05 | |
Bignoniaceae | 112 | 129 | 15.18 | |
Myrtaceae | 414 | 442 | 6.76 | |
Lamiaceae | 2141 | 1768 | −17.42 | |
Combretaceae | 2771 | 2154 | −22.27 | |
Understory species | ||||
Fabaceae | 1887 | 3025 | 60.31 | |
Bignoniaceae | 192 | 281 | 46.35 | |
Malvaceae | 249 | 7 | −96.39 | |
Malvaceae | 2573 | 22,543 | 776.14 | |
Malvaceae | 5167 | 1018 | −80.30 | |
Lythraceae | 94 | 51 | −45.74 | |
Phyllanthaceae | 576 | 296 | −48.61 | |
[syn. | Rubiaceae | 770 | 5999 | 679.09 |
Bignoniaceae | 358 | 356 | −0.56 | |
Combretaceae | 62 | 22 | −64.52 |
Population changes observed among several canopy and understorey species in the 50 ha plot, Mudumalai.
Parameter | Census 1 | Census 2 | Census 3 | Census 4 | Census 5 | Census 6 | Census 7 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mortality (%) | 11.57 ± 3.48 | 7.91 ± 5.45 | 3.38 ± 1.45 | 8.98 ± 8.18 | 6.91 ± 3.74 | 9.85 ± 8.79 | 5.14 ± 5.80 |
Recruitment (%) | 2.30 ±1.17 | 3.98 ± 1.62 | 9.19 ± 4.25 | 5.75 ± 5.54 | 38.76 ± 15.74 | 11.87 ± 10.98 | 10.70 ± 12.29 |
Mean overall mortality and recruitment rates in the 50 hectare forest dynamics plot, Mudumalai.
The community wide mean mortality rate was high during the first census (1989–1992) which had two years of consecutive dry season fires across different census period. Lowe mortality rate with low variability was seen during the third census (1996–2000). Recruitment rate also showed considerable fluctuation across different census periods ranging from as low as 2.3% during first census (1989–1992) to 38.76% during fifth census (2004–2008). Variability was high during the seventh census (2012–2016) (Table 5).
Mean mortality rates due to different causes across census periods is tabulated in the Table 6. Mean rate of mortality due to fire during the census period between (2004–2008) and (2012–2016) was zero suggesting fire did not result in the mortality of any individual. There was a considerable variability in mortality rates across other census periods (Table 6). Elephant related mortality rate was high during the first census period (1989–1992) and 5th census period (2004–2008) owing to abundance of elephant favoured species such as
Parameter | Census 1 | Census 2 | Census 3 | Census 4 | Census 5 | Census 6 | Census 7 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fire (%) | 4.48 ± 2.86 | 4.92 ± 6.08 | 0.03 ± 0.05 | 5.13 ± 9.64 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 5.54 ± 10.10 | 0.00 ± 0.00 |
Elephant (%) | 4.62 ± 1.88 | 1.73 ± 0.69 | 1.38 ± 0.69 | 0.76 ± 0.43 | 4.22 ±2.55 | 2.52 ± 2.77 | 1.09 ± 0.19 |
Others (%) | 2.48 ± 0.75 | 1.26 ± 0.47 | 1.97 ± 0.81 | 3.08 ± 2.76 | 2.70 ± 1.74 | 1.78 ± 2.06 | 4.05 ± 5.75 |
Mean mortality rate due to different causes in the 50 hectare forest dynamics plot, Mudumalai.
The basal area in the plot has been steadily increasing over time (Figure 2). Above Ground Biomass (AGB) and hence carbon stock also shows a similar trend (Figure 3), with both the native woody vegetation and invasive ground vegetation showing increment. Basal area changes do not necessarily translate to AGB changes: for instance, the slight decline in basal area during 1992–1996 is not reflected in AGB, which may be partly due to differences in wood densities (e.g. hardwoods growing more than softwoods). Native woody vegetation biomass in 2004 shows a slight reduction owing to a severe drought in the preceding years and a large fire in 2002. However, the invasive
Native woody-plant basal area (per hectare) in the 50-ha plot.
Aboveground biomass (per hectare) in the 50-ha plot, showing contributions from native woody-plants as well as other ground vegetation.
