Summary of the dimensions of individual cages for breeding does in the main rabbit meat producers, European countries.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"805",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sex Steroids",title:"Sex Steroids",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book, entitled "Sex Steroids", features a valuable collection of reviews and research articles written by experts in signal transduction, cellular biology, diseases and disorders. "Sex Steroids" is comprised of four sections, "The Biology of Sex Steroids", "Sex Steroids, Memory, and the Brain", "Sex Steroids and the Immune Response", and "Therapy"; individual chapters address a broad range of recognized and predicted functions and applications of sex steroids. "Sex Steroids" is intended to provide seasoned veterans as well as newcomers to this area of research with informative, resourceful, and provocative insights. Readers of "Sex Steroids" should emerge with an appreciation and understanding of the multitude and complexity of biologic processes attributed to these important hormones, and possible future directions of research in this fascinating and ever evolving field.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-857-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4372-7",doi:"10.5772/1314",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"sex-steroids",numberOfPages:344,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"69b8296a72c662d5d96bf61a1b394eda",bookSignature:"Scott M. Kahn",publishedDate:"January 27th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/805.jpg",numberOfDownloads:37652,numberOfWosCitations:84,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:73,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:167,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 27th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 24th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 1st 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 31st 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 28th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"66905",title:"Dr.",name:"Scott",middleName:null,surname:"M. Kahn",slug:"scott-m.-kahn",fullName:"Scott M. Kahn",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/66905/images/system/66905.jpg",biography:"Scott M. 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The treatment of skeletal discrepancies requires orthognathic surgery in combination with orthodontic treatment to improve malocclusion, function, facial, and smile esthetics.
\nIn the 1960s, the surgeons performed orthognathic surgery without orthodontic treatment [1, 2, 3]. But it was clearly understood that mandibular or maxillary movement was limited without tooth movement. For example, amount of mandibular setback was limited by the overjet in Class III cases. To achieve a proper setback and to have a good the occlusal and facial esthetics results, orthodontic alignment of malaligned teeth and solving the compensation of teeth to the malposed jaws are required before surgery [4, 5, 6]. After the 1970s, orthognathic surgery in combination with orthodontic treatment began to have good standards and showed popularity [7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
\nIn conventional orthognathic surgery approach, the surgery follows the orthodontic treatment (orthodontic-first approach). Teeth are tended to compensate for skeletal discrepancies to have functional occlusion. The presurgical orthodontic treatment is needed to solve the dental decompensation that reveals the true extent of the skeletal deformity to align the teeth and to fit the maxilla and mandible into a good occlusion after surgery [11, 12]. Following the orthodontic treatment, orthognathic surgery corrects the skeletal discrepancy to obtain a good jaw alignment with good facial proportions. As the direction of presurgical orthodontic treatment is opposite to that of natural dental compensation forces, the orthodontic treatment time is said to require time to overcome the natural compensation forces [13]. The presurgical orthodontic treatment period which includes aligning dental occlusion, reversing incisor decompensation, correcting tooth rotation, and arch coordination lasts for 12–36 months depending on the complexity of case and also for a period after the surgery [13].
\nIn last 10 years, surgery first approach (SFA) has begun to be implemented in some centers [14] and created broader interest [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
\nThe surgery first approach (SFA) is the orthognathic surgery approach that the orthognathic surgery precedes the orthodontic treatment. In the beginning of the treatment, surgery is performed without orthodontic preparation, and the orthodontic treatment is done after the surgery.
\nHistorically, the SFA was presented by some researchers in earlier years [2, 21, 22, 23, 24], but SFA in a combined treatment, which was introduced officially by Brachvogel et al. [25] and by Nagasaka et al., has gained attention in the past 10 years [26].
\nAmong the published studies about SFA regarding the type of malocclusion, Class III is the most prevalent. Class III with openbite and asymmetry cases with SFA are the other published studies. SFA in Class II cases and in some deformities like TMJ disorders or condylar hyperplasia is rare [27, 28, 29].
