The demographic date of the pregnant women included in the study.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6321",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice",title:"Broadband Communications Networks",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nowadays, the Internet plays a vital role in our lives. It is currently one of the most effective media that is shifting to reach into all areas in today's society. While we move into the next decade, the future of many emerging technologies (IoT, cloud solutions, automation and AI, big data, 5G and mobile technologies, smart cities, etc.) is highly dependent on Internet connectivity and broadband communications. The demand for mobile and faster Internet connectivity is on the rise as the voice, video, and data continue to converge to speed up business operations and to improve every aspect of human life. As a result, the broadband communication networks that connect everything on the Internet are now considered a complete ecosystem routing all Internet traffic and delivering Internet data faster and more flexibly than ever before. This book gives an insight into the latest research and practical aspects of the broadband communication networks in support of many emerging paradigms/applications of global Internet from the traditional architecture to the incorporation of smart applications. This book includes a preface and introduction by the editors, followed by 20 chapters written by leading international researchers, arranged in three parts. This book is recommended for researchers and professionals in the field and may be used as a reference book on broadband communication networks as well as on practical uses of wired/wireless broadband communications. It is also a concise guide for students and readers interested in studying Internet connectivity, mobile/optical broadband networks and concepts/applications of telecommunications engineering.",isbn:"978-1-78923-743-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-742-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-399-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69590",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"broadband-communications-networks-recent-advances-and-lessons-from-practice",numberOfPages:432,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6e29995cd9dd6193bd198112d9549f32",bookSignature:"Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6321.jpg",numberOfDownloads:25820,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:54,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:106,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 9th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 26th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 25th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 23rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"187242",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatteh",middleName:null,surname:"Haidine",slug:"abdelfatteh-haidine",fullName:"Abdelfatteh Haidine",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187242/images/system/187242.jpg",biography:"Dr.Ing. Abdelfatteh Haidine received his Ph.D. in 2008 from the Technische Universität Dresden, Germany, with a focus on the planning and optimization of telecommunications networks. He worked as a consultant and manager for the deployment of smart metering systems and smart grid applications.\n\nCurrently, he is a professor for wireless/mobile communications and intelligent systems with the Laboratory of Information Technologies, National School of Applied Sciences, Morocco. His research interests include different issues related to Machine-to-Machine (M2M) and Internet-of-Things (IoT) communications, networking technologies for smart domains: smart maritime port, smart city and smart grid applications, and so on. This covers LPWA networks and their techno-economical aspects. Dr. Haidine also deals with the application of combinatorial optimization as well as the Game Theory paradigm in network planning/migration and resources allocation in broadband mobile networks. In addition, he investigates artificial intelligence and machine learning in optimization procedures/paradigms.",institutionString:"National School of Applied Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"209714",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelhak",middleName:null,surname:"Aqqal",slug:"abdelhak-aqqal",fullName:"Abdelhak Aqqal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/209714/images/5538_n.jpg",biography:"Dr.Abdelhak Aqqal received a join PhD degree in Sciences and Technologies of Information and Communication (STIC) from Darmstadt University of Technology (Germany) and Chouaib Doukkali University (Morocco) under the DAAD Sandwich Program. He is an Associate Professor at National School of Applied Sciences (ElJadida/Morocco), where he was the coordinator of Section of Computer, Network and Telecommunication Engineering (2013-2015). \nHis research interests are mainly in the area of ICT for the Smart Cities and centered on developing and integrating innovative approaches using Green and Smart Technologies. He has also an extensive experience and research in E-learning and Technology Enhanced Teaching in higher education. He has been involved in various national and European research projects, and has published over 40 journal papers, peer-reviewed conference and book chapters.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1368",title:"Telecommunication",slug:"information-and-communication-telecommunication"}],chapters:[{id:"63020",title:"Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband Networks as Core for the Future Internet Societies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80508",slug:"introductory-chapter-next-generation-of-broadband-networks-as-core-for-the-future-internet-societies",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63020",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63020",authors:[{id:"187242",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatteh",surname:"Haidine",slug:"abdelfatteh-haidine",fullName:"Abdelfatteh Haidine"},{id:"209714",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelhak",surname:"Aqqal",slug:"abdelhak-aqqal",fullName:"Abdelhak Aqqal"}],corrections:null},{id:"59149",title:"Evolution of Broadband Communication Networks: Architecture and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73590",slug:"evolution-of-broadband-communication-networks-architecture-and-applications",totalDownloads:1600,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the rapid increase in users’ demand for flexibility and scalability of communication services, broadband communication networks are facing an ongoing challenge of providing various broadband services using a single communication architecture. This leads to the evolution of a challenging field of multiservice broadband network architectures. This chapter discusses the basic concepts associated with broadband communication network architectures with emphasis on provision of multiservice, and it also focuses on the evolution of broadband communication networks from the traditional architecture to the incorporation of virtualization services, that is, cloud computing. Another important aspect, which relates to the multiservice broadband network, is the “applications” which, as this chapter highlights, are a key-driving factor for the evolution of broadband communication networks. Moreover, this chapter also includes a discussion on New Zealand’s government initiatives to provide improved network coverage within the country.",signatures:"Sonia Gul and Jairo Gutierrez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59149",authors:[{id:"214670",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Gul",slug:"sonia-gul",fullName:"Sonia Gul"},{id:"215559",title:"Prof.",name:"Jairo",surname:"Gutierrez",slug:"jairo-gutierrez",fullName:"Jairo Gutierrez"}],corrections:null},{id:"58134",title:"Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility with Existent Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72431",slug:"spectrum-usage-for-5g-mobile-communication-systems-and-electromagnetic-compatibility-with-existent-t",totalDownloads:1236,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The increased demand of consumers on services in the mobile broadband environment with high data rate and developed mobile broadband communication systems will require more spectrum to be available in the future. New technologies as well as the existing services require frequencies for their development. In this chapter, we investigate the available and potential future mobile terrestrial radio frequency bands (5G)—worldwide and in Europe. An insight into the mobile