Being a part of Western Ghats range of mountains, one of the global biodiversity hotspots, Kerala has bestowed with diverse forest ecosystem with high degree of endemism. Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI) currently having more than 40 permanent plots across the state representing all major forest ecosystems (Figure 4) and more plots are coming up as a part of various ongoing research projects. KFRI Long-term monitoring programme represents all major ecosystems like mangrove, moist deciduous, dry deciduous, wet evergreen, montane shola forests and grasslands. As of now, the programme covers 50,309 woody individuals of more than 350 species. Majority of our plots are smaller in size (≤1 ha) in which survey would be conducted at five year intervals. These plots were established in different time periods under various research projects undertaken by KFRI. The oldest set of plots was established was during 2000–2002. Recently a large 10 Ha permanent plot was established in wet evergreen forests, Sholayar range. Vazhachal Forest Division, Kerala (Figure 4).
Distribution of Long-term monitoring plots of KFRI in Southern Western Ghats.
A permanent plot of 10 ha (500 × 200 m2) size was established in a tropical evergreen forest at Karadichola, Sholayar Range, Vazhachal Forest Division, Kerala in Southern Western Ghats. Plot establishment and baseline data collection were done based on the Forest-GEO [24] (CTFS) protocol during 2016–2017. Comparison of Sholayar plot with other sites which are following Forest-GEO protocol is summarized as Table 7. Complete inventory of woody individuals ≥1 cm dbh were done and each individual was permanently tagged with sequentially numbered aluminium tags. In the 10-ha plot, a total of 25,390 individuals of 106 woody species were recorded [25]. These individuals were belonging to 44 families and 81 genera. Small-diameter class (1 cm ≤dbh<10 cm)were 3.6 times more abundant than large-diameter (dbh ≥10 cm) ones. There were 19,975 small-diameter plants (78.67% of all stems), averaging 1997 individuals/ha, while large-diameter trees had an abundance of 5415 plants and density of only 546 individuals/ha. The family Rubiaceae, is the most abundant, with densities >900 individuals/ha, followed by Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae, Sapotaceae, Meliaceae, Malvaceae, and Putranjivaceae. Among tree genera
CTFS plot location | Latitude | Mean elevation (m) | Land type* | Plot size (ha) | No. of species | No. of families | Trees/ha | Basal area (m2/ha) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lambir, Malaysia | 4.19 | 170 | I | 52 | 1182 | 83 | 6915 | 43.5 |
Yasun, Ecuador | −0.69 | 230 | M | 50 | 1114 | 81 | 3026 | 33.0 |
Pasoh, Malaysia | 2.98 | 80 | M | 50 | 814 | 82 | 6708 | 31.0 |
Khao Chong, Thailand | 7.54 | 140 | M | 24 | 593 | Na | 5063 | Na |
Korup, Cameroon | 5.07 | 200 | M | 50 | 494 | 62 | 6580 | 32.0 |
Ituri, Dem. Rep. of Congo | 1.44 | 780 | M | 404 | 445 | Na | 7200 | Na |
Palanan, Philippines | 17.04 | 110 | I | 16 | 335 | 60 | 4125 | 39.8 |
Bukit Timan, Singapore | 1.25 | 150 | I | 2 | 329 | 62 | 5950 | 34.5 |
BCI, Panama | 9.15 | 140 | M | 50 | 299 | 58 | 4168 | 32.1 |
Mo Singto, Thailand | 14.43 | 770 | M | 30.5 | 262 | Na | Na | Na |
HuaiKhaKhaeng, Thailand | 15.63 | 590 | M | 50 | 251 | 58 | 1450 | 31.2 |
La Planada, Colombia | 1.16 | 1840 | M | 25 | 240 | 54 | 4216 | 29.8 |
Dinghushan, China | 23.16 | 350 | M | 20 | 210 | Na | 3581 | Na |
Sinharaja, Sri Lanka | 6.4 | 500 | I | 25 | 204 | 46 | 7736 | 45.6 |
DoiInthanon, Thailand | 18.52 | 1700 | M | 15 | 192 | Na | 4913 | Na |
Luquillo, Puerto Rico | 18.33 | 380 | I | 16 | 138 | 47 | 4194 | 38.3 |
Nanjenshan, Taiwan | 22.06 | 320 | I | 3 | 125 | 41 | 12,133 | 36.3 |
Ilha do Cardoso, Brazil | −25.1 | 5 | M | 10 | 106 | Na | Na | Na |
Mudumalai, India | 11.6 | 1050 | M | 50 | 72 | 29 | 510 | 25.5 |
Laupahoehoe, USA | 19.93 | 1150 | I | 4 | 21 | 15 | 3078 | 67.36 |
Palamanui, USA | 19.74 | 240 | I | 4 | 15 | 15 | 3487 | 8.6 |
Sholayar, India (KFRI PLOT) | 10.29 | 950 | M | 10 | 106 | 44 | 2539 | 47.7 |
Comparison of vegetation parameters of 10 ha plot at Sholayar, Kerala with other Forest-GEO (CTFS) sites around Globe.