\nThe advantages of SFA reported in literature continue. One of the advantages of the SFA is the shorter total treatment time [13, 15, 30]. Other advantages are that patients begin treatment with a much improved face esthetically in the beginning of the treatment and that the patient’s chief complaint, dental function, and facial esthetics are achieved and improved in the beginning of the treatment [31, 32] and a psychosocial benefit of improved body image in the beginning of the treatment instead of worsening the facial appearance because of the presurgical decompensation of incisors [31, 34]. Improved corporation of the patient during the treatment may be the other advantage of SFA due to rapid profile improvement [33, 35]. SFA is also preferred in early correction of obstructive sleep apnea patients. On the other side, due to the early correction of skeletal and soft tissue problems, orthodontic treatment may be easier due to normalized surrounding soft tissue [23]. It was reported that the patients with preexisting TMJ dysfunction might experience a significant improvement of TMD signs and symptoms after SFA [29].
\nOne of the reasons for the shorter duration of treatment in SFA is the regional accelerated phenomenon (RAP) which is the increase of the osteoclastic and metabolic activities due to the surgery. Selective bone injury activates stimulus for anabolic and catabolic responses in the periodontium adjacent to the osteotomies performed during orthognathic surgery and increases bone reorganization [32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45]. It was reported that RAP in humans began in a few days after surgery and peaked at 1–2 months and took 6 months to more than 24 months to subside [39]. Liou et al. also studied the causes of rapid postoperative orthodontic treatment time in SFA cases, and they found that the levels of serum alkaline phosphatase and C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (ICTP) increased, which supported the postoperative accelerated orthodontic tooth movement caused the orthognathic surgery [15]. Zingler et al. found that crevicular fluids in SFA cases were higher levels of bone remodeling factors for fracture healing [32].
\nThe other reason for the shorter duration of treatment in SFA than in the conventional approach may be improvement of function. Choi and Bradley reported that teeth tended to move in the direction of decompensation to perform the function following the surgery [46]. Postoperative orthodontic direction and function improve the efficiency of decompensation. Additionally, orthodontic movement via a more rapid natural dental adaptation by facilitating natural compensation may be performed easier with less occluded occlusion.
\nOrthodontic treatment time depends on the complexity of case. The shortest reported treatment time is 4 months (Figure 1a-d, 2a-d) but generally it takes 6–12 months [17, 26, 28, 33, 35, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Tooth extraction is the factor that influences the total treatment time [13], and in some cases, the time range was reported between 10 and 19 months [51, 52, 53].
\na-d: Facial asymmetry case. Passive arch wires were inserted the day before surgery.
a-d: Three months later after surgery. Total treatment time 3 and half months.
SFA is indicated more common in some cases like well-aligned to mildly crowded anterior teeth, flat to mildly curve of Spee, and normal to mildly proclined/retroclined incisor inclination. The protocol of presurgical orthodontics is well known in conventional approach [4, 8]; however, treatment plan including orthodontic treatment is questioned in SFA especially in complex cases. The orthodontic management and treatment plan are different in SFA compared with the conventional approaches.
\nIn treatment plan, accurate and detailed prediction of the postoperative orthodontic treatment is required at the beginning of all treatment [50]. Following the analysis of occlusion with model mounting, of detailed clinical and cephalometrics, presurgical orthodontic setup that is useful for accurate prediction and simulation of postsurgical orthodontics and cephalometric setup may be required before the surgery [13, 51].
\nThe model surgery is a setup according to the cephalometric and molar relationship. Three stable occlusion points between the upper and lower dentitions are required [38]. Liou et al. reported that the molar relationship could be set up in Class I in cases of nonextraction or bimaxillary first premolar extraction, Class III in cases of lower first premolar extraction, and Class II in cases of maxillary first premolar extraction [16].