spectrum estimate is provided. Characteristics and requirements of IMT-2020, future possible IMT frequency bands, and examples of 5G usage scenarios are also addressed in the chapter. Electromagnetic compatibility evaluation methods are provided mainly focusing on existent mobile technologies below 1 GHz where also 5G technologies will be developed in the future. It is stressed that the radio frequency spectrum is a limited national resource that will become increasingly precious in the future.",signatures:"Guntis Ancans and Vjaceslavs Bobrovs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58134",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58134",authors:[{id:"122468",title:"Prof.",name:"Vjaceslavs",surname:"Bobrovs",slug:"vjaceslavs-bobrovs",fullName:"Vjaceslavs Bobrovs"},{id:"212342",title:"Dr.",name:"Guntis",surname:"Ancans",slug:"guntis-ancans",fullName:"Guntis Ancans"}],corrections:null},{id:"62142",title:"5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78615",slug:"5g-backhaul-requirements-challenges-and-emerging-technologies",totalDownloads:3219,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"5G is the next generation cellular networks which is expected to quench the ever-ending thirst of data rates and interconnect billions of smart devices to support not only human centric traffic, but also machine centric traffic. Recent research and standardization work have been addressing requirements and challenges from radio perspective (e.g., new spectrum allocation, network densification, massive multiple-input-multiple-output antenna, carrier aggregation, inter-cell interference mitigation techniques, and coordinated multi-point processing). In addition, a new network bottleneck has emerged: the backhaul network which will allow to interconnect and support billions of devices from the core network. Up to 4G cellular networks, the major challenges to meet the backhaul requirements were capacity, availability, deployment cost, and long-distance reach. However, as 5G network capabilities and services added to 4G cellular networks, the backhaul network would face two additional challenges that include ultralow latency (i.e., 1 ms) requirements and ultradense nature of the network. Due to the dense small cell deployment and heavy traffic cells in 5G, 5G backhaul network will need to support hundreds of gigabits of traffic from the core network and today’s cellular backhaul networks are infeasible to meet these requirements in terms of capacity, availability, latency, energy, and cost efficiency. This book chapter first introduce the mobile backhaul network perspective for 2G, 3G, and 4G networks. Then, outlines the backhaul requirements of 5G networks, and describes the impact on current mobile backhaul networks.",signatures:"Md Maruf Ahamed and Saleh Faruque",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62142",authors:[{id:"215861",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Md Maruf",surname:"Ahamed",slug:"md-maruf-ahamed",fullName:"Md Maruf Ahamed"},{id:"216864",title:"Prof.",name:"Saleh",surname:"Faruque",slug:"saleh-faruque",fullName:"Saleh Faruque"}],corrections:null},{id:"58991",title:"Radio Access Network Backhauling Using Power Line Communications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73390",slug:"radio-access-network-backhauling-using-power-line-communications",totalDownloads:1117,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, radio access networks (RANs) are moving toward a small cell-based paradigm, where the macro-cell antennas are aided by additional ones with lower coverage capabilities. This paradigm shift brings a new problem into the equation: a backhaul link is needed to carry the traffic from the small cell base stations to the network gateway. Currently, both wired and wireless solutions exist, but none is universally considered optimal. Power line communications (PLC) can be considered as a broadband access solution for this backhaul branch. Recent developments helped to push PLC performances to a point where state-of-the-art solutions can achieve very high-speed data transfers. Aided by traffic generation-based simulations, we will show how the PLC technology can be assessed for the described application. The reader will be guided through the process by discussing small cell networks, the power line infrastructure and basics of traffic generation modeling. The chapter will then discuss a quality-of-service (QoS)-driven analysis and use numerical results to show how requirements can be defined for the backhauling technology. Overall, this chapter will address how PLC and small cell network technologies can be brought together in a unified model to foster future small cell technology.",signatures:"Francesco Marcuzzi and Andrea M. Tonello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58991",authors:[{id:"213675",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Marcuzzi",slug:"francesco-marcuzzi",fullName:"Francesco Marcuzzi"},{id:"213676",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Tonello",slug:"andrea-tonello",fullName:"Andrea Tonello"}],corrections:null},{id:"58603",title:"Co-Channel Interference Cancellation for 5G Cellular Networks Deploying Radio-over-Fiber and Massive MIMO Beamforming",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72727",slug:"co-channel-interference-cancellation-for-5g-cellular-networks-deploying-radio-over-fiber-and-massive",totalDownloads:1200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In future fifth-generation (5G) cellular networks, distributed multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology will be applied such that much more challenges on efficient resource allocation to user equipment (UE) of high access density are raised in order to support their high mobility among different micro-/pico-cells. In this chapter, we propose a framework to enable an optical back-haul cooperation among different optical network units (ONUs) with distributed MIMO technology in wireless front-haul for next-generation optical-wireless cellular networks. Specifically, our proposal is featured by a downlink resource multi-cell sharing scheme for OFDMA-based passive optical network (PON) supporting radio-over-fiber (RoF). We first consider system architecture with the investigation of related works, and then we propose a co-channel interference mitigation and delay-aware sharing scheme for real-time services allowing each subcarrier to be multi-cell shared by different ONUs corresponding to different micro-/pico-cells. Furthermore, a heuristic algorithm to mitigate co-channel interference, maximize sharing capacity, and minimize network latency is given by employing the graph theory to solve such sharing problems for future 5G. Moreover, simulations are performed to evaluate our proposal.",signatures:"Sheng Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58603",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58603",authors:[{id:"213092",title:"Mr.",name:"Sheng",surname:"Xu",slug:"sheng-xu",fullName:"Sheng Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"57683",title:"Transport Protocol Performance and Impact on QoS while on the Move in Current and Future Low Latency Deployments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71779",slug:"transport-protocol-performance-and-impact-on-qos-while-on-the-move-in-current-and-future-low-latency",totalDownloads:833,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transport protocols and mobile networks have evolved independently leading to a lack of adaptability and quality of service (QoS) degradation while running under the variability circumstances present in cellular access. This chapter evaluates the performance of state-of-the-art transmission control protocol (TCP) implementations in challenging mobility scenarios under 4G latencies and low delays that model the proximity service provisioning of forthcoming 5G networks. The evaluation is focused on selecting the most appropriate TCP flavor for each scenario taking into account two metrics: (1) the goodput-based performance and (2) a balanced performance metric that includes parameters based on goodput, delay and retransmitted packets. The results show that mobility scenarios under 4G latencies require more aggressive TCP solutions in order to overcome the high variability in comparison with low latency conditions. Bottleneck Bandwidth and Round-Trip Time-RTT (BBR) provides better scalability than others and Illinois is more capable of sustaining the goodput with big variability between consecutive samples. Besides, CUBIC performs better in lower available capacity scenarios and regarding the balanced metric. In reduced end-to-end latencies, the most suitable congestion control algorithms (CCAs) to maximize the