I - Island, M - Mainland, Na - not available.
Sl. No. | Species | No. of Individuals (10 Ha) | IVI |
---|---|---|---|
1. | 11 | 0.1939 | |
2. | 42 | 0.9148 | |
3. | 48 | 0.7948 | |
4. | 30 | 0.515 | |
5. | 39 | 0.6217 | |
6. | 22 | 0.4034 | |
7. | 706 | 7.2858 | |
8. | 594 | 6.7618 | |
9. | 1 | 0.0206 | |
10. | 62 | 0.6279 | |
11. | 249 | 4.3758 | |
12. | 3 | 0.0590 | |
13. | 163 | 1.8734 | |
14. | 12 | 0.1705 | |
15. | 229 | 2.9408 | |
16. | 246 | 3.1307 | |
17. | 1 | 0.0221 | |
18. | 2 | 0.0391 | |
19. | 2 | 0.0434 | |
20. | 109 | 2.4132 | |
21. | 2 | 0.1796 | |
22. | 55 | 0.5937 | |
23. | 15 | 0.6838 | |
24. | 22 | 0.5249 | |
25. | 7 | 0.1210 | |
26. | 1 | 0.0358 | |
27. | 15 | 0.2601 | |
28. | 12 | 0.2231 | |
29. | 3 | 0.0603 | |
30. | 4 | 0.0854 | |
31. | 2 | 0.0392 | |
32. | 2 | 0.0416 | |
33. | 514 | 4.0406 | |
34. | 1027 | 27.9277 | |
35. | 1376 | 11.0712 | |
36. | 1 | 0.0194 | |
37. | 373 | 8.2856 | |
38. | 118 | 2.6948 | |
39. | 27 | 0.6139 | |
40. | 413 | 6.8282 | |
41. | 600 | 9.2968 | |
42. | 390 | 5.2566 | |
43. | 32 | 1.3709 | |
44. | 63 | 1.6316 | |
45. | 130 | 1.4946 | |
46. | 3 | 0.0853 | |
47. | 190 | 3.0605 | |
48. | 47 | 0.7725 | |
49. | 106 | 1.5670 | |
50. | 1 | 0.0403 | |
51. | 115 | 4.6342 | |
52. | 33 | 0.4739 | |
53. | 134 | 1.6989 | |
54. | 396 | 4.0462 | |
55. | 139 | 1.7541 | |
56. | 3 | 0.0596 | |
57. | 328 | 4.8171 | |
58. | 14 | 0.3211 | |
59. | 208 | 2.8858 | |
60. | 63 | 0.9326 | |
61. | 28 | 0.8126 | |
62. | 167 | 2.5887 | |
63. | 180 | 2.2228 | |
64. | 35 | 0.7248 | |
65. | 13 | 0.2298 | |
66. | 15 | 0.3446 | |
67. | 148 | 2.1348 | |
68. | 360 | 3.8657 | |
69. | 29 | 0.4852 | |
70. | 145 | 2.6122 | |
71. | 27 | 0.4366 | |
72. | 878 | 14.255 | |
73. | 8 | 0.1290 | |
74. | 1 | 0.0195 | |
75. | 28 | 0.6579 | |
76. | 362 | 5.6289 | |
77. | 1 | 0.0221 | |
78. | 354 | 4.6706 | |
79. | 108 | 1.2404 | |
80. | 61 | 0.9228 | |
81. | 1257 | 28.6825 | |
82. | 1 | 0.0194 | |
83. | 1 | 0.0201 | |
84. | 6 | 0.1162 | |
85. | 23 | 0.5240 | |
86. | 604 | 5.0707 | |
87. | 8340 | 37.6802 | |
88. | 28 | 0.3739 | |
89. | 1 | 0.0196 | |
90. | 1 | 0.0193 | |
91. | 13 | 0.4371 | |
92. | 43 | 0.7766 | |
93. | 1 | 0.1700 | |
94. | 37 | 0.2613 | |
95. | 660 | 3.3360 | |
96. | 188 | 2.1646 | |
97. | 131 | 1.7905 | |
98. | 517 | 5.2191 | |
99. | 73 | 1.2097 | |
100. | 5 | 0.2121 | |
101. | 22 | 0.3552 | |
102. | 121 | 1.4741 | |
103. | 11 | 0.1927 | |
104. | 145 | 4.1535 | |
105. | 605 | 16.4577 | |
106. | 1 | 0.0195 |
Species- level contribution to the community in the 10 ha. plot, Sholayar, Kerala.
Since the early 1980s, the French Institute of Pondicherry has been in collaboration with the Forest Department of Kerala and Karnataka to explore structure and diversity of wet evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. In 1979–80, a total of 147 trees ≥ 30 cm girth at breast height was monitored untill 1982 for growth (with a precision of 0.02 mm) at monthly intervals in a 0.2 ha plot at Attapadi. Monitoring the plot in the region was stopped for logistic reasons. Subsequently, IFP has established two sets of sample plots in low elevation wet evergreen forest in Kadamakkal RF, Sampaje Range, Kodagu (ca. 12°32′15″N, 12° 33’ N, 75°39’4″E; Figure 1a). Currently this area comes under the Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary in Kodagu district. The study area, the Uppangala was subjected to selective logging, between 1974 and 1983 [26]. During the logging operation, the forest was divided into compartments of 28 ha each, 237 to 359 large trees (stems ≥ 180 cm) of medium wood (> 0.5 but ≤ 0.72 g cm−3)
