IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2113",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Gas Chromatography in Plant Science, Wine Technology, Toxicology and Some Specific Applications",title:"Gas Chromatography in Plant Science, Wine Technology, Toxicology and Some Specific Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The aim of this book is to describe the fundamental aspects and details of certain gas chromatography applications in Plant Science, Wine technology, Toxicology and the other specific disciplines that are currently being researched. The very best gas chromatography experts have been chosen as authors in each area. The individual chapter has been written to be self-contained so that readers may peruse particular topics but can pursue the other chapters in the each section to gain more insight about different gas chromatography applications in the same research field. This book will surely be useful to gas chromatography users who are desirous of perfecting themselves in one of the important branch of analytical chemistry.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0127-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4341-3",doi:"10.5772/2517",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"gas-chromatography-in-plant-science-wine-technology-toxicology-and-some-specific-applications",numberOfPages:360,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"b8adf1d63babbb03b64be0346685b5ad",bookSignature:"Bekir Salih and Ömür Çelikbıçak",publishedDate:"February 29th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2113.jpg",numberOfDownloads:87029,numberOfWosCitations:104,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:103,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:8,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:232,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 31st 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 28th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 2nd 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 2nd 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 30th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"99580",title:"Dr.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Salih",slug:"bekir-salih",fullName:"Bekir Salih",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99580/images/2221_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Bekir Salih was born in Trabzon, Turkey in 1958. He received his B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Hacettepe University, Turkey and was a postdoctoral fellow at Catholic University of Nijmegen in the Netherlands, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ETH Zurich, Switzerland and Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary. After completion of his research mainly in the field of mass spectrometry, he continued his academic career as a faculty at the Faculty of Science in the Hacettepe University and he became Professor of Chemistry in 2001. He published more than 130 articles in his research fields including Mass Spectrometry, chromatography, polymers and their different applications.\n________________________________________________________________________\n\nCo-Editor of the book is Dr. Ömür Çelikbıçak.\n\nDr. Ömür Çelikbıçak was born in 1978 in Konya, Turkey. He received his Diploma (M.Sc.) and his Doctorate (Ph.D.) in Chemistry, in 2005 and 2011, respectively, both from the Hacettepe University, Turkey. He started his academic career as a research assistant at Hacettepe University, Chemistry Department under supervision of Prof. Dr. Bekir Salih in 2002. From 2008-2009 he was a research scholar in the mass spectrometry research laboratories at the Chemistry Department of The University of Akron, OH. Since 2011 he has been working at Hacettepe University as a post doctoral researcher. 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1. Introduction
The intensive process of creating confined pigs generates large amounts of waste, characterized as polluters of great impact to the environment. According to the Brazilian environmental legislation, Law No. 9.605/98, the amount of effluent produced by swine requires appropriate destination, and the producer may be held criminally responsible for damage caused to the environment, human health and animals.
The diet used to feed swine has a high nutritional value, and what is effectively utilized by the animals is approximately 50% and the remainder is excreted in their feces. In relation to the organic load, the pig manure has a greater power of pollution than the domestic sewage. However, the effluent of these animals contains important chemicals that are necessary in agriculture which, when added to soil, can act as fertilizer, replacing part of chemical fertilizers. However, irrigation with wastewater from pig farms, especially in growing vegetables, generates constant concern about the risks of contamination by pathogenic organisms.
In this sense, the efficiency of a disinfection process to reduce these pathogens in water or wastewater is essential. The disinfection may be performed by chemical and physical processes. In chemical processes what is mainly used are: chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide and ozone. In the physical processes what is mainly used is the heat and light produced by the Sun, specifically ultraviolet radiation. Therefore, in this chapter the aim is to demonstrate the effect of ultraviolet radiation on bacteria and endoparasites present in pig biofertilizer.
2. Pig industry in Brazil and worldwide
According to the Brazilian Association of Producers and Exporters of Pork [1], the world production of pork in 2011 was 101.13 million tons. Brazil ranks fourth in the world ranking of production, behind China, European Union and the United States. Another relevant fact is that pork production in Brazil is growing year after year. On the issue of Pork exports, Brazil occupies a prominent position in at fourth place.
The main Brazilian producers are the states: Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Parana and Minas Gerais, but the State of Mato Grosso do Sul is who has achieved the highest growth rates [1]. With the increasing swine production, environmental pollution by waste and dejects is a problem that has escalated alarmingly.
Recent assessments have shown a high level of contamination of rivers and surface waters that supply both the rural and urban areas [2]. According to this author, using the concept of equivalent population, a pig, on average is equivalent to 3.5 people in terms of contamination by effluent. The pollutant capacity of a pig is higher than any other species. In other words a farm with a population of 1,000 animals pollutes the environment more than a city of 3,500 inhabitants.
The pig deject is composed of feces, urine, drinking and cleaning waste water, wasted feed, and dust caused by the breeding process [3]. The main causes of sewage pollution by swine effluents is due to its untreated release into waterways, which causes an imbalance due to the reduction of dissolved oxygen in water, the spreading of pathogens and soil and water contamination by nitrates, ammonia and other toxic elements [2].
However, the search for ways to reduce the impact on the environmental, such as the methanogenic fermentation of biodigesters, whose product is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and biogas, still continues.[3, 4].
The production of effluents by pig farms has bought great concern due to its high rate of contamination and its large volume as shown in Table 1. Table 2 shows the minimum, average and maximum for the physical-chemical characterization of pig manure obtained in the unity of the waste treatment system of Embrapa (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation) in the City of Concord in the State of Santa Catarina - Brazil.
2.1. Risks of pollution from pig manure
The improper disposal of pig waste can contaminate surface water with organic matter, nutrients, fecal bacteria and sediment. Nitrates and bacteria are components that affect the quality of underground water systems [2].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Category
\n\t\t\t
Manure (kg/day)
\n\t\t\t
Manure + Urine (kg/day)
\n\t\t\t
Liquid Waste (Liters/day)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pigs (25 – 100 kg)
\n\t\t\t
2,30
\n\t\t\t
4,90
\n\t\t\t
7,00
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Sow gestation
\n\t\t\t
3,60
\n\t\t\t
11,00
\n\t\t\t
16,00
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Lactating sow + piglets
\n\t\t\t
6,40
\n\t\t\t
18,00
\n\t\t\t
27,00
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Neck
\n\t\t\t
3,00
\n\t\t\t
6,00
\n\t\t\t
9,00
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Weaning piglets
\n\t\t\t
0,35
\n\t\t\t
0,95
\n\t\t\t
1,40
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Daily production of pig manure in different production phases Source: Adapted from [4].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Parameter (mg.L-1)
\n\t\t\t
Low
\n\t\t\t
Medium
\n\t\t\t
High
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
COD
\n\t\t\t
11.530
\n\t\t\t
25.543
\n\t\t\t
38.448
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Solids
\n\t\t\t
12.697
\n\t\t\t
22.399
\n\t\t\t
49.432
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Total Volatile Solids
\n\t\t\t
8.429
\n\t\t\t
16.389
\n\t\t\t
39.024
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Fixed Solids Total
\n\t\t\t
4.268
\n\t\t\t
6.010
\n\t\t\t
10.409
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Settling Solids
\n\t\t\t
220
\n\t\t\t
429
\n\t\t\t
850
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Nitrogen Total
\n\t\t\t
1.660
\n\t\t\t
2.374
\n\t\t\t
3.710
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Phosphorus Total
\n\t\t\t
320
\n\t\t\t
578
\n\t\t\t
1.180
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Physical-chemical characterization of pig manure in Concordia, Santa Catarina Source:[5]
Ceretta et al (2005), studying the importance of runoff as a phenomenon of loss of nitrogen and phosphorus applied through pig slurry in an area cultivated with the rotation oat / corn / turnip, concluded that losses by disposal of nitrogen and phosphorus for the nutrition of plants are considered small, but their concentrations in the major peaks are at risk of eutrophication sources of bodies of water.
Fertilization with excessive or continued swine waste can cause undesirable environmental impacts such as biological and chemical imbalances in the soil, water pollution, loss of productivity and quality of agricultural products and reduce the diversity of plants and soil organisms [8].
The production of pigs can generate other types of pollution such as the odor that occurs due to evaporation of volatile compounds that cause harmful effects to human welfare and animal. The types of airborne contaminants are more common in waste are ammonia, methane, volatile fatty acids, H2S, N2O, ethanol, propanol, dimethyl sulfidro sulfidro and carbon. The emission of gases can cause severe damage to the breathing airways of both man and animals, as well as the formation of acid rain through discharges of ammonia in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming [9,10].
2.2. Disinfection of waste
During effluent treatments, the pathogen reduction is essential and this process can be chemic, with the use of disinfectant, or by physical process, destroying or inactivating these agents [11]. The efficient disinfection of the water supply and waste effluent can considerably reduce the transmission of diseases by water [12].
Chlorine is widely used to treat waste water. However, reacting with natural organic matter, this chemical agent generates sub products as chloroform, monochloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic and dichloroacetic. These compounds are considered potentially harmful to human health [13].
It is therefore necessary to develop ways of disinfection without risk to the environment and to humans, while at the same time, maintaining the efficiency provided by chlorine disinfection [14].
Alternative methods of disinfection are being developed in order to replace chemical products, reducing the formation of precursors of trihalomethanes or other byproducts with carcinogenic potential [15].
The use of ultraviolet radiation is an alternative to chemicals in the process of disinfection of drinking water and also wastewater [16], with the advantage of not generating unwanted byproducts and it does not keep waste that could affect the balance of the ecosystem where the effluent is being released [14].
2.3. Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet radiation corresponds to the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which lies between the X-rays and visible light [14]. Ultraviolet radiation can be an alternative to using traditional chemicals in the process of disinfection of drinking water and wastewater [15].
The effect of ultraviolet light on living beings can be divided into UV-A, UV-B, UV-C and UV-vacuum. The UV-A radiation has wavelength between 315 nm (90.8 kcal / einstein) and 400 nm (71.5 kcal / einstein). UV-B has a wavelength between 280 nm (102 kcal / einstein) and 315 nm (90.8 kcal / einstein). The UV-A radiation is less harmful to humans because has low energy and the "black light" be present. This radiation is used to produce florescence in materials, in phototherapy and artificial tanning [17].
According to Ryer (1997) quoted by [17], UV-B radiation is the most destructive form of light, by having enough energy to cause damage in biological tissues, and the minimum amount that is not completely absorbed in the atmosphere. This radiation is responsible for causing skin cancer.
UV-C has a wavelength ranging from 200 nm (143 kcal / einstein) at 280 nm (102 kcal / einstein), is the ultraviolet radiation used as a germicide. The photons of light in this range concentrate significant amounts of energy in collisions with oxygen, resulting in the formation of ozone and are absorbed in a few hundred meters [17]. The range of the wavelength used as a germicide high-power deactivation of microorganism is between 245 nm (116.7 kcal / einstein) and 285 nm (100.4 kcal / einstein).