\nFollowing cephalometric, model, and clinical diagnosis, the aim is to optimize the position of facial components to attain the most desirable results in esthetics, function, and stability. The skeletal movements in all anteroposterior, vertical, and transverse directions are determined to obtain good facial proportions, smile esthetics, and occlusion.
\nLiou et al. have made some suggestions in treatment plan of SFA [16]. In Class III cases, to correct the decompensation of maxillary incisor, first premolar extraction and retraction of anterior teeth can be done by orthodontics or by anterior segmental osteotomy. If the case has moderately retroclined and crowded lower incisors, the molars in a Class I relationship with an excessive incisor overjet can be planned. In cases with severe crowding and retroclination in mandible, first premolar extraction and lower anterior setback osteotomy can be planned. In Class III cases with deep curve of Spee, leveling of Spee can be corrected before the surgery or can be corrected with lower anterior segmental osteotomy surgically to avoid upward-forward rotation of mandible postoperatively, which is not preferred in Class III cases. The chin cap therapy may be used to prevent the skeletal postsurgical relapse after surgery for 3 months [16]. In Class II cases, in mandibular retrognathia with deep curve of Spee, mandibular advancement with surgical intrusion of anterior segment to advance mandible properly or mandibular advancement followed by orthodontically intrusion of lower incisor postsurgically is proposed to obtain a better chin profile. Otherwise, the mandible cannot be advanced properly and lower face can be longer with correction of posterior openbite after surgery, and this cannot be preferred in some long face case. But in some cases where advancements are not required much, correction of posterior openbite only with posterior extrusion can be preferred [54].
\nOn the basis of simulated model surgery setup, surgical guidance splint is prepared. Before the surgery, orthodontic bracket bonding/banding is placed but no arch wire is used. Bonding orthodontic bracket was reported as immediately before surgery [26, 47, 48], 1 week before surgery [16, 26, 38], and 1–2 months before surgery [50]. Some studies reported the usage of passive archwire before the surgery [49, 50, 52, 53, 55]. Passive arch can be used 1–3 days before the surgery [17, 35]. In some cases, the orthodontist can prefer minimal orthodontic preparation during 6 months [49] before the surgery, and then, they are continuing the orthodontic treatment after the surgery. Intermaxillary fixation of jaws during the surgery can be done by bony screws following the surgical guidance splints placements in cases without arch wires [47, 50, 51]. Kim et al. maintained intermaxillary fixation without surgical splint for 2 weeks but used intermaxillary elastic [50]. The osteotomized bones are fixed by rigid fixation.
\nPostoperatively, surgical splint is left for 2–4 weeks [34, 50, 53], and intermaxillary elastics usage may begin after orthodontic wire was placed.
\nThere is no definitive consensus about postsurgical orthodontic force application time. But generally, the orthodontic treatment in SFA begins in 1 or 2 weeks after surgery. The surgical splint and inter-maxillary fixation were removed for the tooth movement. Liao et al. reported that postsurgical orthodontics begun immediately after surgery [17]. This is beneficial to shorten the orthodontic treatment time due to the regional accelerated phenomena. The studies showed that the orthognathic surgery triggers a 3- to 4-month period of higher osteoclastic activity, serum findings, and metabolic changes and that in the dentoalveolar bone postoperatively [15, 56]. Archwire changes took place every 2–3 weeks. Arch coordination may be managed with transpalatal elastics or active transpalatal arch. In segmental surgery patients, passive continuous arches which were placed before surgery are changed with sectional arches at first orthodontic appointment after surgery.
\nThe short- and long-term relapse rates in SFA have been investigated, and the results are good by comparison with the conventional surgical approach with a maximum follow-up of 3 years [19, 57, 58, 59]. Without presurgical orthodontics, the patients may have likely to develop unstable occlusion after surgery leading to relapse. However, some of the comparative studies between conventional and surgery first approach showed no statistical differences in relapse and almost equal for those achieved using the more traditional orthodontics-first approach [17, 19, 51, 53, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63]. Advancement of fixation system enabled more stabilized results due to more stable fixation of bony segments. On the other side, based on one research and on the meta-analysis, SFA showed more relapses than in the conventional approach [57, 64]. Larger overbite, a deeper curve of Spee, a greater negative overjet, and a greater mandibular setback were reported to affect stability in SFA cases [59].