The first set of sample plots was installed in 1984 to study the post-logging effects on the forest dynamics of a once logged 30-ha compartment (Figure 5b). It consists of 14 plots of 600 m2 (20 x 30 m). All trees ≥ 10 cm girth at breast height (gbh) were recorded during the first census. All the plots were recensused (except 4 plots, which were recorded as burnt) in 1988 and 1993 for recruitment and mortality. In 1989, a second set of sample plots was established in another 30-ha compartment (Figure 5c), which had escaped logging operation due to the ban on selective felling from 1987 in the forest of Western Ghats.
(a-e) Uppangala study site, (a) Location of Uppangala study site in the central Western Ghats, Karnataka, India. Sampling designs for the inventory of trees: (b) systematic sampling in logged and (c) sampling plots and transects in unlogged (d) fifteen 1 ha plots in both compartments and (e) contiguous 9.9 ha plot in the unlogged compartment of the low elevation wet evergreen forests.
The unlogged compartment probably represents the last example of old-growth low-elevation
The systematic sampling plots of logged compartment was recorded with a total of 2748 trees ≥ 10 cm girth at breast height (gbh) during the first census in 1985 [27]. Similarly, a total of 1981 trees ≥ 30 cm gbh were recorded with 91 species in the first census of 3.14 ha area of the unlogged compartment in 1990 [28]. Pronounced species hierarchy is another characteristic feature of the forest. Just 10 most abundant species contributed 71% for the forest stand (Table 9). Subsequent additional sampling area allow us to monitor more number of trees in the unlogged compartment. Totally 3870 trees were enumerated in the 5.07 ha during 1994 census and all those trees fitted with stainless dendrometric belts for measuring growth with a precision of 0.2 mm. At present we are monitoring 6672 trees (of which 3127 trees were installed with dendrometer bands) representing 111 species in the unlogged forest plot. The forest is characterized by high tree density and basal area (661 stems ha−1; 43 m2 ha−1). Pronounced species hierarchy is another characteristic feature of the forest. Just four species namely,
Species (Family) | Family | Abundance | Relative abundance (%) | Cumulative abundance |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dipterocarpaceae | 329 | 17 | 23 | |
Caesalpiniaceae | 294 | 15 | 31 | |
Myristicaceae | 263 | 13 | 45 | |
Myristicaceae | 118 | 6 | 51 | |
Sapotaceae | 98 | 5 | 56 | |
Euphorbiaceae | 79 | 4 | 60 | |
Dipterocarpaceae | 67 | 3 | 63 | |
Meliaceae | 62 | 3 | 66 | |
Clusiaceae | 56 | 3 | 69 | |
Clusiaceae | 44 | 2 | 71 |
Top-ten dominant species in the unlogged compartment plot during the first census 1990.