The vacuum-UV radiation has a wavelength 40 to200 nm. The first scientists to report the germicidal effect of sunlight were the British Downes and Blunt in 1877 [18]. Initially, this radiation was used for disinfection of air, pharmaceuticals products and compact stations of drinking water treatment, especially on shipping vessels [14]. The bactericidal effects of UV radiation were proven more accurate form by Barnard and Morgan in 1903, who utilized electrical currents to produce radiation with a wavelength between 226 nm and 328 nm [17].
2.4. Mechanism with ultraviolet disinfection
The main mechanism of action of ultraviolet radiation in the disinfection process, using the wavelength in sunlight, is by interfering in the biosynthesis and cell reproduction. The microorganisms are inactivated by ultraviolet radiation as a result of photochemical damage caused to nucleic acids, hampering the normal functioning [16, 15].
The UV radiation does not inactivate the microorganisms by chemical reaction, as with most of the disinfecting agents used in water. The inactivation of microorganisms occurs by the absorption of high-energy, which promotes photochemical reactions with the fundamental components of cells, disrupting the mechanism of duplication or killing the same [18].
The ultraviolet disinfection occurs due to absorption of radiation by proteins and nucleic acids DNA and RNA. With the UV absorption of proteins present in the cell membranes there is a rupture of these membranes and consequently cell death. The absorption of low doses of ultraviolet radiation by DNA can just interrupt the reproduction of microorganisms, preventing them from contaminating the environment [15].
Frequently the absorption of ultraviolet light present in the DNA molecules, such as purines and pyrimidines, becomes more reactive. The maximum absorption of ultraviolet radiation by DNA occurs at 260 nm, suggesting that inactivation by radiation is measured by direct absorption of the purine and pyrimidine molecules, leading to the formation of dimers and hydrates [15]. The ultraviolet radiation passes through the cell wall and is absorbed by nucleic acids and to a lesser extent, by the proteins and other molecules that are biologically important [12].
Ultraviolet radiation absorbed by DNA nitrogen bases may result in the formation of pyrimidine dimers. These molecules deform the helical structure of DNA and impair the replication of the nucleic acid. If replication occurs, the new cells will be mutant descendants unable to replicate (WEF, 1995 quoted by [17]. According to Daniel et al. (2001) this is the fundamental mechanism of disinfection by ultraviolet radiation as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Dimerization photochemical thymines of two bases. Source: [14].
2.5. Advantages and disadvantages of ultraviolet
The advantages of using ultraviolet radiation as a disinfectant agent in water treatment are [14]:
Ultraviolet radiation is effective for wide range of bacteria and viruses, using relatively small doses;
Minimum health risks - the formation of byproducts is minimal;
Gives no residual action, which could react with organic substances in commercial or industrial applications - for example, discoloration is not produced, or a change of flavor, when using ultraviolet radiation in the food industry;
Safety and acceptance by the operators and the public - no toxic chemical is transported, stored or handled;
Simplicity and low costs of operation and maintenance - ultraviolet radiation equipment is simpler than the equipment for generating ozone and chlorine dioxide;
Short contact time, therefore, does not require huge tanks of contact, effective disinfection doses are achieved in a few seconds, compared to the period of 10 to 60 minutes for other disinfecting technologies, being that it is system with an external power source.
Among the disadvantages of disinfection with ultraviolet radiation, are:
The repair mechanisms of damage DNA caused of microorganisms, if a sub lethal dose is employed;
The material dissolved or suspended reduces the intensity of radiation as it passes through the water depth;
It doesn’t confer effect to the distributed water because its action is immediate.
However, the fact that ultraviolet radiation does not leave a disinfectant residual in the water has arguably been appointed as an argument for the use of chlorine, because in reality, there is potential for biofilm formation in water distribution networks. If the water contains nutrients (mainly, assimilable organic carbon), these can accumulate around the pipes, supporting microbiological growth and, furthermore, the presence of 1 mg / L free chlorine residual does not guarantee that the biofilm is not formed on the surfaces of pipes and coliforms at 45oC are not found in drinking water [19].
According to Daniel et al. (2001), the disinfection with ultraviolet radiation is most effective for water with a small value of color and turbidity due to the need of light penetration in the center, therefore the quality of water to be treated is an important factor in using this process.
3. Materials and methodology
This study was conducted at the Experimental Farm Professor Hamilton Abreu Navarro (FEHAN), Institute of Agricultural Sciences (ICA) of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Regional Campus Montes Claros / MG.
The FEHAN is located 7 km from the city center and has an area of 232 ha. Montes Claros is situated at latitude 16 ° 43 \'41\'\' South and longitude 43 ° 52\' 54\'\' west (Figure 2). For this municipality, the average altitude is 646 meters in an area of 3568.93 km2 and a population estimated at 361.9 thousand inhabitants [20].
Figure 2.
Geographical location of the municipality of Montes Claros – MG; Source: Available at: www.skyscrapercity.com.
At FEHAN, the number of pigs is of 180 animals raised in an intensive production system with complete cycle, i.e., raise, reraise and fatten. The animals are confined to bays, gestation cages and birthing cages. The slaughter age is around six months, weighing on average 100 kg. The animals\' diet is based on ground corn, soybean and vitamins / minerals. Water is provided in abundance through troughs in the form of a pacifier.
The cleaning of the swine area happens in the morning with the scraping of excrements and high pressure hose. The effluent is directed by gravity to the digester Indian model with functional load capacity of 17.42 m3 for treatment (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Biodigestor Indian Model.
After treatment in the biodigester, for a period of 45 days, samples were collected from 40 liters of effluent and placed in the disinfection device, that we developed, made from recyclable transparent "Pet" bottles, as Figure 4, with the principle of thermosyphon, given the denomination of Ultraviolet Radiation Treatment System (SITRU), the samples were then exposed to ultraviolet radiation for eight consecutive days. The SITRU consists of five columns of transparent 2 liter containers of "Pet" each, connected by drainpipes (200 mm) and silicone. Connections are of 32 mm PVC whose function is to link the five columns of "Pet". A 20 liter container is at the top as a reservoir of effluent, which is connected to SITRU through a pipe of 32 mm at the top and a pipe of 32 mm at the bottom, as can be seen in Figure 4. The SITRU was placed towards the west at an inclination of 30°. The temperatures of the effluent in the ultraviolet treatment system were collected at two periods (Figure 5, Table 3).
Figure 4.
Ultraviolet Radiation Treatment System (SITRU) - Effluent
Figure 5.
Temperature measurement of the effluent.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Day
\n\t\t\t
Time
\n\t\t\t
Effluent temperature °C
\n\t\t\t
Temperature range (Δt) °C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
12/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
15:00
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
13/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
9:00
\n\t\t\t
18
\n\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
13/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
15:00
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
14/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
9:00
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
14/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
15:00
\n\t\t\t
34
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
15/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
9:00
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
15/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
15:00
\n\t\t\t
33
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
16/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
9:00
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
16/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
15:00
\n\t\t\t
34
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
17/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
9:00
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
17/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
15:00
\n\t\t\t
33
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
18/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
9:00
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
18/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
15:00
\n\t\t\t
34
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
19/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
9:00
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t\t
14
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
19/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
15:00
\n\t\t\t
33
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Monitoring the temperature of the effluent in the SITRU reservoir during the days in the field experiment.
The laboratory tests were conducted with the aim of verifying the disinfecting power of solar radiation. Analyzed, the presence of helminth eggs protozoa and oocysts per gram of feces in the biofertilizer in triplicate, at the start of the treatment in the SITRU and at the end of treatment in the SITRU, i.e. parasitological tests were carried out in two stages.
Figure 6.
Sample collection for laboratory analysis.
The disinfection efficiency of the biofertilizer by solar radiation was assessed in parasitological and microbiological analyzes in the laboratories of the Institute of Agricultural Sciences - UFMG.
Parasitological analyzes were performed at the Parasitological laboratory and the method used was the sedimentation technique for counting eggs per gram of feces / biofertilizer in a Sedgewick Camera for the detection of helminth eggs and protozoan oocysts [21]. In the first stage, the tests evaluated the biofertilizer at the beginning of the treatment in the SITRU; in the second step, analyzes were performed at the end of eight days of treatment in the SITRU. The results of the parasitological analyzes were transformed into log (x + 1) and the means compared the test "t" Student with significance level of 5%.
Microbiological analyzes were performed in the Microbiology laboratory in accordance with [22] using the method of most probable number (MPN / mL) achieved from the application of the multiple tube technique, which consists in the inoculation of decreasing volumes of sample in a suitable environment for growth of the target organisms, each volume being inoculated in a series of 3 tubes for total coliforms count at 35 °C, fecal coliforms count at 45 °C and for the identification of E. coli in the sample of biofertilizer.
Following APHA (2001), another method used the Agar Mac Conckey. The samples were transferred to plates containing this medium to obtain isolated colonies. Each plate colonies were used for confirmatory biochemical analyzes. The colonies that had characteristics of presumptive E. coli, were analyzed, taking into consideration its aspects. For confirmatory biochemical tests, tubes were used, containing Middle Rugai modified with lysine. The collected samples were taken daily in a volume of 200 mL, refrigerated and sent to laboratories. Analyses were performed immediately after collection.
4. Results and discussion
Tests of the microbiological samples of disinfection with solar radiation in the SITRU were performed in two steps. In the first step the determination results of the MPN / ml of total coliforms and fecal coliforms are shown in Table 4. It was not possible to perform the test for E. coli using the NMP / mL, considering that no gas was formed in the pipes of Durham present in the E.C. As shown in Table 4. In the second stage, the research results obtained from E. coli are shown in Table 5.
The samples collected on days 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 of September 2010, tested positive for E. coli. However, the samples of days 18 and 19 of September 2010 were negative for this microorganism, thereby showing that after seven days of exposure to solar radiation, the treatment system SITRU is effective in the control of E. coli, even though the suspended solids and turbidity values were high.