\nAlthough there are benefits of the SFA, there are some difficulties like the prediction of final occlusion, instability of postsurgical transient occlusion [10, 65], the requirement of presurgical orthodontic setup before surgery in some complex cases, and requirement of frequent orthodontic appointment due to RAP. The treatment plan requires detailed and meticulous planning.
\nThe surgery first approach is an alternative method that may be more satisfying for orthodontists and patients by minimizing the treatment time required for orthodontic treatment compared to conventional approach.
\nConsumers, supermarkets, producers, politicians and other stakeholders are increasingly using the term animal welfare regarding livestock, as the public interest for animal welfare has been arising over the last four decades, especially in Europe. Rabbit rearing must adapt to these concerns, and re-thinking and re-organising husbandry systems seem needed.
In this chapter, we will explore animal welfare in rabbit production from a scientific perspective. The basics of animal welfare concept and evaluation will be described in depth, providing a scientific basis to assess such a complex topic. Rabbits have singular behavioural patterns, physical conditions and social relationships, not comparable to other livestock species, thus leading to specific needs in terms of housing and management.
Different housing systems will be explored throughout the chapter, considering the implication on animal welfare and productivity. Both present and new approaches will be considered.
Animal welfare is a term that has been created to express the ethical concerns of society about the animal’s way of living, so it responds to social demands. However, it is a scientific concept [1], and there is a scientific method to identify, interpret and implement societal concerns about animal quality of life [2].
Due to this social and ethical origin, there might be as many definitions of animal welfare as people who are asked about it. In fact, it has been concluded [2] that it was impossible to give welfare a precise scientific definition. However, the most accepted definition of animal welfare is “the state of an animal as it attempts to cope with its environment, and the feelings associated to it” [3]. However, John Webster in [4] defends that “animal welfare is determined by its capacity to avoid suffering and sustain fitness”, which modifies in some aspects Broom’s definition, as it gathers how animals feel with the humans’ responsibility. This fits with the “Five Freedoms” concept, which are the pillars of animal welfare nowadays and the base from which certifying protocols such as Welfare Quality® or AWIN® have aroused.
Five Freedoms are formulated as follows:
Freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition
Freedom from discomfort
Freedom from pain, injuries and disease
Freedom from fear and distress
Freedom to express normal behaviour
These Five Freedoms refer to the ideal state, but they also might be interpreted as an absolute standard of good welfare, which prevents animal suffering [4].
It has to be considered that there are several welfare problems that are inherent to animal production, mainly the lack of freedom of choice [4]. This lack of choice options is especially remarkable in caged systems, as behavioural repertoire is critically impaired mainly due to the lack of space or the isolation, so animal production has been deeply questioned in the last years.
In order to respond to this situation, the Council of the European Union (EU) has developed regulations for most of the farm species: Council Directive 98/58/EC for protection of animals kept for farming purposes, Council Directive 1999/74/EC (minimum standards for the protection of laying hens), Council Directive 2007/43/EC (minimum rules for the protection of chickens kept for meat production), Council Directive 2008/119/EC (minimum standards for the protection of calves) and Council Directive 2008/120/EC (minimum standards for the protection of pigs).
However, in the case of rabbits, the European Council has drafted 18 times the “Draft recommendation concerning domestic rabbit –
In the absence of EU directives, some member countries have drafted their own legislation or recommendations on the housing of farmed rabbits opting even for the abolition of cage housing systems.
If we want to speak about rabbit welfare, it is crucial to know some aspects about the natural behaviour of wild rabbits.