goodput are NewReno (low available capacity) and CUBIC (high available capacity) when moving with continuous capacity increases. Additionally, BBR shows a balanced and controlled behavior in most of the scenarios.",signatures:"Eneko Atxutegi, Jose Oscar Fajardo and Fidel Liberal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57683",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57683",authors:[{id:"215832",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Eneko",surname:"Atxutegi",slug:"eneko-atxutegi",fullName:"Eneko Atxutegi"},{id:"215836",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Oscar",surname:"Fajardo",slug:"jose-oscar-fajardo",fullName:"Jose Oscar Fajardo"},{id:"215837",title:"Dr.",name:"Fidel",surname:"Liberal",slug:"fidel-liberal",fullName:"Fidel Liberal"}],corrections:null},{id:"57661",title:"Network Coding-Assisted Retransmission Scheme for Video- Streaming Services over Wireless Access Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71784",slug:"network-coding-assisted-retransmission-scheme-for-video-streaming-services-over-wireless-access-netw",totalDownloads:743,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Video-streaming services, such as Internet protocol television, promising the delivery of multimedia contents over wireless access networks to clients whenever and wherever, are becoming more and more popular. However, scarce radio resources, lossy characteristics of wireless links and high bandwidth demands pose the never-ending challenges for provisioning of real-time streaming services over wireless networks in a timely and reliable manner. Furthermore, a wireless channel may suffer from interference and multipath fading, which may cause random packet losses. In addition, wireless link layer does not provide a retransmission mechanism for multicast/broadcast traffic. This would significantly impact the clients’ quality of experience of streaming services. Traditional unicast retransmission solutions improve client’s quality, at the bandwidth expense, because every lost packet must be retransmitted separately. This chapter presents and practically evaluates a retransmission scheme for video-streaming services over last mile wireless networks. It is based on network coding techniques that increase the overall performance by means of reducing the number of physical transmissions, in comparison to traditional unicast retransmission approach, resulting in reduced bandwidth consumption. Thus, the Internet service providers can increase the number of clients over the same infrastructure or, alternatively, offer more services to the clients.",signatures:"Aleš Švigelj and Melisa Junuzović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57661",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57661",authors:[{id:"116536",title:"Dr.",name:"Ales",surname:"Svigelj",slug:"ales-svigelj",fullName:"Ales Svigelj"},{id:"221211",title:"MSc.",name:"Melisa",surname:"Junuzovic",slug:"melisa-junuzovic",fullName:"Melisa Junuzovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"58036",title:"Atmospheric Attenuation of the Terahertz Wireless Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72205",slug:"atmospheric-attenuation-of-the-terahertz-wireless-networks",totalDownloads:1638,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The increase of data traffic, a demand for high-speed reliable mobile networks and congested frequency bands raised both technological and regulatory challenges. Therefore, the fifth-generation mobile network (5G) is being developed. Recently, researchers have focused on a very promising terahertz (THz) band (frequencies from 100 GHz to 30 THz), which will allow fast transmission of huge amounts of data. However, transmission distance is limited due to atmospheric attenuation, as THz waves undergo significant absorption by water vapor and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Moreover, THz waves are very vulnerable by precipitation. Furthermore, the path of the propagating waves changes due to variations of the atmospheric refractive index. Nevertheless, the THz networks could be perfect candidates for fiber-to-THz bridges in difficult-to-access areas. The aim of this chapter is to present the possibilities and challenges of the THz networks from a point of view of atmospheric attenuation. The results show that simulations of the atmospheric attenuation using real-time data are a powerful tool that should complement technological basis, as it will help to foresee possible failures, extend transmission distance and improve reliability of the THz and other high-frequency broadband wireless networks.",signatures:"Milda Tamosiunaite, Stasys Tamosiunas, Mindaugas Zilinskas and\nGintaras Valusis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58036",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58036",authors:[{id:"43070",title:"Dr.",name:"Stasys",surname:"Tamošiūnas",slug:"stasys-tamosiunas",fullName:"Stasys Tamošiūnas"},{id:"43528",title:"Dr.",name:"Milda",surname:"Tamošiūnaitė",slug:"milda-tamosiunaite",fullName:"Milda Tamošiūnaitė"},{id:"174081",title:"Dr.",name:"Mindaugas",surname:"Žilinskas",slug:"mindaugas-zilinskas",fullName:"Mindaugas Žilinskas"}],corrections:null},{id:"60521",title:"Ka-Band HTS System User Uplink SNIR Probability Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75920",slug:"ka-band-hts-system-user-uplink-snir-probability-models",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ka-band High-throughput-satellite (HTS) systems reuse frequency bands in spot beams for much higher system capacity and better spectrum efficiency. They however are prone to intra-system co-color interference and so suffer from the channel signal-to-noise-plus-interference ratio (SNIR) degradation. This chapter presents the development of the uplink SNIR probability models for Ka-band spot beam HTS systems. The models are applicable to different Ka-band propagation channel conditions of statistical significance. Its use of collective representation to model traffic variation of co-color beams captures the statistics of traffic variation and allows feasibility and variety of use case representation. The analytical approach complements known studies and fills in the blank of the use cases of urban and mobile users. The models can be used for system design performance estimation and prediction. It features computation time and memory savings in numerical implementation.",signatures:"Liping Ai and Hermann J. Helgert",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60521",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60521",authors:[{id:"227161",title:"Dr.",name:"Liping",surname:"Ai",slug:"liping-ai",fullName:"Liping Ai"},{id:"243429",title:"Dr.",name:"Hermann J.",surname:"Helgert",slug:"hermann-j.-helgert",fullName:"Hermann J. Helgert"}],corrections:null},{id:"58118",title:"High-Speed Optical In-House Networks Using Polymeric Fibers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72204",slug:"high-speed-optical-in-house-networks-using-polymeric-fibers",totalDownloads:1369,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Data communication over polymer optical fibers (POF) is a good alternative method for local area networks to use an optical medium to transmit data in short-range environments like cars or copper in-house networks on the basis of IEEE 802.3. Many companies offer transceivers for the area of Ethernet networks in the visible wavelength range. In the first part of the chapter, a system comparison of manufacturers with interoperability check is presented. Here, the real transfer rates within a manufacturer and between all manufacturers are measured as a cross-check. In the second part of the chapter, the limitation of bandwidth due to the use of only one wavelength channel is discussed. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a promising candidate to significantly increase bandwidth in POF to more than 40 Gbit/s. Here, the problems in the development and manufacture of a demultiplexer (DEMUX) for WDM over POF as well as the results of the optical separation of four wavelength channels are described. At least, the possible extension of a WDM grid of ITU G.694.2 is discussed, which seems to be a hopeful candidate to introduce a standardized WDM grid for POF in the visible range to reach data rates of 40 Gbit/s up to 50 m POF.",signatures:"Ulrich H.P. Fischer-Hirchert, Matthias Haupt, Mladen Joncic, Stefanie\nHaupt and Sebastian Höll",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58118",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58118",authors:[{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer"},{id:"35020",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthias",surname:"Haupt",slug:"matthias-haupt",fullName:"Matthias Haupt"},{id:"221217",title:"MSc.",name:"Mladen",surname:"Joncic",slug:"mladen-joncic",fullName:"Mladen Joncic"},{id:"221218",title:"MSc.",name:"Stefanie",surname:"Haupt",slug:"stefanie-haupt",fullName:"Stefanie Haupt"},{id:"221219",title:"MSc.",name:"Sebastian",surname:"Höll",slug:"sebastian-holl",fullName:"Sebastian Höll"}],corrections:null},{id:"58116",title:"Content Defined Optical Network",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72432",slug:"content-defined-optical-network",totalDownloads:1005,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Optical interconnection has become one of the key technologies to adapt the needs of large-scale data center networking with the advantages of large capacity, high bandwidth, and high efficiency. Data center optical interconnection has the characteristics of resource and technology heterogeneity. Its networking and control face enormous challenges for the increasing number of users with a high level quality of service requirements. Around different scenarios, there are a series of key networking and control problems in data center optical interconnection, such as multiple layers and stratums resources optimization in inter-data center, and time-aware resource scheduling in intra-data center. To solve these problems and challenges, this chapter mainly researches on content defined optical networking and integrated control for data center. For networking of vertical “multi-layer-carried” and horizontal “heterogeneous-cross-stratum”, the chapter launches research work around application scenarios about inter-data center optical interconnection with optical network, and intra-data center. The model architecture, implementation mechanism and control strategy are analyzed and demonstrated on the experiment and simulation platform of data center optical interconnection. This chapter will provide important references for future diverse applications of data center optical interconnection and software defined networking and control in practice.",signatures:"Hui Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58116",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58116",authors:[{id:"221106",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hui",surname:"Yang",slug:"hui-yang",fullName:"Hui Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"58037",title:"An Integrated SDN-Based Architecture for Passive Optical Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72036",slug:"an-integrated-sdn-based-architecture-for-passive-optical-networks",totalDownloads:1197,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Passive optical network (PON) are often managed by non-flexible, proprietary network management systems. Software defined networking (SDN) opens the way for a more efficient operation and management of networks. We describe a new SDN-based architecture for Ethernet passive optical networks (EPON), in which some functions of the optical line terminal (OLT) are virtualized and located in an external controller, while keeping the rest of the passive optical network (PON) functionality around an OpenFlow switch. This opens the way for an improved management of the resource usage, bandwidth allocation, quality-of-service (QoS) monitoring and enforcement, or power consumption management, among other possibilities. In order to maintain the time-sensitive nature of the EPON operations, synchronous ports are added to the switch. OpenFlow messages are extended in order to cope with the PON-related parameters. Results based on simulations demonstrate that our proposal performs similarly or better than legacy architectures, in terms of delay and throughput.",signatures:"Hamzeh Khalili, David Rincón, Sebastià Sallent and José Ramón\nPiney",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58037",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58037",authors:[{id:"213987",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamzeh",surname:"Khalili",slug:"hamzeh-khalili",fullName:"Hamzeh Khalili"},{id:"215844",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Rincon",slug:"david-rincon",fullName:"David Rincon"},{id:"215845",title:"Prof.",name:"Sebastia",surname:"Sallent",slug:"sebastia-sallent",fullName:"Sebastia Sallent"},{id:"225666",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Ramon",slug:"jose-ramon",fullName:"Jose Ramon"}],corrections:null},{id:"57730",title:"FTTx Access Networks: Technical Developments and Standardization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71785",slug:"fttx-access-networks-technical-developments-and-standardization",totalDownloads:1791,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides a review of factors driving technical development of broadband access networks, mostly toward higher bit rates and symmetrical services, together with a review of “fiber to the x” (FTTx) technologies for fixed access networks, including development and performance limitations of digital subscriber line (DSL) systems using twisted-pair copper cables, as well as fiber to the home systems. Characteristics and standardization of these systems are presented, together with a review of the two main competing broadband technologies: Data over cable service interface specification (DOCSIS) in coaxial cable TV networks and the 4G and 5G wireless networks. Additionally, a short list of recent developments in passive technologies (fibers, cables, and connectors) is included. Finally, the issues related to dismantling of the traditional copper telephone network and ensuring continuity of voice services in emergency situations are analyzed.",signatures:"Krzysztof Borzycki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57730",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57730",authors:[{id:"103617",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Borzycki",slug:"krzysztof-borzycki",fullName:"Krzysztof Borzycki"}],corrections:null},{id:"58044",title:"Metrics for Broadband Networks in the Context of the Digital Economies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72035",slug:"metrics-for-broadband-networks-in-the-context-of-the-digital-economies",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In a transition to automated digital management of broadband networks, communication service providers must look for new metrics to monitor these networks. Complete metrics frameworks are already emerging whereas majority of the new metrics are being proposed in technical papers. Considering common metrics for broadband networks and related technologies, this chapter offers insights into what metrics are available, and also suggests active areas of research. The broadband networks being a key component of the digital ecosystems are also an enabler to many other digital technologies and services. Reviewing first the metrics for computing systems, websites and digital platforms, the chapter focus then shifts to the most important technical and business metrics which are used for broadband networks. The demand-side and supply-side metrics including the key metrics of broadband speed and broadband availability are touched on. After outlining the broadband metrics which have been standardized and the metrics for measuring Internet traffic, the most commonly used metrics for broadband networks are surveyed in five categories: energy and power metrics, quality of service, quality of experience, security metrics, and robustness and resilience metrics. The chapter concludes with a discussion on machine learning, big data and the associated metrics.",signatures:"Salman M. Al-Shehri, Pavel Loskot, Tolga Numanoğlu and Mehmet\nMert",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58044",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58044",authors:[{id:"17608",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Loskot",slug:"pavel-loskot",fullName:"Pavel Loskot"},{id:"212143",title:"Mr.",name:"Salman",surname:"Al-Shehri",slug:"salman-al-shehri",fullName:"Salman Al-Shehri"},{id:"212144",title:"Dr.",name:"Tolga",surname:"Numanoğlu",slug:"tolga-numanoglu",fullName:"Tolga Numanoğlu"},{id:"212145",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Mert",slug:"mehmet-mert",fullName:"Mehmet Mert"}],corrections:null},{id:"62757",title:"Smart Connected City for Holistic Services",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79988",slug:"smart-connected-city-for-holistic-services",totalDownloads:934,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The construction of a smart city is based on broadband networks and high-tech under consideration of city infrastructure with holistic city service systems. Digital city was started to connect computing devices using network-based technologies in 1990s. In the beginning of 2000s, many cities were interested in