The ability to resist ultraviolet radiation, for any microorganism, reduces with the increase of applied dose and among microorganisms, even within of the same species; there are large differences in resistance [14]. These results agree with [15] who claims that ultraviolet radiation is more effective in waters with color and turbidity of limited value due to the need of light penetration in the middle. Therefore, the quality of water to be treated is an important factor in using this process.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Date
\n\t\t\t
Fecal Samples
\n\t\t\t
Total Coliforms Biofertilizer (MPN / mL)
\n\t\t\t
Fecal Coliforms or thermotolerant Biofertilizer (MPN / mL)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
12/09/2010
\n\t\t\t
A1
\n\t\t\t
"/>1.100
\n\t
< 3,0
\n
\n
\n\t
13/09/2010
\n\t
A2
\n\t
"/>1.100
\n
< 3,0
\n
\n
\n\t
14/09/2010
\n\t
A3
\n\t
"/>1.100
\n
< 3,0
\n
\n
\n\t
15/09/2010
\n\t
A4
\n\t
"/>1.100
\n
< 3,0
\n
\n
\n\t
16/09/2010
\n\t
A5
\n\t
"/>1.100
\n
< 3,0
\n
\n
\n\t
17/09/2010
\n\t
A6
\n\t
"/>1.100
\n
< 3,0
\n
\n
\n\t
18/09/2010
\n\t
A7
\n\t
"/>1.100
\n
< 3,0
\n
\n
\n\t
19/09/2010
\n\t
A8
\n\t
"/>1.100
\n
< 3,0
\n
\n
Table 4.
Results of analyzes of total coliforms, fecal coliforms in the treatment system by solar radiation
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Date
\n\t\t
Sample
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tE.coli (Rugai culture medium)
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
12/09/2010
\n\t\t
A1
\n\t\t
Positive
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
13/09/2010
\n\t\t
A2
\n\t\t
Positive
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
14/09/2010
\n\t\t
A3
\n\t\t
Positive
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
15/09/2010
\n\t\t
A4
\n\t\t
Positive
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
16/09/2010
\n\t\t
A5
\n\t\t
Positive
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
17/09/2010
\n\t\t
A6
\n\t\t
Positive
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
18/09/2010
\n\t\t
A7
\n\t\t
Negative
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
19/09/2010
\n\t\t
A8
\n\t\t
Negative
\n\t
\n
Table 5.
Results of inactivation of E. coli.
The effect of suspended solids in the efficiency of the disinfection process, which besides increasing absorbance of the effluent, hide bacteria on its inside. Therefore it was recommended a pre-filtration for a better efficiency in disinfection [11].
According to [16], it was possible to observe that a system equipped with a reactor of UV lamps, had a very efficient operation in terms of E. coli inactivation for the conditions of the experiments with retention times of 3 and 5 minutes, both in clearer water, as for turbid waters.
The results for the parasitological analysis are presented in Tables 6, 7 and 8.
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Sample
\n\t\t
Start of treatment
\n\t\t
End of treatment
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A1
\n\t\t
600
\n\t\t
600
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A2
\n\t\t
1.400
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A3
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A4
\n\t\t
1.600
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A5
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
0
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A6
\n\t\t
2.200
\n\t\t
200
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A7
\n\t\t
600
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A8
\n\t\t
1.400
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A9
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
600
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A10
\n\t\t
1.600
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A11
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A12
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Average
\n\t\t
1150
\n\t\t
433
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Standard deviation
\n\t\t
470
\n\t\t
239
\n\t
\n
Table 6.
Count of oocyst protozoa count in the effluents of the biodigesters before and after the treatment system by ultraviolet radiation.
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Sample
\n\t\t
Start of treatment
\n\t\t
End of treatment
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A1
\n\t\t
600
\n\t\t
600
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A2
\n\t\t
2.000
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A3
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A4
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
800
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A5
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
0
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A6
\n\t\t
1.800
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A7
\n\t\t
1.800
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A8
\n\t\t
1.800
\n\t\t
600
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A9
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
600
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A10
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
600
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A11
\n\t\t
1.200
\n\t\t
200
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A12
\n\t\t
400
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Average
\n\t\t
1167
\n\t\t
450
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Standard deviation
\n\t\t
545
\n\t\t
211
\n\t
\n
Table 7.
Count of eggs of Ascaris sp. in effluents of the biodigestor before and after the treatment system by ultraviolet radiation.
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Sample
\n\t\t
Home treatment
\n\t\t
End of treatment
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A1
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
0
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A2
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A3
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A4
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
0
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A5
\n\t\t
600
\n\t\t
200
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A6
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
0
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A7
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
200
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A8
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
400
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A9
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
600
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A10
\n\t\t
1.000
\n\t\t
200
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A11
\n\t\t
400
\n\t\t
200
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
A12
\n\t\t
800
\n\t\t
200
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Average
\n\t\t
833
\n\t\t
233
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Standard deviation
\n\t\t
187
\n\t\t
187
\n\t
\n
Table 8.
Trichostrongylideos egg count of effluents in the biodigester before and after the treatment system by ultraviolet radiation.
Statistical analysis of data showed that there was no significant reduction, with 5% significance for the results presented in tables 6, 7 and 8. However, it may be noted reduction of 62.32%, 61.43% and 72% of Ascaris sp., protozoa and oocyst trichostrongylideos eggs, respectively, before and after the treatment system by ultraviolet radiation.
According [17], in general, bacteria and viruses are sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, needing only effective doses of 20 mWs/cm² to inactivate most species. However, the same cannot be reported for protozoa and helminths, endowed with natural protection that allows for their survival in harsh environments. The shapes of the encysted protozoa and helminths eggs are resistant to ultraviolet radiation, requiring extremely high doses and, in most cases, too costly economically to result in efficient inactivation.
During the disinfecting process of biofertilizer in the SITRU, in this present study, it can be observed that the temperature for the experiment ranged between 19 °C to 34 °C. The thermotolerant coliforms are still alive even at 44 °C and for the most coliforms best growth occurs to 35 °C, therefore in this study it was observed that the temperature did not influence the reduction of these bacteria.
According to [16], with respect to the analysis in terms of efficiency, it should be noted that the inactivation of E. coli does not determine the safety of the system as a sanitary barrier. For this, it should be the object of verification not only the pathogenic microorganisms of greatest resistance to the process of disinfection by ultraviolet radiation, such as viruses and protozoan cysts, but also those whose dimensions provide a greater protective effect exerted by the particles dispersed in water to the action of ultraviolet radiation. Thus, by establishing a system of disinfection by ultraviolet radiation, it is evident the need to undertake in a comprehensive manner the water’s physical-chemical and microbiological characteristics, the dispersed particle size characterization and evaluation of the permanence of these parameters in different seasons of the year.
5. Conclusion
Despite the color, turbidity and suspended solids high values, the ultraviolet radiation treatment system - SITRU was efficient in the reducing the presence of Escherichia coli, but less efficiently for Ascaris sp egss, Trichostrongylideos eggs and oocysts protozoa.
Acknowledgements
Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (Fapemig), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Banco do Nordeste do Brasil (Fundeci) and Pro-Reitorias de Extensão e Graduação of the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais for financial support for this research.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/40004.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/40004.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/40004",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/40004",totalDownloads:2133,totalViews:119,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:10,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 28th 2012",dateReviewed:"July 30th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 16th 2013",dateFinished:"October 10th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/40004",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/40004",book:{id:"3144",slug:"waste-water-treatment-technologies-and-recent-analytical-developments"},signatures:"Josélia Fernandes Oliveira Tolentino, Fernando Colen, Eduardo Robson Duarte, Anna Christina de Almeida, Keila Gomes Ferreira Colen, Rogério Marcos de Souza and Janderson Tolentino Silveira",authors:[{id:"21172",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Duarte",fullName:"Eduardo Robson Duarte",slug:"eduardo-robson-duarte",email:"duartevet@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"154153",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernado",middleName:null,surname:"Colen",fullName:"Fernado Colen",slug:"fernado-colen",email:"fernandocolen@nca.ufmg.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pig industry in Brazil and worldwide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Risks of pollution from pig manure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Disinfection of waste",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Ultraviolet",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Mechanism with ultraviolet disinfection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Advantages and disadvantages of ultraviolet",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Materials and methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgements",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AssociaçãoBrasileira.DaIndústria.ProdutoraE.Exportadora DeCarne.Suína-AB. I. P. E. C. S.2010Produção Mundial de Carne Suína. São Paulo, 2010. Disponível em: < http://www.abipecs.org.br/pt/estatisticas/mundial/producao-2.html>.Acesso em: 13 jun. 2011.'},{id:"B2",body:'DieselR.MirandaC. R. E.PerdomoC. C.2002Coletânea de tecnologias sobre dejetos suínos. Concórdia: BipersBoletim Informativo de Pesquisa Embrapa Suínos e Aves e Extensão, CNPSA/SC e EMATER/RS, n. 10).'},{id:"B3",body:'KonzenE. A.1983Manejo e utilização dos dejetos de suínos. Concórdia: EMBRAPA/CNPSA, 1983, 36p. (Circular Técnica, 6).'},{id:"B4",body:'OliveiraP. A. V.1993Manual de manejo e utilização dos dejetos de suínos. Concórdia: EMBRAPA-CNPSA, 1993.188p. (Documentos, 27).'},{id:"B5",body:'AlvesR. G. C. M.1996Tratamento e Valorização de Dejetos da Suinocultura Através de Processos Anaeróbios: operação e avaliação de diversos reatores em escala real. 2007. 170p. Tese (Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Ambiental). Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Santa Catarina, 2007. apud SILVA, F. C. M. Tratamento dos dejetos suínos utilizando lagoas de alta taxa e degradação em batelada. 1996. 115p. Dissertação (Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Ambiental). Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 1996.'},{id:"B6",body:'OliveiraP. A. V.2004Tecnologias para o manejo de resíduos na produção de suínos: manual de boas práticas. Concórdia: Embrapa Suínos e Aves, 2004. 109p.'},{id:"B7",body:'CerettaC. A.BassoC. J.VieiraF. C. B.HerbesM. G.MoreiraI. C. L.BerwangerA. L.2005Desejo líquido de suínos: I- perdas de nitrogênio e fósforo na solução escoada na superfície do solo, sob plantio direto. Revista Ciência Rural, Santa Maria, 35n.36, 1296nov-dez, 2005.'},{id:"B8",body:'SeganfredoM. A.2006Viabilidade econômico-ambiental do uso de dejetos animais e lodos de esgoto como fertilizante. Palestra apresentada na Fertbio 2006. Bonito, MS, 2006.'},{id:"B9",body:'PerdomoC. C.1999Sugestões para o manejo, tratamento e utilização de dejetos suínos. Concórdia: EMBRAPA/CNPSA, 1999. 1p.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'LucasJ.SantosT. M. B.OliveiraR. A.1999Possibilidade de uso de dejetos no meio rural. 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R.1952Ultraviolet radiationNew York: John Wiley & Sons, 1952. 270 p.'},{id:"B19",body:'SouzaJ. B.2000Desinfecção de águas com cor e turbidez elevadas: comparação técnica de processos alternativos ao cloro empregando radiação ultravioleta e ácido peracético. 2000, 147p. Dissertação (Mestrado em Hidráulica e Saneamento)- Escola de Engenharia de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, 2000.'},{id:"B20",body:'USEPA.1999Alternative desinfectants and oxidants. Guidance Manual, EPA 815-R-99-014. Cap. 8, 8\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'InstitutoBrasileiro.De GeografiaE.Estatística. I. B. G. E.2010Disponível em: <http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat/topwindow.htm?1>.Acesso em: 20 jun. 2011.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'UrquhartG. M.et al.1996Parasitologia veterinária. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 1996.'},{id:"B23",body:'American Public Health Association- APHA.2001Compendium of methods for the microbiological examination of foodsed. Washington: APHA, 2001, 676 p.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Josélia Fernandes Oliveira Tolentino",address:null,affiliation:'
Instituto de Ciências Agrárias da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Instituto de Ciências Agrárias da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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1. Introduction
In physics, there is a time-independent theory, namely, thermodynamics that is used to determine the macroscopic equilibrium of physical systems. In practice, to compute the equilibrium conditions and the physical properties of a system, a physicist must find a function that completely describes the system, being capable of capturing all involved properties. The existence of such a function arises as a postulate of the themodynamics, having an extremum to the equilibrium states [1]. The function is called entropy and has a maximum at final equilibrium state. On the other hand, the same understanding about the physical properties of the system can be extracted through another relevant physical function, namely, energy. This treatment of using energy function instead of entropy to investigate the physical properties is completely equivalent but now the energy has a minimum and its existence also occurs by postulational reason, as for entropy function. A broad discussion on themodynamic’s postulates can be found in Ref. [1].