Rabbit domestication is very recent and there have not been many changes as compared to the wild rabbit, so the behaviour of domestic rabbit is still very similar to wild rabbit, and the biological needs are the same so, under commercial conditions, where specific behaviours or social relationships are impaired, there could arise a welfare problem [6]. Rabbits are social and gregarious animals, and, in wild conditions, they live in groups with more females than bucks (1–4 males and 1–9 females), except around giving birth, when they separate from the rest of the group: the dominant doe uses the common burrow and the rest of the females have to build their nest in different places [7] by mixing their own hair with grass or any other material they can find. The rabbits spend much time resting with conspecifics and in close contact, and fights are produced mainly by hierarchies [8]. However, young rabbits are easily tolerated if the group is not too big [9].
Olfaction is crucial for rabbits both in sexual and social behaviours, and hearing is also an important sense: big and mobile ears are useful for the detection of predators [9]. This characteristic of predated animal determines many behaviours of both wild and commercial rabbits. Ears also participate in body temperature regulation [10], and regarding to the vision, rabbits have a panoramic vision although not very precise [11].
On the other hand, rabbits have a unique feeding behaviour as compared to other species. Their feeding varies along the day and approximately 60% of the solid ingestion (except for caecotrophs) takes places during the dark period [12]. In addition, they also practice caecotrophy, ingesting soft faeces directly from the anus, mainly during the early morning. Finally, although rabbits are not rodents, one of their essential characteristics is the need for gnawing.
Rabbits in nature move throughout small hops (hopping), although if they are under alert, they can also walk gently. Playing behaviour is also common among kits, as well as scratching associated to the building of the hutch or exploration. Rabbits usually rest by lying down on the belly with the back legs stretched or shrink depending on if they are in alert or resting state, respectively. They can also lie laterally, which indicates a maximum level of relaxation. They usually rest between 12 and 18 hours per day and they prefer resting in groups or sustained on a firm surface [9]. Another important inherent activity is self-care of their hair (it could be considered as self-grooming) by using their legs, teeth and tongue. Moreover, the possibility of grooming other members of the group is important to its cohesion [9].
In addition, rabbits explore their area by sniffing, although this activity is frequently interrupted by stimuli that they perceive as threatening. When they get this alert alarm, they adopt specific postures such as sitting or standing on their back legs with the ears completely erect and orientated to the source of the stimulus. Another pattern related to these behaviours are freezing (total immobility of the animal) or kicking the floor or the walls to let the congeners know about a potential danger. These alert behaviours are especially important because they are predated animals, so they have a strong need to be alert and alert the conspecifics about potential damages.
As concern to social behaviour, wild rabbits live in groups and hierarchies are clearly established throughout aggressive interactions. According to [13], when kits go outside their mothers’ nest area, they may come into contact with hostile conspecifics, but it is not until sexual maturity when aggressive behaviours become more important [14]. The hierarchic ranch is maintained over time within a stable group.
Regarding sexual behaviours, the evolution success of rabbits is due to “the number” [15], which means that wild rabbits tend to have big and frequent litters. In terms of maternal behaviour, attention paid to the litter is scarce, and the preparation of the nest 2–3 days before parturition and lactating once a day for a few minutes [16] are the most remarkable related activities. Once the kits have been fed, the doe hides and leaves the nest and comes back for the next suckling event. Wild breeding doe opens the nest 18–20 days post-partum to allow the kits to go out and start to eat some solid food. When the kits are 24–25 days old, the rabbit does abandon the nest to be devoted to the next litter [13].
In general, some behaviours such as gnawing, hopping, social interactions, building the nest, lactating once per day and alert behaviours are a need for domestic rabbits, so they have to be considered when housing facilities for breeding does are designed.
When we speak about animal welfare, it is important to remind that, as explained before, there are scientific methods to assess it. In general, there are different types of indicators of animal welfare that have been traditionally used:
Resource-based indicators, which provide information about housing itself, such as temperatures, space allowance, air quality, noise, etc.