the construction of city infrastructure based on the broadband networks. With the developing high-tech like wireless network, the ubiquitous city was introduced as a new type of an urban city infrastructure to satisfy citizens’ needs. These days it would become more important for citizens to provide holistic city services using the transferred data as generated resulting traffics from massive number of end-devices through broadband networks. Smart city has been constructed with multifaceted sectors like high-tech device-based physical and service-based social sector. The integrated sectors are creating new tremendous values based on embedding intelligence in the hyperconnected city. Finally, the smart city should be evolved by centering on people and the creative market is growing up rapidly.",signatures:"Hyun Jung Lee and Myungho Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62757",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62757",authors:[{id:"224983",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hyun Jung",surname:"Lee",slug:"hyun-jung-lee",fullName:"Hyun Jung Lee"},{id:"227182",title:"Ms.",name:"Myungho",surname:"Kim",slug:"myungho-kim",fullName:"Myungho Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"57864",title:"Planning of FiWi Networks to Support Communications Infrastructure of SG and SC",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71781",slug:"planning-of-fiwi-networks-to-support-communications-infrastructure-of-sg-and-sc",totalDownloads:980,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, growth in demand for bandwidth, due to new and future applications being implemented, for services provided from smart grids (SG), smart cities (SC) and internet of things (IoT), it has drawn attention of scientific community, on issues related to planning, and optimization of communication infrastructure resources, in addition is necessary comply with requirements such as scalability, coverage, security, flexibility, availability, delay and security. Another important point is how to find and analyze possible solutions that seek to minimize the costs involved by capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX), but where it is possible to measure the uncertainty coming from stochastic projections, in order to obtain the maximum benefit expected to give access to users Who benefits from the services provided by SG, SC and IoT, on the other hand, we must look for communications architectures that generate optimum topologies to meet demanded requirements and at the same time save energy, possible alternatives highlight the use of hybrid networks of optical fiber links combined with wireless links (Fiber-Wireless, FiWi). This chapter seeks to provide planning alternatives to network segments linking universal data aggregation point (UDAP) with base stations (BS), this segment joins wide area network (WAN) with metropolitan area network (MAN).",signatures:"Arturo G. Peralta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57864",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57864",authors:[{id:"72042",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Hincapie",slug:"roberto-hincapie",fullName:"Roberto Hincapie"},{id:"213085",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Arturo",surname:"Peralta",slug:"arturo-peralta",fullName:"Arturo Peralta"}],corrections:null},{id:"58687",title:"Economic Interests and Social Problems in Realization of Broadband Network",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72037",slug:"economic-interests-and-social-problems-in-realization-of-broadband-network",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Investments in broadband access are very useful for local community, especially for the underdeveloped and developing countries. The emphasis is on importance of broadband infrastructure and the use of Internet in the world, the EU and the Republic of Croatia as one of its member state. Implementation analysis of the “Slavonian Network” project in Slavonia, (Croatia region) for the period 2012 to 2017, points to a number of problems that were recorded in development of the broadband and to technical, economic, legal, and social issues as well. The density of broadband connections and users in Croatia is significantly lower than the average of the EU, and in five counties in the Slavonia region, this average is in turn lower than in Croatia. This state of affairs prevents social and economic development, effective functioning of the public administration, and inclusion of the region in modern communication within the country and within EU. The construction of broadband infrastructure is a significant economic and technical activity for all countries, especially for the countries lagging behind in economic and technological development. This paper points to the model of regional approach to building broadband infrastructure that can be a good model for all developing countries.",signatures:"Milan Ivanović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58687",authors:[{id:"213240",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Milan",surname:"Ivanović",slug:"milan-ivanovic",fullName:"Milan Ivanović"}],corrections:null},{id:"58156",title:"Techniques for Reducing Redundant Unicast Traffic in HSR Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71783",slug:"techniques-for-reducing-redundant-unicast-traffic-in-hsr-networks",totalDownloads:1129,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"High-availability seamless redundancy (HSR) is a seamless redundancy protocol for Ethernet networks. HSR provides seamless communication with fault tolerance based on the duplication of every unicast frame sent in a ring topology. HSR is very useful for mission- and time-critical systems such as substation automation systems (SASs). However, the main drawback of HSR is to generate excessively redundant network traffic in HSR networks. This drawback would unnecessarily waste network bandwidth and hence could degrade network performance in HSR networks. Several traffic reduction techniques for HSR networks have been proposed to improve the network performance in the networks. These techniques can be classified into two main groups: traffic filtering-based and dual paths-based techniques. In this chapter, we provide a description and comparison of these HSR traffic reduction techniques. This chapter describes these traffic reduction techniques and compares their network performance. The operations, advantages, and disadvantages of these techniques are investigated and summarized.",signatures:"Jong Myung Rhee and Nguyen Xuan Tien",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58156",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58156",authors:[{id:"213444",title:"Prof.",name:"Nguyen Xuan",surname:"Tien",slug:"nguyen-xuan-tien",fullName:"Nguyen Xuan Tien"},{id:"213487",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong Myung",surname:"Rhee",slug:"jong-myung-rhee",fullName:"Jong Myung Rhee"}],corrections:null},{id:"57689",title:"Mobile Broadband Scaling and Enhancement for Fast Moving Trains",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71782",slug:"mobile-broadband-scaling-and-enhancement-for-fast-moving-trains",totalDownloads:1092,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Internet is an important part of our life, whether traveling or at home. The broadband services available at home are reliable and are usually at constant speed. The people traveling especially in fast moving trains are at higher mobility and may be moving in areas of less connectivity, and providing a reliable service to them is a challenging task. One possible solution to this is to provide communication through an on-board Wi-Fi, which takes services from a central Wi-Fi situated in the middle of the train, which is connected to cellular radio service long-term evolution for railways. The network consists of LTE-R which is dedicated for railway communication only, a public mobile network, which supports LTE-R in the areas of no coverage and high traffic conditions and a public safety network in emergency conditions. The work is verified with the help of simulations on MATLAB, considering different traffic scenarios. The BSs placed at a distance of 2.5 Km and antenna height used is 45 m are equipped with 3G and 4G interfaces, a universal mobile telecommunications services (UMTS) and radio access network (RAN). The UMTS interface is used for voice services and handover when spectrum available in the next cell is less.",signatures:"Vipin Balyan, Mario Ligwa and Ben Groenewald",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57689",authors:[{id:"213755",title:"Dr.",name:"Vipin",surname:"Balyan",slug:"vipin-balyan",fullName:"Vipin