In practical problems, it woud be impossible to computing the total energy of a system taking all time-dependent freedom degrees, such as atomic coordinates of the components of the system each with its translational, rotation energies, etc., among others time-dependent properties. The thermodynamics theory emerges from the fact that a great number of those freedom degrees are eliminated by considering statistical averages, and not macroscopically manifesting. Thus, as the physical principle of energy conservation keeps unaltered over decades, having been already rigorously tried and confirmed, a well-defined thermodynamic energy function appears somewhat intuitive. Indeed, the energy must be interpreted as a function capable of providing the macroscopic properties of the system. Besides, due to the complexity in measuring the energy of a system, it is relevant to assume some state whereby the energy is arbitrary defined as zero and measuring the energy in connection that state because only energy differences have any physical meaning [1, 2, 3].
There are equivalent approaches to investigate the thermodynamics properties of a system in terms of thermodynamic functions (or thermodynamic potentials) of Helmholtz, enthalpy and Gibbs instead of the energy or entropy. Such thermodynamic potentials are obtained by using Legendre transformations in order to change the original extensive variables, or part of them, in the function thermodynamic energy by the intensive variables. Besides, other thermodynamic functions (in addition to those already mentioned) can appear when making Legendre transformations in specific extensive parameters of the energy or in the extensive parameters of the entropy, such as grand canonical potential, and Massieu, Planck and Krammers functions. The function to be used must be defined by the practical characteristics of the problem and these last mentioned functions are less common in more elementary approaches of postulational thermodynamics [1, 4].
A solid understanding of postulational thermodynamic theory is necessary in order to investigate the thermal or mechanic stability of the most diverse systems. The increase in the thermal stability of DNA against thermal denaturation can be experimentally investigated using a methodology in which the differences or changes in the standard values of negativity and positivity of enthalpy and entropy, or even between them, are decisive for the study’s conclusions [5]. The formalism of free energy (or Helmholtz potential) can be used for practical determination of the level of stored energy accumulated in material during plastic processing applied as well as the stored energy for the simple stretching of austenitic steel [6]. There are an infinity of applications of thermodynamic theory in wich the stability of a system is intimately related to some physical feature of thermodynamic functions, and whose the convenience of the choice is determined by practical situation.
Interesting formalisms or analytical techniques that combine the superposition of the thermodynamic theory and mathematical methods appear as support for problems of applied physics aimed to investigate the stability conditions of a system, either through experimental or computational studies. In order to show of a physical point of view, as arises the thermal and mechanical stability of a system, let us invoke the known physical origin of the energy U, i. e., its existence is determined by a postulate and the same way we know that U is a function of the extensive parameters, entropy S, volume V and the mole numbers of the chemical components N1, N2, …, Nr. This physical consideration can be mathematically written as U=USVN1N2…Nr. Similarly, entropy S is a function of the extensive parameters, energy U, volume V and the mole numbers of the chemical components N1, N2, …, Nr, and so S=SUVN1N2…Nr [1].
In this chapter, we discuss in details the postulate of maximum entropy or minimum energy through which it is possible to see that the thermodynamic functions S or U, or any potential/function derived them by Legendre transformations, have mathematical features that can be obtained of an eingenvalues fundamental problem, that is, the diagonalization of the hypersurfaces defined by U=USVN1N2…Nr or S=SUVN1N2…Nr that conveniently expanded in Taylor’s series provides the signs its second-order derivatives in an r+2-dimensional thermodynamic space. Besides, some relations between these derivatives by diagonalization of the quadratic form of U, S or other thermodynamic function, naturally appear and as consequence relevant conclusions about the system stability. Quadratic forms appear in several physical problems, especially in quantum mechanics [7], and in thermodynamic theory this is not different. In particular, we precisely investigate the mathematical caracteristics of the hypersurface of energy and other thermodynamic functions for a system of single chemical component. In this case, it is possible to reduce the hypersurface USVN1N2…Nr, in an r+2-dimensional thermodynamic space, to a three dimensional hypersurface where U=USVN (see that r=1). Analytical calculations of quadratic forms diagonalization are used to reveal the signs of the second-order derivatives of the three-dimensional thermodynamic functions. Accordingly, the stability conditions are obtained.
This chapter is organized as follows. In Section 2, we discuss the general procedures to diagonalize the thermodynamic energy as well as obtain Talyor’s series in an r+2-dimensional thermodynamic space. It is also presented the same way to entropy function. In Section 3, we diagonalize thermodynamic energy in a three-dimensional space, and derived Helmholtz, enthalpy, and Gibbs potentials as well as grand canonical potential. In addition, the signs of second-order derivatives of such thermodynamic functions are calculated. In Section 4, stability conditions are presented as consequences of the obtained signs in previous section. As it turns, we summarize our main findings and draw some perspectives in Section 5.
2. The quadratic form of the energy hypersurface in an r+2-dimensional thermodynamic space
We already addressed in the introduction about the postulational existence of the thermodynamic energy function U=USVN1N2…Nr that is a function on extensive parameters entropy S, volume V and the mole numbers of the chemical components N1, N2, …, Nr, where r represents the amount of chemical components in the system. Besides, U is capable of describing all thermodynamic macroscopic properties of treated system. A formal discussion on extensive parameters can be found in Ref. [1]. However, understand them as those are dependent on the amount of matter or mass of the system.
Remembering the most general form of Taylor’s series for a function f=fx1x2…xn of n variables expanded around x10x20…xn0 [8]:
where Δxi=xi−xi0, and all partial derivatives are evaluated at x10x20…xn0. Here xi0 denotes the coordinates of some arbitrary stationary point around which the function is expanded, with zero index to differentiate it from all other points in the n-dimensional space.
Let us carefully expanding the energy USVN1N2…Nr using Taylor’s series given by Eq. (1) around S0V0N10N20…Nr0 point in r+2-dimensional space.
where ΔXi≡Xi−Xi0, with Xi=S,V,N1,N2,…,Nr and Xi0=S0,V0,N10,N20,…,Nr0. Notice that last term that explicitly appears in Eq. (2) in wich the simplified notation Xi is introduced represents all possible combinations of double partial derivatives obtained from the extensive variables of the energy. Besides, see that i≠j in the same term due to already computed previous terms to i=j.
By analogy with the one-variable differential calculus and due to the postulate of minimum energy (d2U>0, see Refs. [1, 2, 3]), taking a stationary point S0V0N10N20…Nr0, we know that all first-order derivatives in Eq. (2) are null at this point
Let us define in Eq. (4)ΔS≡S−S0, ΔV≡V−V0, ΔNk≡Nk−Nk0, ΔU≡USVN1N2…Nk−US0V0N10N20…Nr0, and also U˜≡2!ΔU. Thus, it is possible rewriting Eq. (4) as follows.
Notice that U˜ in above expression must be interpreted the same way as the U, being only mathematically multiplied and suppressed by the constants 2! and US0V0N10N20…Nr0, respectively. Physically, U˜ also obeys minimum energy postulate and keep the dependence with the extensive parameters, U˜=U˜SVN1N2…Nr. On the other words, U˜ is the original energy function U, at less than a multiplicative constant, and additive. We should not forget that the expression given by Eq. (5) has more terms than those explicitly listed, with third-order, fourth-order derivatives and so on. However, if we take only terms until the second-order derivatives, it is possible to see that hypersurface defined by U˜ is a complete quadratic form, in an r+2-dimensional thermodynamic space (see quadratic forms in Refs. [8, 9]). Then, some mathematical generalities can be extracted of the thermodynamic energy written as Eq. (6) below:
where the second-order derivatives above and below of main diagonal represent all combinations of double partial derivatives in relation to the extensive variables of the energy. Explicitly showing the terms of mixed partial derivatives in the matricial equation given by Eq. (7), we have
Resuming the previous discussion in which the extensive variables are compactly defined as Xi, we can also express the energy in Eq. (8) of a compact way
ΔXi is a column vector with ΔS, ΔV, ΔN1, …, ΔNr components, and ΔXiT is the transpose of ΔXi. As M is a symmetric matrix, a diagonalization procedure can be applied to simplify the investigation of mathematical features of U˜ and its physical consequences. At first, the choice to expanding the thermodynamic energy in Taylor’s series up to the second-order is due to the appearance of a complete quadratic form with a known mathematics of many-variable calculus. Accordingly, the canonical form U˜=ΔXi\'TDΔXi\' obtained by diagonalization allows visualizing interesting physical features more easily. Notice that D is the eigenvalues matrix of M with r+2-components, and the ΔXi\' is the column eigenvector (with ΔS\', ΔV\', ΔN1\', …, ΔNr\' components) of the diagonal matrix D as well as ΔX\'T is the transpose. A review on quadratic forms diagonalization can be found in Ref. [9]. The canonical form to U˜ can be expressed by Eq. (11)
See that in the canonical form of U˜ given by Eq. (11) are eliminated the mixed partial derivatives of Eq. (6). Besides, the minimum energy postulate imposes to the function U˜SVN1N2..Nr in Eq. (11) the following mathematical condition:
U˜=λSΔS′2+λVΔV′2+λN1ΔN1′2+…+λNrΔNr′2>0.E12
It is possible to see that this conditon occurs only when λS>0, λV>0, λN1>0, …, λNr>0 for any sets of values of ΔS′, ΔV′, ΔN1′, …, ΔNr′. To obtain the λi (i=S,V,N1,…,Nr) eigenvalues, it is necessary diagonalize M (see Eq. (8)) by solving the equation λiI−MXi=0, where I is an indentity matrix (see Ref. [9]) that provides the determinant below
Observe that Eq. (13) implies an equation in λ of r+2-degree. Besides, all λi are necessarily positive due to the minimum energy postulate.