Management-based indicators, which are related to managing practices such as handling or feeding, but also to specific practices of each specie such as dehorning or castration
Animal-based indicators, which are those measured directly on the animals, such as physiological indicators, lesions, lameness or behaviour
However, there is no golden standard of welfare indicators, and each approach has to be adapted, depending on the objectives of the assessment, the conditions of the farm or even the requirements of the market. Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that animal-based measurements are the most useful and provide the most valuable information and approximation to the real state of the welfare of the animals [4]. Nevertheless, this does not mean that resource- and management-based measurements are not useful anymore, but they need to be combined with other more specific measurements.
Animal welfare indicators can be divided into two big groups: indicators for short-term and long-term problems.
It has been defined [17] that short-term measures are, for example, heart rate or plasma cortisol concentration, while some measures of behaviour, immune system function and disease state are long-term measurements. Housing conditions usually affect long-term indicators, as they act as potential chronic stress source. Transport or handling would be examples of short-term problems.
Some of the measures that can be performed to assess animal welfare are productivity, maintenance behaviours, abnormal behaviours, other behaviours such as maternal interactions, endocrine measures of stress, blood pressure, heart rate and respiratory rate, incidence of disease, level of immune protection and bone strength, and rate of injury and wounding [18]. As it is seen, all of them are animal-based measurements and display a multidisciplinary approach to animal welfare evaluation.
However, when housing conditions are evaluated, there is one aspect that has to be especially considered: the assessment of feelings, which means to know the real importance of the studied aspect for the animal. The main way to assess feelings in animals is through preference tests, in which the animals are allowed to choose between different possibilities. It is assumed that animals will make their choices according to how they feel [2] and we consider that animals make choices that are in their own best interests [19]. However, these tests can be influenced by the specific conditions in which they are performed, such as temperature, age, time of the day, season or previous experience. There is a tool to avoid these effects, and it is through motivation tests in which the strength of preference is assessed, and the animal gets a reward in response to some work [19]. An example of this test is shown in Figure 1, in which the rabbits could choose between three different housing cages, and ballasted push doors give access to each cage. Another possibility is the reactivity tests, in which the reaction or the fear to an environment or other stimulus is assessed (e.g., open field tests or tonic immobility tests [19]).
Motivation cage constructed to assess the preference of breeding does for different sizes of cages.
In summary, to develop a proper animal welfare assessment, physiological, behavioural and emotional needs have to be taken into account.
Taking into account the behavioural repertoire of rabbits recently explained, one of the major concerns of commercial rabbits’ welfare is related to housing and their equipment, as the restriction of the space may impair severely the development of specific natural behaviours, reduce the level of activity or increase the appearance of abnormal behaviours [20]. In the present commercial productive system, breeding rabbits (both does and bucks) are commonly housed in individual barren wire mesh cages, with no bedding material, although in alternative or organic systems, some straw-bedded pens can be found and does have a compartment to give birth (nest) and share the cage with the kits once they leave this nest, and they do not have any possibility to avoid each other during this period. These types of wire systems were developed in the 1960s due to hygienic reasons, as they allowed the separation between the animals and their faeces and urine. Nevertheless, these types of housing systems are being deeply criticised mainly in the European Union, and their evolution is being questioned. This evolution can be both to systems in which rabbits are housed alone or group housing systems, as we will see further.
The main welfare problem of individual cages is related to the impairment of certain natural behaviours, while the rest of the Five Freedoms are obviously guaranteed. However, some specific behaviours are allowed in caged systems, mainly all those related to peripartum and lactation, as a nest is allocated in the cage 2–3 days prior to the parturition to allow the doe to prepare the nest by mixing her hair with any provided material such as cotton, straw or wood shavings. Nevertheless, it seems that does have their preferences according to these materials, and when they can choose, they prefer straw to build the nest as compared to other materials such as wood shavings [21]. This could be due to the similarity between straw and the material they use in wild conditions.