Balyan"},{id:"222026",title:"Mr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Ligwa",slug:"mario-ligwa",fullName:"Mario Ligwa"},{id:"222027",title:"MSc.",name:"Ben",surname:"Groenewald",slug:"ben-groenewald",fullName:"Ben Groenewald"}],corrections:null},{id:"57767",title:"On the Energy Efficiency of Virtual Machines’ Live Migration in Future Cloud Mobile Broadband Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72040",slug:"on-the-energy-efficiency-of-virtual-machines-live-migration-in-future-cloud-mobile-broadband-network",totalDownloads:707,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a live migration of the virtual machine (VM) power consumption (PC) model is introduced. The model proposed an easy and parameterised method to evaluate the power cost of migrating the VMs from one server to another. This work is different from other research works found in the literature. It is not based on software, utilisation ratio or heuristic algorithms. Rather, it is based on converting and generalising the concepts of live migration process and experimental results from other works, which are based on the aforementioned tools. The resulting model eventually converts the power cost of live migration from a function of utilisation ratio to a function of server PC. This means there will be neither a need for additional hardware, a separate software, nor a heuristics-based algorithms to measure the utilisation. The resulting model is simple, on the fly and accurate PC evaluation. Furthermore, the latency cost of live migration process, included the time it take the VM to be completely transferred to the target server, alongside the link distance/delay between the two servers is discussed.",signatures:"Raad S. Alhumaima, Shireen R. Jawad and H.S. Al-Raweshidy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57767",authors:[{id:"213829",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Raad",surname:"Alhumaima",slug:"raad-alhumaima",fullName:"Raad Alhumaima"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9173",title:"Moving Broadband Mobile Communications Forward",subtitle:"Intelligent Technologies for 5G and Beyond",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"650198e6e9da2a9a52d8e67b63ccd832",slug:"moving-broadband-mobile-communications-forward-intelligent-technologies-for-5g-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Abdelfatteh Haidine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9173.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187242",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatteh",surname:"Haidine",slug:"abdelfatteh-haidine",fullName:"Abdelfatteh Haidine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3720",title:"New Trends in Technologies",subtitle:"Devices, Computer, Communication and Industrial Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"new-trends-in-technologies--devices--computer--communication-and-industrial-systems",bookSignature:"Meng Joo Er",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3720.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"121366",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhichao",surname:"Lian",slug:"zhichao-lian",fullName:"Zhichao Lian"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3639",title:"New Advanced Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"new-advanced-technologies",bookSignature:"Aleksandar Lazinica",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3639.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3617",title:"Recent Advances in Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"recent-advances-in-technologies",bookSignature:"Maurizio A Strangio",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3617.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2466",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurizio Adriano",surname:"Strangio",slug:"maurizio-adriano-strangio",fullName:"Maurizio Adriano Strangio"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5740",title:"Smartphones from an Applied Research Perspective",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10f605202aae0cd293bfc2b4e5027e5c",slug:"smartphones-from-an-applied-research-perspective",bookSignature:"Nawaz Mohamudally",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5740.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"119486",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaz",surname:"Mohamudally",slug:"nawaz-mohamudally",fullName:"Nawaz Mohamudally"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8723",title:"Telecommunication Systems",subtitle:"Principles and Applications of Wireless-Optical Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8bf1ec49936ab44fcdfc9fea042e73d7",slug:"telecommunication-systems-principles-and-applications-of-wireless-optical-technologies",bookSignature:"Isiaka A. 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Heston and Sujoy Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9566.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"1743",title:"Contemporary Issues in Bioethics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"978cee44b901ff59a20a088f7dcfdbc5",slug:"contemporary-issues-in-bioethics",bookSignature:"Peter A. Clark",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1743.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58889",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter A.",surname:"Clark",slug:"peter-a.-clark",fullName:"Peter A. Clark"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65047",title:"Assessment of Fetal Gestational Age in the First Trimester in Normal and Abnormal Pregnancies: Which Sonographic Parameter to Use?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82746",slug:"assessment-of-fetal-gestational-age-in-the-first-trimester-in-normal-and-abnormal-pregnancies-which-",body:'The fetal foot is one of the first structures identifiable early in the human embryos. At the end of the fourth week of embryonic development, the limb buds appear as outpouchings from the ventrolateral body wall. At 6 weeks, the terminal portion of the limb buds flattens to form the hand- and footplates and becomes separated from the proximal segment by a circular constriction. It is known that the development of the lower limbs is similar to the upper limbs and lags by only 1–2 days. By 8 weeks (or 56 days), the digital separation is already complete. The fingers and the toes are distinct and separated in the hands and feet [1, 2]. In another word, the fetal hands and feet would be recognizable as distinct formed structures by 8 weeks of embryological development or 10 weeks by the last menstrual period (LMP) according to a 28 day cycle.
About a century ago, Streeter reported a linear correlation between gestational age and foot length in 704 human fetal specimens from around 50 days post-conception until birth [3]. This linear correlation has been confirmed by studies on live fetuses in utero on transabdominal [4, 5, 6] or transvaginal scans [7] or on dead fetuses at abortion [8, 9, 10] or stillbirth [11, 12], and nomograms have been developed for assessment of fetal gestational age with foot length (FT) from the first trimester to later gestation. Hence, fetal foot length could by itself stand as a proxy for gestational age even in early pregnancy.
Conventionally, crown-rump length (CRL) is used as the reference parameter for assessment of fetal gestational age in the first trimester ultrasound scan [13, 14]. It has been suggested that the ultrasound measurement of the crown-rump length in the embryo or fetus is the most accurate method to establish or confirm gestational age in the first trimester up to 13 + 6 weeks [14]. The use of routine first trimester ultrasound scan has been shown to be associated with a reduction in induction of labor for post-term pregnancy [15]. However, there is little information on the comparison of other fetal parameters including biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC), femur length (FL), and foot length to CRL in the assessment of gestational age in early gestation [16]. This information may be important for the assessment of fetal gestational age in the first trimester and subsequent management of pregnancy.
In order to ascertain the performance of various parameters in assessment of gestational age in the first trimester, in this chapter, the correlation between FT, CRL, and gestational age assessed by date (GA) will be compared from 10 to 14 weeks gestation. The correlation of the other fetal parameters (BPD, HC, AC, and FL) will also be compared to GA, CRL, and FT. Moreover, the ratio of some of these parameters will also be calculated and presented, as the availability of such ratios may be helpful when fetal abnormality is suspected on ultrasound examination in early pregnancy [17, 18, 19].