So far, we have show some generalities about thermodynamic energy in an r+2-dimensional space. Notice that diagonalizing M by solving Eq. (13) is not an easy task. For a system with great number of chemical components analytical solutions of Eq. (13) can become increasingly hard.
If we take the entropy of the system instead of energy, all above formalism remains valid by simple exchanging U and S variables in the equations. In addition, due to the maximum entropy postulate, all eigenvalues of second-order derivatives matrix (similar to M by exchanging U and S) must be negatives (λU<0, λV<0, λN1<0, …, λNr<0). Then, in this case we have Eq. (14) instead Eq. (12).
S˜=λSΔU′2+λVΔV′2+λN1ΔN1′2+…+λNrΔNr′2<0.E14
In a two-dimensional thermodynamic space, a discussion on the eigenvalues of M and the physical consequences of its positivity is presented in Ref. [10]. In this case, the conditions of thermal and mechanical stability are naturally demonstrated through the signs of the second-order derivatives of some thermodynamic function of two-variables. The two-dimensional problem arises when is considered a one-component system and, in particular, we can take the thermodynamic energy per mol, reducing the dependence of such energy function for only the variables entropy (s) and volume (v) per mol (u=usv).
The stability conditions of a thermodynamic system are intrinsically related to the signs of the second-order derivatives of the energy, being the exact calculating of the eigenvalues of Eq. (13) (of previously known signs) an important factor in order to understand the physical origin of the stability of the system. In next section, we present a discussion of eigenvalues of the energy in a three-dimensional thermodynamic space.
3. Diagonalization of the energy in a three-dimensional thermodynamic space
Let us define the energy in a three-dimensional thermodynamic space. To do this, we consider a system with one chemical component and explicitly write the energy U=USVN in terms of the involved extensive parameters S,V and N. Similarly of Eq. (3) and by analogy with one-variable calculus, we have ∂U∂S=∂U∂V=∂U∂N=0 (at a stationary point (S0,V0,N0)) due to the minimum energy principle. Besides, in order to investigate the second-order derivatives of U (or U˜, there are no physical difference), a simple matricial quadratic form can be obtained by application of Eqs. (6), (7) and (8), as follows:
ΔXi is a column vector with ΔS, ΔV, ΔN components, ΔXiT is the transpose of ΔXi, and M3x3 is a symmetric matrix that provides three eigenvalues for U˜ by diagonalization of M3x3. Thus, by using the canonical form of U˜ combined with minimum energy principle, we know that all signs of the eigenvalues λ1, λ2, and λ3 of M3x3 are positive
Note that D3x3 in Eq. (17) is the eigenvalues matrix of M3x3 given by Eq. (16). As in Eq. (13), here we need solve the eigenvalues equation λI3x3−M3x3Xi=0 that provides the following determinant
The above equation is commonly known as characteristic equation, and its solution necessarily imply in three positive roots due to the minimum energy postulate. After some algebraic manipulations [8, 11, 12] in order to solve Eq. (19) and considering λ1>0, λ2>0 and λ3>0 (three positive roots), we find the following relations
Observe that Eq. (22) is equivalent to the determinant of M3x3 (see Eq. (16)), being positive to energy representaion, and so ∣M3x3∣>0. Besides, considering that the product of the three roots x1x2x3=−d/a in a general third-degree equation ax3+bx2+cx+d=0 is a known expression of more elementary courses, Eq. (22) can be easily obtained due to the positivity of all eigenvalues of U˜ (see that d is the last bracket term in Eq. (19), and a=−1) in the condition of minimum introduced by the thermodynamic postulate. In addition, notice that first relation in Eq. (19) is the determinant of the upper left 1x1 submatrix of M3x3, while Eq. (20) is the determinant of the upper left 2x2 submatrix of M3x3.
In short, to obtaining in which conditions at equilibrium point (S0,V0,N0) U˜=U˜SVN has a minimum in this three-dimensional thermodynamic space, the set of relations given by Eqs. (20)-(22) must occur, where the relations ∂2U∂V2>0 and ∂2U∂N2>0 in Eq. (20) were introduced for a more physical than mathematical reason during analytical solution of Eq. (19). A general approach about mathematical second derivative test for many variable functions can be found in Ref. [8].
We must solve Eq. (19) permuting U and S in an equivalent entropy representation. Besides, by imposing all negative values due to maximum entropy postulate, it is possible to obtain a set of relations as in Eqs. (20)-(22). Solving eigenvalues equation below
As it happened for energy, here Eq. (24) is expected from one-variable calculus and its last two relations were introduced for a more physical than mathematical reason during analytical solution of Eq. (23). It is important to emphasize that although Eq. (25) keeps the same format and sign of Eq. (21), the sign in Eq. (26) for the entropy formalism is now negative. This should not cause any surprise and can be concluded even without explicitly calculate the three eigenvalues of characteristic equation due to the known expression to the product between the three roots, x1x2x3=−d/a in a general third-degree equation ax3+bx2+cx+d=0. Then, as all eigenvalues are now negative, Eq. (26) is easy verified from characteristic equation (see Eq. (23) where d is the last bracket term, and a=−1). The set of Eqs. (24)-(26) provides the mathematical conditions of maximum for entropy thermodynamic function S˜=S˜UVN at U0V0N0.
Some physical problems require the use of thermodynamic potentials of Helmholtz, enthalpy and Gibbs as well as the grand canonical potential instead of thermodynamic energy to be more easy solved. These thermodynamic functions are introduced in the next topic.
3.1 Second-order derivatives of other thermodynamic functions
By using Legendre transformations, it is possible to change the extensive variables, or part of them, in the thermodynamic energy function. In this subsection, we are considering the same energy of three extensive variables defined by U=USVN in which making appropriate Legendre transformations the intensive variables are introduced. A discussion on extensive and intensive thermodynamic variables can be found in Ref. [1]. Legendre’s transformation is, in short, a process of change of variables.
3.1.1 Helmholtz potential
In order to introduce Helmholtz potential that is an energy function that instead of being a function of S, V and N it is written in terms of T, V and N, we need to make Legendre transformation (change S by T) in extensive parameter S. This process of introducing intensive parameter T is described below. Before let us write USVN as
dUSVN=∂U∂SdS+∂U∂VdV+∂U∂NdN,E27
where the temperature can be defined by T≡∂U∂S with V and N constant, the pressure is defined by P≡−∂U∂V with S and N constant, and the chemical potential is defined by μ≡∂U∂N with S and V constant. With these definitions, we have to Eq. (27)
See of the Eq. (30) that F is a function of T, V and N. Then F=FTVN, and the energy F defined as function of T, V and N has modified its concavite in relation to the new introduced parameter by Legendre transformation in S, i. e., the second-order derivatives of F on T is negative now, keeping positive the signs of F on V and N as in original energy (see Eq. (32) below).
∂2F∂T2<0,∂2F∂V2>0,∂2F∂N2>0.E32
It is a general fact that Legendre transformation change the sign of the second-order derivatives of the new introduced function in relation that intensive parameter. A demonstration of this consideration to molar Helmholtz potential f=fsv is shown in Re. [10], and a treatment on Legendre transformations can be found in Ref. [13]. Recently, the thermodynamic stability of chignolin protein was theoretically investigated by using of a computational methodology of decomposition of the Helmholtz energy profile that indicates that intramolecular interactions predominantly stabilized certain conformations of the protein [14]. Besides, in the same study the direct Helmholtz energy decomposition provides the predominant factor in the thermodynamic stability of proteins.
Following the same procedure used to derive the stability conditions of the energy and entropy functions, it is possible to obtain a complete set of relations that Helmholtz potential must obey. Mathematically F is known as a saddle surface. This feature of F stems from the imposition that some eigenvalue of the canonical form of F (similarly to the Eq. (17)) have opposite sign to the others. The saddle surface of Helmholtz of three variables has a maximum in relation to the temperature but a minimum in relation to the volume and mole number. The relations given by Eq. (32) are sufficient to conclude on the physical stability of a system, as demonstrated in Section 4, and the other expressions to the second-order derivatives of F are not shown here. However, the curious reader can be computing all signs of the second-order derivatives to Helmoltz and to other thermodynamic functions that follow below, as already discussed to energy and entropy functions.
3.1.2 Enthalpy potential
The enthalpy potential is also mathematically a saddle surface. In this case, Legendre transformation is applied in the extensive parameter V and introduced the intensive parameter P. Further, H keep unaltered with a minimum in relation to the entropy S and N but becomes a maximum on P, and so H=HSPN. Remembering that dU=TdS−PdV+μdN, then
Due to Legendre transformations, it is possible to conclude that
∂2H∂S2>0,∂2H∂P2<0,∂2H∂N2>0,E36
and other inequalities can be obtained the same way as previously presented to energy and entropy functions,i. e., by diagonalization of HSPN.
3.1.3 Gibbs potential
It is possible to write a function obtained by double Legendre transformation in the extensive parameters S and V, namely Gibbs potential. This is a function on introduced intensive variables T and P. To do that, we combine Eqs. (29) and (33) into Eq. (28). Then,
Legendre transformations provide the following relations, and G=GTPN as seen in Eq. (37).
∂2G∂T2<0,∂2G∂P2<0,∂2G∂N2>0.E39
Here the second-order derivatives in relation to T and P are negative now as well as the G=GTPN becomes a surface of maximum in relation of these two parameters. See that energy keeps unaltered in relation to N, and Gibbs potential has a minimum in relation to mole number because Legendre transformations are applied only in S and V, introducing T and P respectively. Besides, by diagonalization of quadratic form obtained by expanding of G, it is possible to compute other inequalities in additon those expressed by Eq. (39), as already discussed to the energy and entropy formalisms.
3.1.4 Grand canonical potential
A function of T, V and μ is known as grand canonical potential J. To obtaining J=JTVμ let us introduce the intensive parameter μ of the extensive parameter N as follows. Taking
dμN=Ndμ+μdNμdN=dμN−Ndμ,E40
and combining the above equation with Eq. (29) into (28), we have
Thus, by Legendre transformations in S and N, T and μ intensive variables are introduced, respectively, the relations below are naturally obtained.
∂2J∂T2<0,∂2J∂V2>0,∂2J∂μ2<0.E43
These relations indicate that G has now a maximum in relation to intensive parameters T and μ, keeping a minimum on V. Legendre transformations applied in the entropy formalism are also useful to derive other thermodynamic functions that are not treated here. The appropriate choice of the thermodynamic function is relevant in practical problems. Besides, thermodynamic functions are convex functions of their extensive variables (positive signs of the second-order derivatives) and concave functions (negative signs of the second-order derivatives) of their intensive variables [1].