A decade long monitoring of logged and unlogged forest for trees ≥ 30 cm gbh revealed the logged compartment had 347 trees and 54 species in 0.6 ha (1986) whereas the unlogged compartment had 1891 trees and 88 species in 3.12 ha in 1990 [29]. Initial stand density and basal area of the trees were slightly lower in the logged forest (578 stems ha−1; 34.8 m2 ha−1) than in the unlogged forest (606 stems ha−1; 39.3 m2ha−1). Mean density and basal area for the 20 × 30 m2 samples of the two compartments displayed no significant difference (t-tests, P>0.25). The mortality rate was more or less similar for the compartments (0.89% for logged and 0.87% for unlogged), which is lower than the rates observed in other tropical forests. Annual recruitment rate of logged (1.68%) and unlogged forests (1.34%) were not significantly different. Mean diameter increment was 2.1 mm and 2.9 mm yr.−1 for unlogged and logged compartments. In the logged forest,
Variables | Logged plots | Unlogged plots | Total (mean) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LP1 | LP2 | LP3 | LP4 | UP1 | UP2 | ||
Number of species | 59 | 72 | 66 | 56 | 53 | 57 | 126 (60.5) |
Number of families | 32 | 28 | 25 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 41 (26.2) |
Stem density | 572 | 513 | 636 | 672 | 665 | 680 | 3738 (623.0) |
Basal area (m2 ha−1) | 28.15 | 39.3 | 41.37 | 48.23 | 51.19 | 51.01 | 259.24 (43.21) |
AGB (Mg ha−1) | 268.05 | 396.71 | 454.84 | 491.44 | 611.59 | 649.82 | 2872.45 (478.74) |
Impact of selective logging on tree species richness, composition and structure, after 27 years in comparison with unlogged forest at 1 ha scale (based on census 2010–2011; [30]).
Summarized results of a decade long monitoring study of logged and unlogged plots [
In the unlogged forest, over the study period of 1990–2016, mortality rates ranged from 0.7 to 1.2% yr.−1 with an average of 0.8% yr.−1 while the recruitment ranged from 0.4 to 1.2% yr.−1 with an average of 1% yr.−1 (Figure 7). The basal area of the stand showed a loss of 13.8% due to tree death and an addition of 21.6% basal area by growth of trees. Overall, it shows an increment by 7.8% of the stand basal area. During the period of 26 years, four species
Recruitment and mortality rates for trees ≥ 30 cm gbh in the unlogged forest.
Live Above Ground Biomass (AGB) of individual trees were determined using the regression equation of tropical moist forest stands: AGB = exp.(−2.977 + ln(ρD2H)).
Where D is the diameter at breast height in cm, H is total height in m and ρ is wood density in g cm−3 [32]. The estimated value ranged from 268 to 491 Mg ha−1 for those plots in the logged compartments and 611 to 649 Mg ha−1 for the unlogged compartment Table 10. The AGB ha−1 of unlogged plots of the present study is high compared to the available data on Indian forests and the other tropical forests across the continents: a mean of 287.8 ± 105.0 Mg ha−1 for South America, 393 ± 109.3 Mg ha−1 in Asia and 418 ± 91.8 Mg ha−1 in Africa for trees ± 10 cm dbh [33].
In summary, the continued monitoring of the plot will enhance our capacities to understand the forest dynamics in space and time, and response of the forest to the influence of climate change.