Transabdominal ultrasound examination was performed as a part of routine antenatal assessment for women attending an obstetric clinic at a gestation of 10–14 + 6 weeks from March 7, 2014, to September 7, 2016 (Accuvix V20 Prestige, Medison with 4–8 MHz volumetric transducer or EPIQ 7, Philips with X6–1 matrix transducer). The following fetal measurements were taken prospectively: crown-rump length (CRL), biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC), femur length (FL), and foot length (FT). Only pregnancies with normal outcomes were included in the analysis and excluded if the entire foot could not be clearly seen during the ultrasound examination. The fetal foot length was measured from the most posterior point of the foot in its long axis to the tip of the first or the second toe whichever was longer (Figure 1). The estimated gestational age in weeks (GA) was calculated either from the last normal menstrual period (LMP) or from the first trimester dating scan if there was a discrepancy of more than a week [14]. This was a retrospective analysis involving minimal risk, conforming to the standards established by the NHMRC not requiring ethical review; ethics approval was therefore not sought within the institution [20].
Fetal foot on first trimester ultrasound scan.
Results for 35 ultrasound scans were analyzed with SPSS statistical package version 20 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). A two-sided probability (p) value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. The regression models for the fetal measurements were obtained and would be presented in the relevant sections.
The mean age, gravidity, and parity were 32.0 years, 2.3, and 0.7, respectively (Table 1). A total of 32 out of the 35 women were Asians (91.4%) and 3 were Caucasians (8.6%).
Mean ± S.D. | Range | |
---|---|---|
Age (years) | 32.0 ± 4.6 | 21–44 |
Gravidity | 2.3 ± 1.5 | 1–8 |
Parity | 0.7 ± 0.7 | 0–3 |
The demographic date of the pregnant women included in the study.
SD, standard deviation.
The correlation of foot length, crown-rump length, and the gestational age assessed by date are shown in Figures 2–4 and tabulated in Table 2. FT, CRL, and GA all showed positive correlation with one another in a linear fashion (p < 0.001) (Figures 2–4). The coefficient of determination of regression (R2) was the highest between FT and CRL (0.804), lower between FL and GA (0.675), and the lowest between CRL and GA (0.608) (Table 2).
The graph of fetal foot length against gestational age assessed by date. FT = GA × 2.472−19.44. R2 = 0.675, p < 0.001. FT, foot length (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The graph of fetal crown-rump length against gestational age assessed by date. CRL = GA × 10.464−64.682. R2 = 0.608, p < 0.001. CRL, crown-rump length (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The graph of fetal foot length against crown-rump length. FT = CRL × 0.187−1.074. R2 = 0.804, p < 0.001. FT, foot length (mm); CRL, crown-rump length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
Parameters | FT | CRL | GA | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R2 | p† | R2 | p† | R2 | p† | |
FT | – | – | 0.804 | <0.001* | 0.675 | <0.001* |
CRL | 0.804 | <0.001* | – | – | 0.608 | <0.001* |
GA | 0.675 | <0.001* | 0.608 | <0.001* | – | – |
The correlation between fetal foot length, crown-rump length, and gestational age assessed by date.
FT, foot length (mm); CRL, crown rump length (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); R2, coefficient of determination of linear regression; p, probability; †, ANOVA; *, statistically significant.
The correlation of BPD, HC, AC, and FL with FT, CRL, and GA is shown in Figures 5–7
The correlation of fetal biparietal diameter with foot length. BPD = FT × 1.131 + 8.748. R2 = 0.884, p < 0.001. BPD, biparietal diameter (mm); FT, foot length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal biparietal diameter with crown-rump length. BPD = CRL × 0.239 + 5.78. R2 = 0.793, p < 0.001. BPD, biparietal diameter (mm); CRL, crown-rump length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal biparietal diameter with gestational age assessed by date. BPD = GA × 3.01−15.967. R2 = 0.693, p < 0.001. BPD, biparietal diameter (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal head circumference with foot length. HC = FT × 3.932 + 36.257. R2 = 0.897, p < 0.001. HC, head circumference (mm); FT, foot length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal head circumference with crown-rump length. HC = CRL × 0.869 + 23.646. R2 = 0.834, p < 0.001. BPD, biparietal diameter (mm); CRL, crown-rump length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal head circumference with gestational age assessed by date. HC = GA × 10.488−49.951. R2 = 0.706, p < 0.001. HC, head circumference (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal abdominal circumference with foot length. AC = FT × 3.639 + 24.905. R2 = 0.903, p < 0.001. HC, head circumference (mm); FT, foot length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal abdominal circumference with crown-rump length. AC = CRL × 0.717 + 18.686. R2 = 0.811, p < 0.001. AC, abdominal circumference (mm); CRL, crown-rump length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal abdominal circumference with gestational age assessed by date. AC = GA × 10.16−60.453. R2 = 0.772, p < 0.001. AC, abdominal circumference (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length with foot length. FL = FT × 0.922−2.707. R2 = 0.878, p < 0.001. FL, femur length (mm); FT, foot length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length with crown-rump length. FL = CRL × 0.209−6.159. R2 = 0.843, p < 0.001. FL, femur length (mm); CRL, crown-rump length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length with gestational age assessed by date. FL = GA × 2.56−24.255. R2 = 0.698, p < 0.001. FL, femur length (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
FT | CRL | GA | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R2 | p† | R2 | p† | R2 | p† | |
BPD | 0.884 | <0.001* | 0.793 | <0.001* | 0.693 | <0.001* |
HC | 0.897 | <0.001* | 0.834 | <0.001* | 0.706 | <0.001* |
AC | 0.903 | <0.001* | 0.811 | <0.001* | 0.772 | <0.001* |
FL | 0.878 | <0.001* | 0.843 | <0.001* | 0.698 | <0.001* |
FT | – | – | 0.804 | <0.001* | 0.675 | <0.001* |
CRL | 0.804 | <0.001* | – | – | 0.608 | <0.001* |
The correlation of fetal biparietal diameter, head circumference, abdominal circumference, and femur length to foot length, crown-rump length, and gestational age assessed by date.
FT, foot length (mm); CRL, crown rump length (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); BPD, biparietal diameter (mm), HC, head circumference (mm); AC, abdominal circumference; FL, femur length (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability; †, ANOVA; *, statistically significant.