Novel geometric approaches aimed at obtaining thermodynamic relations in a systematic way for a number of thermodynamic potentials and formally derived the classical Gibbs stability condition has been recently investigated [15].
So far, we demonstrate the mathematical conditions that second-order derivatives of the thermodynamic functions must satisfied. In the next section, we use these conditions to directly obtain the mechanical and thermal stability of a general system.
4. The stability conditions of a system
Let us start this section remembering some quantities of physical interest defined below [1, 2, 3]:
α≡1V∂V∂TE44
cV≡TN∂S∂TE45
cP≡TN∂S∂TE46
kT≡−1V∂V∂PE47
kS≡−1V∂V∂P,E48
where α (at p constant) in Eq. (44) is the coefficient of thermal expansion, cV and cP in Eqs. (45) and (46) respectively, are the specific heats at V or P constant, kT (T constant) in Eq. (47) is the isothermal compressibility and kS (S constant) in Eq. (48) is the adiabatic compressibility. All these quantities are relevant in physical applications and their exact values as well as their increase or decrease tendencies can say a lot about the stability of the physical system.
The thermal expansion is related to changes in dimensions of physical systems due to temperature variations. We can understand the behavior of materials on the macroscopic or microscopic scale when subjected to temperature changes by the abosolute values of α that can be positive or negative.
Specific heats are useful to understand the thermal properties of physical systems in several length scales (macroscale and microscale). Besides, the specific heats are positive physical quantities associated to the thermal stability of the system, as will be mathematically demonstrated in this section.
The isothermal and adiabatic compressibilities are positive physical quantities, being related to the mechanical stability of the system. A deep comprehension of the physical origin of the mentioned quantities in terms of the signs of the second-order derivatives of thermodynamis functions, it is relevant to theoretical or experimental researchers.
In order to better investigate the physical consequences of the signs of the second-order derivatives of the energy, see the first relation in Eq. (20)
∂2U∂S2>0.E49
Remembering the temperature definition T=∂U∂S, we have by derivation of temperature T side by side in relation to the S entropy
∂T∂S=∂2U∂S2>0.E50
Then, if we combine Eq. (50) and the definition of specific heat (at V constant) given by Eq. (45), it is possible to obtain
TNcV=∂2U∂S2>0⇒cV>0.E51
A positive specific heat (cV>0) is obtained due to the absolute temperature is positive. Besides, N is a positive amount. The same physical conclusion can be obtained of the first relation in Eq. (32), ∂2F∂T2<0. As F is a function of T, V and N (F=FTVN), an infinitesimal of dF is given by
If we take the derivation side by side of Eq. (53) in relation to T considering V and N constant
−∂S∂T=∂2F∂T2.E56
It is possible to observe that the left side of Eq. (56) is relationed to the specific heat at V constant and the sign of the second-order derivatives can be checked by comparing with Eq. (32), and so
Note that Eq. (58) represents the same result already obtained in Eq. (51), only taking different formalisms to thermodynamic function, and so analyzing distinct second-order derivatives. The specific heat must be interpreted as the necessary amount of heat to increase or decrease the temperature of the physical system. A negative specific heat would imply in an inexistent physical situation because we would have a system capable of receiving some quantity of heat (postive) and decreasing its temperature (negative dT). There is still another non-physical situation with negative specific heat in the hypothetical situation in which the system loses heat but increases its temperature.
We investigate now the signs of second-order derivatives of Gibbs potential. The relation given by first inequality in Eq. (39) provides an important conclusion to specific heat at P constant, with cP>0. To demonstrate that, let us take a differential element dG of Gibbs potential G=GTPN
dG=∂G∂TdT+∂G∂PdP+∂G∂NdN.E59
The above equation can be compared with Eq. (37), and we obtain
−S=∂G∂T,E60
V=∂G∂P,E61
and
μ=∂G∂N.E62
Deriving Eq. (60) side by side in relation to T at P constant, we have
−∂S∂T=∂2G∂T2,E63
and from definition of specific heat at P constant in Eq. (46) and by comparing with the first inequality in Eq. (39)
−NcPT=∂2G∂T2<0NcPT>0⇒cP>0.E64
Notice that specific heat at P constant is also positive. The positivity of the specific heats previous shown is related to the thermal stability of the physical system. Then, it is possible to see that the thermal stability emerge as consequence of the signs of the second-order derivatives previously treated. Thus, appropriately computing the eigenvalues of the matricial energy or other thermodynamic function is essencial to finding the stability conditions.
Resuming Eq. (54) and by derivation of the left and right sides in relation to V keeping T constant
∂P∂V=−∂2F∂V2.E65
Comparing Eq. (66) with the definition to isothermal compressibility in Eq. (47), we can obtain
∂P∂V=−1VkT.E66
As the sign of the second-order derivative in Eq. (66) is positive, we have
−1VkT=−∂2F∂V21VkT=∂2F∂V2>0⇒kT>0.E67
Notice that the sign of the second-order derivative of the appropriately chosen potential leads to a relevant relation for the sign of physical quantity of interest. Besides, in the definition given by Eq. (47) that increments of pressure in the system leads to decrease in volume due to the ever positive isothermal compressibility, and this is an intuitive conclusion. From Eq. (67) we mathematically demonstrated that isothermal compressibility is always positive due to specific features of the potentials. In particular, the positive value of kT appears from curvature of some chosen potential. The same way kS>0 can be obtained from enthalpy potential through the the sign of the second relation (∂2H∂P2<0) in Eq. (36), and after some algebraic manipulations. A positive value of this physical quantity is associated with the mechanical stability of the physical system, as in kT.
It is relevant to clarify that α does not to have a positive defined sign that can be obtained from some function. The well-known case of the water shows that volume increases when temperature decreases below at 4oC, being negative α in this regime. Yet, thermodynamic books [1, 2, 3] show some relations between the physical quantities, as cp=cv+TVα2/NkT, cp/cv=kT/kS as well as cp≥cv and kT≥ks obtained by reduction of thermodynamic derivatives and by using Maxwell’s relations. But this is not the purpose of this chapter.
It is worthy of emphasis that some stability condition can be deduced by the signs of the second-order derivatives of energy (or any thermodynamic function), as presented in this chapter. In a three-dimensional (or higher) thermodynamic space the complexity in obtain with success the stability conditions for some potential is associated to the matrix order of the second-order derivatives. Besides, to all cases one or several second-order relations must be manipulated to conclude about the thermal and mechanical stability of the system.
5. Conclusions
In this chapter, we show the useful of specific linear algebra topics in addition with many-variable calculus that coupled to minimum energy postulate appear as in important insight to understand the stability of thermodynamic systems. We find the thermal and mechanical stability of physical systems are directly associated with the signs of the second-order derivatves of thermodynamic energy or other taken representation.
We present a general addressing to the energy representation in terms of matrial equations whereby the stability conditions arise of an eigenvalues fundamental problem. Besides, the minimum energy postulate provides the signs of the second-order derivatives. Accordingly, of a physical point of view the stabilility of a system occurs due to minimum energy postulate.
Formal caracteristics of postulational thermodynamic theory and, particularly, about the second-order derivatives of the thermodynamic functions are discussed with relevant consequences on the thermal and mechanical stability. The presented analytical formalism is an important support to conclude how the stability of a system arises, and can be useful in any field of the exact sciences. We hope that this methodology can be extended to higher-order matrices of energy as well as some of the obtained relations can be used in specific problems of applied physics.
Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknowledges the support provided by Brazilian agencies CAPES e CNPq. I would like to thank the following for their kind support: Instituto Federal do Piauí, Campus São Raimundo Nonato; and friend and colleague Israel A. C. Noletto for the private messages that contributed to the writing of this text.