Small scale forest dynamic plots were established in the wet evergreen forest at Kakachi in Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (hereafter KMTR) (8o 33’ N. Lat. 77o23’E. Long, Figure 8). It covers an area of 887 km2 along the eastern slopes of Agasthyamalai range. The altitude ranges from 100 to 1890 m with generally steep slopes and deep valleys. KMTR supports large stretches of evergreen forests, which are contiguous to the rest of the WG, and endowed with large number of endemic and rare plant species, and provide habitats for rare animals such as Lion Tailed Macaque, Nilgiri langur, Tiger, Elephants etc. KMTR receives both South-West and North-East monsoons and being a major watershed, seven major rivers originates from the forest. These rivers meet the water requirements of the arid regions of south Tamil Nadu. Kakachi is located at 1300 m amsl and receives an annual rainfall of over 3500 mm. The rainfall is spread over 8 to 10 months in a year. The spread out of the rainfall in the study site is due to Southwest monsoon and Northeast monsoon rains. Mean maximum temperature is 24o C and minimum about 16o C [34]. The terrain is highly undulating and is traversed by numerous mountain streams. The vegetation is characterized by three dominant tree species,
Forest Dynamics Plots in Kakachi forest, Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats.
The principal objective of this study was to measure the changes in diversity, structure, recruitment and mortality of tree species compared to other forests within WG as well as globally. Following are the specific objectives:
(1) Determine the diversity and population structure of trees at Kakachi (2) Compare diversity and density of endemic with the widely distributed species in the site (3) Determine the overall recruitment, mortality and turnover rates of tree species.
Three 1-ha plots of 250 m x 40 m dimension were established within the wet evergreen forest during 1993 and 1994. A minimum distance of 1 km, spatially separated these plots. The plots were permanently marked using PVC pipes and all trees above 10 cm dbh at 1.3 m above ground were enumerated and tagged.
A total of 68 tree species >10 cm dbh were recorded from the 3 ha. The sixty-eight tree species belonged to 52 genus and 31 families. The most species rich family was Lauraceae with 12 species followed by Euphorbiaceae (7 sp.) and Myrtaceae (6 sp.). Seventeen families had only one species.
A total of 2116 live stems were encountered in the 3 ha at an average of 705 stems ha−1. Three species
Total basal area of all the trees was 60.51 m2ha−1. Two dominant species
Of the 68 tree species 42 were canopy trees and 23 (35%) were understorey trees. Maximum height of canopy trees was 40 m. The tallest species is
In terms of habit preferences there were 36 closed forest species and 33 gap species. Nineteen of the closed forest trees were canopy species and remaining 17 were gap invaders. Similarly in the understorey 14 were closed canopy species and 15 were gap species. The closed forest species were 11 times (1840) more abundant than gap species (144) and majority of the gap species contributed to less than 7 individuals per ha. Basal area of closed forest species was 22 times greater than gap species.
Thirty-three of the total 68 identified tree species (49%) in the plots were endemic to the Western Ghats. The endemic species richness increases from localised endemics to more widely distributed endemic species. Greater proportion (76%) of the species were endemic to the entire Western Ghats (EWGE, Entire Western Ghats Endemic), 18% to southern Western Ghats, (SWGE Southern Western Ghats Endemic comprising of Nilgiris and south of the Palghat gap) and 6% to Agasthyamalai (AGME Agasthyamalai Endemic) region alone (localized endemic). Some of the common endemic species are
Endemic species of the Western Ghats accounted for 51% (1079) of the total stems encountered in the 3 ha. EWGE were the most numerous, and accounted for 83% (893) of the stems followed by 16% (172) for AGME species and only 1.3% (14) to SWGE. The density of trees under the 3 endemic gradients is significantly different (KW = 9.84, p < 0.01). The WGE species were significantly more abundant than SWG species (Dunn’s test p < 0.01). The median density value was 8 for EWGE species and 2 for SWGE species. Localized AGME species such as
Basal area of endemic species accounted for 94% of the total basal area, of which 95% were EWGE, 0.6% SWGE endemic and 5% AGME. Though there were only two species endemic to Agasthyamalai, one of them
Endemic species showed least change in stem density and basal area whereas widely distributed species showed greater change in both. The overall recruitment of trees was 0.86% per year and mortality 0.56% per year resulting in an annual turnover of 0.71% (Table 11). Thirty-three species did not show any recruitment and mortality. Forty species showed no recruitment and 37 species no mortality. The dominant species such as
Total | Plot 1 | Plot 2 | Plot 3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Recruitment | 0.86 | 0.05 | 1.84 | 0.96 |
Mortality | 0.56 | 0.59 | 0.61 | 0.49 |
Turnover | 0.71 | 0.32 | 1.22 | 0.73 |
Demographic parameters across the 3 one ha plots.