The correlation of combinations of fetal parameters to FT, CRL, and GA is shown in Table 4. The highest correlation was seen between the combination of [BPD, HC, AC, and FL] and FT (R2 = 0.881, p < 0.001), followed by correlation to CRL (R2 = 0.795, p < 0.001), and the least with GA (R2 = 0.685, p < 0.001). The addition of CRL to the combination yielded a lower R2 value of 0.859. However, the correlation of the combination, with or without FT, to CRL yielded the same R2 of 0.795 (p < 0.001).
FT | CRL | GA | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R2 | p† | R2 | p† | R2 | p† | |
BPD, HC, AC, FL, FT, CRL | – | – | – | – | 0.560 | <0.001* |
BPD, HC, AC, FL, CRL | 0.859 | <0.001* | – | – | 0.601 | <0.001* |
BPD, HC, AC, FL, FT | – | – | 0.795 | <0.001* | 0.685 | <0.001* |
BPD, HC, AC, FL | 0.881 | <0.001* | 0.795 | <0.001* | 0.685 | <0.001* |
The correlation of multiple fetal parameters to foot length, crown-rump length, and gestational age.
BPD, biparietal diameter (mm); HC, head circumference (mm); AC, abdominal circumference (mm); FL, femur length (mm): FT, fetal foot length (mm); CRL, crown rump length (mm); R2, coefficient of correlation of regression; p, probability; †, ANOVA; *, statistically significant.
The combination, in comparison to FT or CRL alone, gave a higher correlation to GA (compare to Table 2). However, the correlation of the combination of [BPD, HC, AC, and FL] or FT alone to CRL yielded a similar R2 (0.795 vs. 0.804, compare Table 4 to Table 2).
The ratios of fetal parameters FL/FT and FL/AC to FT, CRL, GA, BPD, and HC are shown in Figures 17–21 and 22–26, respectively. The correlation followed an inverse relationship, and the R2 was higher with HC or BPD or CRL or FT than GA in general (Table 5).
The correlation of fetal femur length/foot length ratio to foot length. R2 = 0.283, p = 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/foot length ratio to crown-rump length. R2 = 0.458, p < 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/foot length ratio to gestational age assessed by date. R2 = 0.309, p = 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/foot length ratio to biparietal diameter. R2 = 0.522, p < 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/foot length ratio to head circumference. R2 = 0.477, p < 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/abdominal circumference ratio to foot length. R2 = 0.684, p < 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/abdominal circumference ratio to crown-rump length. R2 = 0.686, p < 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/abdominal circumference ratio to gestational age assessed by date. R2 = 0.495, p < 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/abdominal circumference ratio to biparietal diameter. R2 = 0.765, p < 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
The correlation of fetal femur length/abdominal circumference ratio to head circumference. R2 = 0.773, p < 0.001. R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability.
FL/AC | FL/FT | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
R2 | p† | R2 | p† | |
FT | 0.684 | <0.001* | 0.283 | 0.001* |
CRL | 0.686 | <0.001* | 0.458 | <0.001* |
GA | 0.495 | <0.001* | 0.309 | 0.001* |
BPD | 0.765 | <0.001* | 0.522 | <0.001* |
HC | 0.773 | <0.001* | 0.477 | <0.001* |
The correlation of foot length/abdominal circumference ratio to foot length, crown-rump length, and gestational age assessed by date, biparietal diameter, and abdominal circumference in a reverse relationship.
FL, femur length (mm); AC, abdominal circumference (mm); FT, foot length (mm); CRL, crown rump length (mm); GA, gestational age assessed by date (weeks); BPD, biparietal diameter (mm); HC, head circumference (mm); R2, coefficient of determination of regression; p, probability; †, ANOVA; *, statistically significant.
The Pearson coefficient for intra-observer correlation was 0.992 (p < 0.001) and for inter-observer correlation was 0.990 (p < 0.001) in the measurement of fetal foot length.
An accurate estimation of fetal gestational age in early pregnancy is important for the assessment of the due date [14, 15] and fetal growth [21], the assignment of risk scores for the pregnancy [22], the prediction of fetal abnormality [23], and in the management of twin pregnancies [24]. CRL has been recommended as the standard parameter for assessment of fetal gestational age in the first trimester [14]. It was deduced that CRL gave a better estimation of fetal gestational age than the dates by the observation that it gave a better estimation of the date of delivery [14]. However, it is known that the measurement of CRL could be affected by the fetal posture. Variations in the estimation of fetal gestational age by a few days could be observed for the same gestation with different reference charts derived for CRL [4, 13, 25, 26, 27, 28]. Since fetal foot length has been established as an accurate estimate for gestational age [3], it could be used as a proxy for the later. In this study, it could be seen that CRL correlates better with FT than GA. It can therefore be concluded that CRL is a better estimate of fetal gestational age than the date (Table 2), consistent with the previous observations [15]. However, in comparison to FT in the correlation to the other fetal parameters such as BPD, HC, AC, and FL, CRL performs less well in this study. The addition of CRL to the combination also lowers the R2 (Table 4). Therefore, the use of the combination of BPD, HC, AC, and FL could well be applied from 10 to beyond 14 weeks for the estimation of fetal gestational age rather than using CRL below 14 weeks and the combination of BPD, HC, AC, and FL thereafter as in the current obstetrical practice [14]. Similarly when we use ratio of fetal parameters in the assessment of suspected fetal abnormalities, it may be better to use the ratio against fetal parameters such as FT, BPD, HC, or even CRL than against the gestational age by date, as long as the particular reference fetal parameter being used is not significantly affected by the abnormality in question (Table 5) [23, 29]. Of note, these ratios may not follow a linear correlation but rather an inverse relationship and vary according to the gestational age in the first trimester as alluded in a previous publication (Figures 17–21
The major limitation of the study is the sample size. The population studied comprised mainly of Asians, and hence there could be a question on generalizability. However, it has already been shown that ethnicity of the population is not an issue in sonographic estimation of fetal gestational age using crown-rump length [26]. Moreover, it has also been shown that less than 3.5% of the total variability of fetal skeletal growth was due to differences between populations when the mothers were adequately nourished [30].
With the advancement of ultrasound technology, small structures could be measured with high accuracy. Rather than relying on CRL, a parameter that could be markedly affected by fetal posture, it is perhaps time to review our ultrasound practice at 10–14 weeks in the first trimester.
In the sonographic assessment of fetal gestational age in the first trimester, the use of a combination of fetal parameters such as BPD, HC, AC, and FL is more accurate than CRL or GA at 10–14 weeks gestation in normal pregnancies. The use of these parameters as references for comparison may also be helpful when fetal abnormality is suspected in early pregnancy.
I would like to thank Dr. Hoi Yin Mary Tang of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The University of Hong Kong, for her great kindness in checking the data.
Nil to declare.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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