\n',keywords:"quadratic forms, Taylor’s series, themodynamic stability, eigenvalues, thermodynamic potentials",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74797.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74797.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74797",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74797",totalDownloads:320,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 9th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 25th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 13th 2021",datePublished:"September 8th 2021",dateFinished:"January 13th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Quadratic forms diagonalization methods can be used in addressing the stability of physical systems. Thermodynamic stability conditions appears as an eigenvalues fundamental problem, in particular when postulational approaches is taken. The second-order derivatives or appropriate relations between such derivatives of the energy, entropy or any considered thermodynamic potential, as Helmholtz, enthalpy and Gibbs, have interesting mathematical features that directly imply in the physical stability, obtained by use and as consequence of analytical techniques. Formal aspects on the thermal and mechanical stability become simple consequences, but no less formal, of the superposition of rigorously established physical laws, and appropriate applications of mathematical techniques.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74797",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74797",signatures:"Francisco Nogueira Lima",book:{id:"10474",type:"book",title:"Recent Developments in the Solution of Nonlinear Differential Equations",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Developments in the Solution of Nonlinear Differential Equations",slug:"recent-developments-in-the-solution-of-nonlinear-differential-equations",publishedDate:"September 8th 2021",bookSignature:"Bruno Carpentieri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10474.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-657-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-656-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-658-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"92921",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Carpentieri",slug:"bruno-carpentieri",fullName:"Bruno Carpentieri"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"330482",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:"Nogueira",surname:"Lima",fullName:"Francisco Lima",slug:"francisco-lima",email:"nogueira@ifpi.edu.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Instituto Federal do Piauí",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The quadratic form of the energy hypersurface in an r+2-dimensional thermodynamic space",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Diagonalization of the energy in a three-dimensional thermodynamic space",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Second-order derivatives of other thermodynamic functions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Helmholtz potential",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Enthalpy potential",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Gibbs potential",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 Grand canonical potential",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. The stability conditions of a system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Callen Herbert B, editor. Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics. 2nd ed. In: John Wiley Sons. 1985'},{id:"B2",body:'De OMJ, editor. Termodinâmica. 2nd ed. In: Editora Livraria da Física. 2005'},{id:"B3",body:'Wreszinski Walter F, editor. Termodinâmica. 1nd ed. In: Edusp. 2003'},{id:"B4",body:'Ryogo K, editor. Thermodynamics: an advanced course with problems and solutions. 1nd ed. In: John Wiley Sons. 1968'},{id:"B5",body:'Anirban B. Kumar Gopinatha Suresh. Thermodynamic characterization of proflavine–DNA binding through microcalorimetric studies. J. Chem. Thermodynamics. 2015;87:1-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.jct.2015.03.009'},{id:"B6",body:'Sloderbach Z, Pajak J. Thermodynamic potential of free energy for thermo-elastic-plastic body. Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics. 2018;30:221-232. DOI: 10.1007/s00161-017-0597-3'},{id:"B7",body:'Claude C-T, Bernard D, Franck L, editors. Quantum Mechanics. 1nd ed. In: John Wiley Sons. 1977'},{id:"B8",body:'Riley KF, Hobson MP, Bence SJ, editors. Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering. 3nd ed. In: Cambridge University Press. 2006. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511810763'},{id:"B9",body:'Anton H, Chris R, editors. Elementary linear algebra: applications version. 11nd ed. In: John Wiley Sons. 2013'},{id:"B10",body:'Lima F N, De sousa J M. Mathematical methods of diagonalization of quadratic forms applied to the study of stability of thermodynamic systems. Applied Mathematics and Computation. 2020;378: 125176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amc.2020.125176'},{id:"B11",body:'Callahan James J, editor. Advanced Calculus: A Geometric View. 1nd ed. In: Springer. 2010. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-7332-0'},{id:"B12",body:'Ken B, Joan D, editors. Calculus: Concepts and Methods. 7nd ed. In: Cambridge University Press. 2012'},{id:"B13",body:'Boas Mary L, editor. Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences. 3nd ed. In: Wiley. 2006'},{id:"B14",body:'Sumi T, Koga K. Theoretical analysis on thermodynamic stability of chignolin. Scientific Reports. 2019;9:5186. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41518-1'},{id:"B15",body:'Gromov D, Toikka A. On an alternative formulation of the thermodynamic stability condition. Journal of Mathematical Chemistry. 2020;58:1219-1229. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10910-020-01126-1'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Francisco Nogueira Lima",address:"nogueira@ifpi.edu.br",affiliation:'
GTMCOQ, Instituto Federal do Piauí - Campus São Raimundo Nonato, São Raimundo Nonato, Brazil
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by",editors:[{id:"55546",title:"Dr.",name:"Costin",middleName:"Teodor",surname:"Streba",slug:"costin-streba",fullName:"Costin Streba"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7044",title:"Liver Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6eba0444c02b59c08c06a5f0c54a113c",slug:"liver-cancer",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7044.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6740",title:"Advances in Pancreatic Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"500360b038bf8561a30993b0ccb6de91",slug:"advances-in-pancreatic-cancer",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6740.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5394",title:"Updates in Liver Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a502cea22e6d113a70f609c947235665",slug:"updates-in-liver-cancer",bookSignature:"Hesham Mohamed Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5394.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3851",title:"Pancreatic Cancer",subtitle:"Insights into Molecular Mechanisms and Novel Approaches to Early Detection and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"047e84bc385b452417fde8f3d96394be",slug:"pancreatic-cancer-insights-into-molecular-mechanisms-and-novel-approaches-to-early-detection-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Kelly McCall",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69494",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly D.",middleName:null,surname:"McCall",slug:"kelly-d.-mccall",fullName:"Kelly D. McCall"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3520",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Future Outlook",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"32ad39a83fad1d2adde008eb058d32cf",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-future-outlook",bookSignature:"Ahmed O. Kaseb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3520.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"159941",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Kaseb",slug:"ahmed-kaseb",fullName:"Ahmed Kaseb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:25,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"28097",doi:"10.5772/29559",title:"Characterization of the Cell Membrane During Cancer Transformation",slug:"characterization-of-the-cell-membrane-during-cancer-transformation",totalDownloads:2808,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"655",slug:"colorectal-cancer-biology-from-genes-to-tumor",title:"Colorectal Cancer Biology",fullTitle:"Colorectal Cancer Biology - From Genes to Tumor"},signatures:"Barbara Szachowicz-Petelska, Izabela Dobrzyńska, Stanisław Sulkowski and Zbigniew A. Figaszewski",authors:[{id:"78361",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Figaszewski",slug:"zbigniew-figaszewski",fullName:"Zbigniew Figaszewski"},{id:"78379",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Szachowicz-Petelska",slug:"barbara-szachowicz-petelska",fullName:"Barbara Szachowicz-Petelska"},{id:"78745",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzynska",slug:"izabela-dobrzynska",fullName:"Izabela Dobrzynska"},{id:"78746",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw",middleName:null,surname:"Sulkowski",slug:"stanislaw-sulkowski",fullName:"Stanislaw Sulkowski"}]},{id:"27578",doi:"10.5772/31137",title:"Ultrasound Imaging of Liver Tumors – Current Clinical Applications",slug:"ultrasound-imaging-of-liver-tumors-current-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:24143,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"968",slug:"liver-tumors",title:"Liver Tumors",fullTitle:"Liver Tumors"},signatures:"R. Badea and Simona Ioanitescu",authors:[{id:"85739",title:"Prof.",name:"Radu",middleName:"Ion",surname:"Badea",slug:"radu-badea",fullName:"Radu Badea"},{id:"128118",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Ioanitescu",slug:"simona-ioanitescu",fullName:"Simona Ioanitescu"}]},{id:"64803",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82571",title:"BRAF Mutation and Its Importance in Colorectal Cancer",slug:"braf-mutation-and-its-importance-in-colorectal-cancer",totalDownloads:2495,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"BRAF mutation is seen in nearly one in ten patients with advanced colorectal cancer. Despite major improvements in survival for advanced colorectal cancer overall, patients with BRAF mutation continue to have a very poor prognosis often with median survival of less than 12 months. It is important for clinicians to be aware of this subgroup as the treatment approach should be different. Treatment options beyond standard chemotherapy are crucial to achieve better outcomes and the role of anti-EGFR therapy alone remains controversial. Current trials assessing combinations of molecular targeted agents have seen some promise. This chapter explores the background of BRAF mutation and current treatment strategies.",book:{id:"8118",slug:"advances-in-the-molecular-understanding-of-colorectal-cancer",title:"Advances in the Molecular Understanding of Colorectal Cancer",fullTitle:"Advances in the Molecular Understanding of Colorectal Cancer"},signatures:"Lee-Jen Luu and Timothy J. Price",authors:null},{id:"27475",doi:"10.5772/27865",title:"Neuroblastoma: A Malignancy Due to Cell Differentiation Block",slug:"neuroblastoma-a-malignancy-due-to-cell-differentiation-block",totalDownloads:3467,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"744",slug:"neuroblastoma-present-and-future",title:"Neuroblastoma",fullTitle:"Neuroblastoma - Present and Future"},signatures:"Andrew Tee, Pei Y. Liu, Glenn M. Marshall and Tao Liu",authors:[{id:"71869",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"tao-liu",fullName:"Tao Liu"}]},{id:"52436",doi:"10.5772/65424",title:"Hepatitis B Virus–Related Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Carcinogenesis, Prevention, and Treatment",slug:"hepatitis-b-virus-related-hepatocellular-carcinoma-carcinogenesis-prevention-and-treatment",totalDownloads:2029,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the sixth most common cancer in the world and the second leading cause of cancer death. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is one of the major risk factors for the development of HCC in the world. Most of the burden of disease (85%) is observed in the HBV endemic regions. Chronic infection with HBV predisposes patients with or without cirrhosis to HCC. Patients with high HBV DNA levels are at an increased risk for HCC. Studies have shown that the suppression of HBV with anti-viral therapy (nucleos(t)ide analogs) (NAs) decreases the incidence of HCC but does not eliminate the risk entirely. Chronic viral suppression alone is not sufficient treatment to prevent HCC development. Therefore, along with NAs, treatment may need to include targeting the cccDNA and inhibiting the viral entry into the newly formed hepatocytes and T-cell vaccine which specifically targets HBV and enhancing innate immunity with Toll-like receptor agonist. With all of these working together, we may achieve the goal of HBV cure.",book:{id:"5394",slug:"updates-in-liver-cancer",title:"Updates in Liver Cancer",fullTitle:"Updates in Liver Cancer"},signatures:"Bolin Niu and Hie-Won Hann",authors:[{id:"188150",title:"Dr.",name:"Hie-Won",middleName:null,surname:"Hann",slug:"hie-won-hann",fullName:"Hie-Won Hann"},{id:"188930",title:"Dr.",name:"Bolin",middleName:null,surname:"Niu",slug:"bolin-niu",fullName:"Bolin Niu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62719",title:"Pathogenesis of Hepatitis B Virus Associated Chronic Liver Disease",slug:"pathogenesis-of-hepatitis-b-virus-associated-chronic-liver-disease",totalDownloads:1577,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is associated with chronic liver diseases (CLD), which progress from hepatitis to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and finally hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) over 30–50 years. The pathogenesis of CLD is immune mediated, which is characterized by persistent immune responses against virus infected hepatocytes. During bouts of CLD, the virus gene encoding the hepatitis B x antigen (HBx) is increasingly found integrated at multiple sites within the human genome. Many of these integrated templates express HBx, which is a trans-regulatory protein that supports virus gene expression and replication on one hand, but also alters patterns of gene expression in the infected cell. HBx alters gene expression by constitutively activating signal transduction pathways in the cytoplasm and promoting epigenetic mediated changes in the expression of cellular genes. In doing so, HBx contributes to the persistence of virus infected cells and to the pathogenesis of CLD by triggering multiple hallmarks which are characteristic of cancer.",book:{id:"7044",slug:"liver-cancer",title:"Liver Cancer",fullTitle:"Liver Cancer"},signatures:"Mark A. Feitelson",authors:[{id:"252092",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Feitelson",slug:"mark-feitelson",fullName:"Mark Feitelson"}]},{id:"16466",title:"Lymph