Majority of the gap species had high levels of recruitment and mortality resulting in a high turnover. Some closed forest and canopy species such as
Long-term data is essential for undestanding vegetation dynamics. Vegetation dynamics is directly related to climate variability that an ecosystem experience. Extreme events such as floods, drought and snowfall forms part of long-term variability in climate. Vegetation response to such extreme events depends upon the type and intensity of an event. Government of India has initiated two major national projects to undestand and combat the impacts of varibility in climate through understanding natural vegetation dynamics. They are, (a) Indian Long-Term Ecological Obsevatories (ILTEO) and (b) Studies of impact of climate change on Indian Forest System through long-term monitoring, an All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) managed by Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun. ICFRE with its nine Institutes, Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun, Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB), Coimbatore, Institute of Wood Science and Technology (IWST), Bengaluru; Institute of Forest Biodiversity (IFB), Hyderabad; Rain Forest Research Institute (RFRI), Jorhat; Tropical Forest Research Institute (TFRI), Jabalpur; Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFRI), Shimla; Institute of Forest Productivity (IFP), Ranchi; and other Institutions like Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment (ATREE), Bengaluru; Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bengaluru; French Institute, Pondicherry; and Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), Peechi, Thrissur, Kerala have initiated long-term ecological monitoring studies on the effects of climatic variability on the forest ecosystem. This will be the first of its kind in India to address climate change issues at national and international level and helps to trace footprints of climate change impacts through vegetation and also reveals to what extent our forests are resilient to change in the climate. Further it will also address the issues flagged by UNFCCC, IPCC, NAPCC, SAPCC etc.
Major objectives of the programme includes establishment of Permanent Preservation Plots (PPP) to observe and understand the changes in species diversity, composition and growth pattern due to climate change over a period of time. The methodology for selection and laying of sample plots, assessment, identification and tagging of plants is based on Centre for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS) protocol. Aimed at precision, uniformity, and large scale of international acceptance, it was decided to laydown country wide permanent plots (preferably 10 Hectare size) in major forest types of the country wherein woody individuals >1 cm diamter at breast height (DBH) would be monitored for vital parameters such as recruitment, mortality and growth in relation to climate. The study also includes dendrochronology, edaphic factors, survivality, regeneration, invasive species, dynamics of soil microflora, phenological studies, insect-pest incidence, disease infection, pollinators etc in the pemanent plot and surrounding forest area.
Complementary to this initiative Indian Government launched a new pan India research program- Indian Long Term Ecological Observatories (ILTEO) with a larger goal of assessing the influence of climate change on the biodiversity at national level. To address issues related to climate change the Government of India has set up Indian Network for Climate Change Assesment (INCCA) to provide frame work to monitor impacts of climate change, assess the drivers of climate change and to develop decision support system. It is been recognzed that climate change of one of major drivers, Long-term ecological monitoring is required to identify pattern and drivers of change. Moreover long term monitoring is required to frame the national policies and signing international conventions such as United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). There are several isolated programs monitoring the changes. However, there is a need for unified multidisplinery national level program to address the issues of climate change. All India Coordinated Research project under ICFRE is one such national level effort to address encouragement and research to climate change.
Authors are thankful to Director General, ICFRE, Dehradun, for granting All India Coordinated Research Project on Climate Change (AICRP-31). Authors also thankful to Shri Nirmalya Bala, FRI, Dehradun, National Project Coordinator for the encouragement and support. We also thank State Forest Departments of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu for encouragement and research permissions.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
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\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
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\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
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\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
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\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
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\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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