Node Dissection in Gastric Carcinoma",slug:"lymph-node-dissection-in-gastric-carcinoma",totalDownloads:22942,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"426",slug:"management-of-gastric-cancer",title:"Management of Gastric Cancer",fullTitle:"Management of Gastric Cancer"},signatures:"Bulent Cavit Yuksel, Okan Murat Akturk and Ilyas Hakan Ozel",authors:[{id:"26491",title:"Prof.",name:"Bulent",middleName:"c",surname:"Yuksel",slug:"bulent-yuksel",fullName:"Bulent Yuksel"},{id:"38429",title:"Prof.",name:"Okan",middleName:null,surname:"Akturk",slug:"okan-akturk",fullName:"Okan Akturk"}]},{id:"64491",title:"Perihilar or (Hilar) Cholangiocarcinoma: Interventional to Surgical Management",slug:"perihilar-or-hilar-cholangiocarcinoma-interventional-to-surgical-management",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Peri-hilar cholangiocarcinoma (PHC) or hilar cholangiocarcinoma (HCCA) characterizes a critical effort to assess significantly sick patients. The existing scenery and proof to the diagnosis and treatments for hilar cholangiocarcinoma are improving day by day. Patients with HCCA encounter numerous obstacles in acquiring efficient therapies. The condition is uncommon, and the majority patients don’t have any distinct risk factors, doing selection process inadequate. The initial signs and symptoms in many cases are non-specific, and in many patients the tumors are not resectable because of involvement of the perihilar structures. MRI with MRCP offers further information about the extent of biliary involvement. Furthermore, endoscopic stenting and percutaneous drain could be useful for intricate hilar strictures. Surgical resections with negative margins are related to good likelihood of survival for patients representing with HCCA. Regardless of the accessibility of curative treatment strategies such as operative resection and liver transplantation, most sufferers with HCCA shows with repeated, metastases or locally advanced disease with a poor prognosis. Within this chapter, we have tried to elaborate the modalities of treatment from intervention to surgical approach for HCCA.",book:{id:"8230",slug:"bile-duct-cancer",title:"Bile Duct Cancer",fullTitle:"Bile Duct Cancer"},signatures:"Pankaj Prasoon, Kohei Miura, Kizuki Yuza, Yuki Hirose, Jun Sakata and Toshifumi Wakai",authors:[{id:"79381",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshifumi",middleName:null,surname:"Wakai",slug:"toshifumi-wakai",fullName:"Toshifumi Wakai"},{id:"266766",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",middleName:null,surname:"Prasoon",slug:"pankaj-prasoon",fullName:"Pankaj Prasoon"},{id:"266770",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuki",middleName:null,surname:"Hirose",slug:"yuki-hirose",fullName:"Yuki Hirose"},{id:"266772",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Sakata",slug:"jun-sakata",fullName:"Jun Sakata"},{id:"279993",title:"Dr.",name:"Kohei",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",slug:"kohei-miura",fullName:"Kohei Miura"},{id:"279994",title:"Dr.",name:"Kizuki",middleName:null,surname:"Yuza",slug:"kizuki-yuza",fullName:"Kizuki Yuza"}]},{id:"64803",title:"BRAF Mutation and Its Importance in Colorectal Cancer",slug:"braf-mutation-and-its-importance-in-colorectal-cancer",totalDownloads:2478,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"BRAF mutation is seen in nearly one in ten patients with advanced colorectal cancer. Despite major improvements in survival for advanced colorectal cancer overall, patients with BRAF mutation continue to have a very poor prognosis often with median survival of less than 12 months. It is important for clinicians to be aware of this subgroup as the treatment approach should be different. Treatment options beyond standard chemotherapy are crucial to achieve better outcomes and the role of anti-EGFR therapy alone remains controversial. Current trials assessing combinations of molecular targeted agents have seen some promise. This chapter explores the background of BRAF mutation and current treatment strategies.",book:{id:"8118",slug:"advances-in-the-molecular-understanding-of-colorectal-cancer",title:"Advances in the Molecular Understanding of Colorectal Cancer",fullTitle:"Advances in the Molecular Understanding of Colorectal Cancer"},signatures:"Lee-Jen Luu and Timothy J. Price",authors:null},{id:"53476",title:"Assessment and Optimization of the Future Liver Remnant",slug:"assessment-and-optimization-of-the-future-liver-remnant",totalDownloads:2119,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Safe liver resection is a vital element in the management of primary and secondary hepatic malignancies. The indications for resection have evolved Over time, and this has in part been due to the ability to improve the future liver remnant (FLR). This chapter reviews the current and future methods used for assessing the future liver remnant volume and function in order to minimize the risk of post-hepatectomy liver failure (PHLF). Current and evolving methods used in augmenting the future liver remnant are also considered. Since its introduction in the 1990s, portal venous embolization (PVE) has become the most widely used method of augmenting the FLR. The factors that affect hypertrophy following embolization as well as techniques used in portal venous embolization will be reviewed. Other methods of augmentation discussed include portal vein ligation (PVL) and the emerging method of associating liver partition and portal vein ligation for staged hepatectomy (ALPPS). The chapter also considers the various methods in the context of limiting tumour progression in the future liver remnant and attempts to integrate newer techniques such as ALPPS into current treatment algorithms.",book:{id:"5394",slug:"updates-in-liver-cancer",title:"Updates in Liver Cancer",fullTitle:"Updates in Liver Cancer"},signatures:"Mandivavarira Maundura and Jonathan B Koea",authors:[{id:"188727",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Koea",slug:"jonathan-koea",fullName:"Jonathan Koea"},{id:"188728",title:"Dr.",name:"Mandivavarira",middleName:null,surname:"Maundura",slug:"mandivavarira-maundura",fullName:"Mandivavarira Maundura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1078",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80990",title:"Laparoscopic Liver Resection for Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"laparoscopic-liver-resection-for-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102981",abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), remains one of the most common causes of cancer-related death globally. HCC typically arises in the setting of chronic liver disease and cirrhosis and as such, treatment must be balanced between the biology of the tumor, underlying liver function and performance status of the patient. Hepatic resection is the procedure of choice in patients with high-performance status who harbor a solitary mass (regardless of size). Before the first laparoscopic hepatectomy (LH) was described as early as 1991, open hepatectomy (OH) was the only choice for surgical treatment of liver tumors. LH indications were initially based solely on tumor location, size, and type and was only used for partial resection of the anterolateral segments. Since then, LH has been shown to share the benefits of other laparoscopic procedures, such as earlier recovery and discharge, and reduced postoperative pain; these are obtained with no differences in oncologic outcomes compared to open resection. Specific to liver resection, LH can limit the volume of intraoperative blood loss, shorten portal clamp time and decrease overall and liver-specific complications. This chapter will offer an overview of standard steps are in pursuing laparoscopic liver resection, be it for a minor segmentectomy or a lobectomy.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Melina Vlami, Nikolaos Arkadopoulos and Ioannis Hatzaras"},{id:"79097",title:"Surgical Therapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: State of the Art Liver Resection",slug:"surgical-therapy-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma-state-of-the-art-liver-resection",totalDownloads:84,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100231",abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents the third most common cause of cancer-related death, showing incremental growth rates throughout the last decades. HCC requires multidisciplinary approach in a group of patients suffering from underlying chronic liver disease, usually in the setting of cirrhosis. The mainstay of treatment in resectable cases is surgery, with anatomic and non-anatomic liver resections widely implemented, as well as liver transplantation in well-selected individuals. Nowadays, there is a variety of liver parenchyma transection devices used by hepatobiliary surgeons in specialized centers, which has significantly improved postoperative outcomes in HCC patients. Therefore, hepatectomy is considered safe and feasible and should be the main therapeutic option for HCC patients, candidates for resection. Liver resection utilizing cavitron ultrasonic aspirator in combination with bipolar radiofrequency ablation is safe and effective for the treatment of HCC with favorable clinical and oncological outcomes.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Spyridon Davakis, Michail Vailas, Alexandros Kozadinos, Panagiotis Sakarellos, Anastasia Karampa, Dimitrios Korkolis, Georgios Glantzounis, Alexandros Papalampros and Evangelos Felekouras"},{id:"78329",title:"Minimally Invasive Surgery for Hepatocellular Carcinoma; Latest Advances",slug:"minimally-invasive-surgery-for-hepatocellular-carcinoma-latest-advances",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99840",abstract:"Surgical resection is the gold standard for hepatocellular carcinoma management for early stages of the disease. With advances in technology and techniques, minimally invasive surgery provides a great number of advantages for these patients during their surgery and for their post-operative care. The selection of patients following a multi-disciplinary approach is of paramount importance. Adding to this, the developments in laparoscopic instruments and training, as well as the promising advantages of robotic surgery along with other forms of technology, increase the pool of patients that can undergo operation safely and with good results worldwide. We review results from great centres worldwide and delineate the accurate multi-disciplinary approach for this.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandros Giakoustidis, Apostolos Koffas, Dimitrios Giakoustidis and Vasileios N. Papadopoulos"},{id:"78741",title:"Histopathological Features of the Steatohepatitic Variant of Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Its Relationship with Fatty Liver Disease",slug:"histopathological-features-of-the-steatohepatitic-variant-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma-and-its-relati",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99842",abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary malignant tumor of the liver in adults. Steatohepatitic HCC (SH-HCC) is a recently described, rarer variant of HCC and is associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The relationship between fatty liver disease and/or steatohepatitis and SH-HCC is now known. This subtype can be confused with lipid-containing nodules (such as cirrhotic nodules, regenerative nodules, focal nodular hyperplasia) clinically, radiologically and histopathologically. Here, the histopathological features of SH-HCC, its relationship with fatty liver disease and briefly its clinical features will be discussed. In addition, histopathological features of this specific variant, immunohistochemical staining of the tumor and diagnostic difficulties in tru-cut biopsies will also be discussed. Actually, I think this article will raise clinicopathological awareness about this rare variant.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Emine Turkmen Samdanci"},{id:"78669",title:"Systemic Therapy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"systemic-therapy-in-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100257",abstract:"Systemic therapy of advanced stage hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) was limited to the sorafenib in the past decade since 2007. Novel agents including multiple targeting agents, immune checkpoint inhibitors and anti-angiogenesis reported efficacy in treatment. This is the first time, the combination of atezolizumab and bevacizumab as first-line treatment is superior to sorafenib. Standard guideline in advanced HCC was changing. New novel drugs increase in available including multiple targeting agents and immune checkpoint blockade such as Lenvatinib, regorafenib, cabozantinib, ramucirumab and immunotherapy as first line or second line therapy will benefit in term of survival benefit and quality of life in advanced stage or unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Chanchai Charonpongsuntorn"},{id:"78357",title:"Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) - Induced Hepatocarcinogenesis, a Founding Framework of Cancer Evolution & Development (Cancer Evo-Dev)",slug:"hepatitis-b-virus-hbv-induced-hepatocarcinogenesis-a-founding-framework-of-cancer-evolution-developm",totalDownloads:75,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99838",abstract:"In this chapter, we present the founding framework of a novel theory termed as Cancer Evolution-Development (Cancer Evo-Dev), based on the current understanding of hepatitis B virus (HBV) induced hepatocarcinogenesis. The interactions of genetic predispositions and HBV infection is responsible for the maintenance of chronic non-resolving inflammation. Under the inflammatory microenvironment, pro-inflammatory factors trans-activate the expression of cytidine deaminases and suppress the expression of uracil DNA glycosylase. The imbalance between the mutagenic forces and mutation-correcting forces facilitates the generations of somatic mutations, viral mutations, and viral integrations into the host genomes. The majority of cells with genomic mutations and mutated viruses are eliminated in survival competition. Only a small percentage of the mutated cells adapted to the hostile environment can survive, retro-differentiate, and function as cancer-initiating cells, representing a process of “mutation-selection-adaptation”. Cancer Evo-Dev lays the theoretical foundation for understanding the mechanisms by which chronic infection of HBV promotes hepatocarcinogenesis. This theory also plays an important role in specific prophylaxis, prediction, early diagnosis, and targeted treatment of cancers.",book:{id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma - Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg"},signatures:"Wenbin Liu and Guangwen Cao"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. 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\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/116891",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"116891"},fullPath:"/profiles/116891",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var m;(m=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(m)}()