In fact, the main concerns about these cages are the isolation of the rabbits and especially, the dimensions of the cages. Dimensions of individual cages vary between countries according to Table 1 [8].
Country/Type of cage | Width (cm) | Length (cm) | Height (cm) | Available surface (cm2) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Young females Lactating female with litter | 26–30 40 | 45–50 90–100 | 29–30 29–30 | 1200–1500 3600–4000 |
Young females Lactating female with litter | 38 38 | 43 95 | 35 35 | 1600 3600 |
Young females Lactating female with litter | 30 40 | 40 85 | 33 33 | 1200 3400 |
Breeding males and females | 38 | 65–75 | 38–40 | 3600 |
Summary of the dimensions of individual cages for breeding does in the main rabbit meat producers, European countries.
NOTE: Dimensions without nest.
Some problems related to these cages are excess of lying time, locomotive problems or abnormal skeleton development [8]. But not only the width and the length are a possible problem, but also cage height, as it can avoid the development of alert behaviours such as sitting or standing with the ears erect.
However, although cages are the main concern in rabbit welfare nowadays, there are other housing conditions that may negatively affect the welfare of the animals. In fact, the environment that surrounds the animals and their characteristics are critical for animal welfare, and inadequate environmental conditions can favour the appearance of stress or sanitary problems. There are then five key aspects to control in the rabbits’ facilities: temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, concentrations of dust and gases and lighting.
Conventionally, as it was said, rabbits were housed in wire mesh cages. In this type of floor, the incidence of pododermatitis (sore hocks) is high (up to 71.5% of animals [22] and 86.7% [23]), mainly due to does’ weight and the long time spent in the same cage. Pododermatitis is a skin illness in rabbits that mainly appears in the back legs and causes pain and suffering to farmed rabbits [9]. Once it appears, the wound can be colonised by pathogen microorganisms, enhancing the severity of this welfare problem. In fact, according to [9], it is considered that 16.5% of the culling rate in rabbit farms is due to pododermatitis.
In a deep study carried out by [24] about foot mats, they showed a positive relationship between their use and animal welfare. They found a significant reduction (81.3%) in the prevalence of sore hocks in farms where foot mats were used. This could indicate that the rabbits are more comfortable on this type of flooring and this seems to be confirmed by other studies [25] that found that rabbits clearly preferred foot mats over wire mesh when they can choose. By all these reasons, they became a “must” in the commercial rabbit houses nowadays, but it is important that they are in a good state of conservation, and foot mats gnawed or in bad conditions as that shown in Figure 2 have to be avoided.
Gnawed foot mat.
Most of the studies that continue working on individual systems for breeding does focus now on environmental enrichment.
Environmental enrichment consists of adding complexity to the environment in which the animals live, by providing different elements that can help the development of certain behaviours, which cannot be performed without those additional elements. Thus, environmental enrichment can improve the quality of life of animals in captivity, as it allows them to fulfil specie-specific behaviours. For rabbits, environmental enrichment can favour activities such as gnawing, scratching, hopping and hiding. The main elements used to enrich rabbits’ environment are as follows:
Bigger cages: some standard cages have been modified to give the animals more available space to move freely. These cages can or cannot have more additional elements. Does in larger spaces are more active, as they perform more active behaviours such as locomotive ones [26], and when they are allowed to choose between different sizes of cages, they seem to be motivated for longer and higher cages [27]. The importance of height can be due especially to the possibility of performing alert and exploratory behaviours.
Gnawing elements: wood sticks or synthetic materials hanging on the walls of the cages or on the floor. These elements satisfy one of the most important needs of the rabbits, and it is performed independently of the housing system in which the animals are bred (see Figure 3). They also help to avoid the excessive growing of incisors [28], which is helpful especially in group systems, in order to decrease the intensity of the injuries when aggressive episodes take place. Moreover, this type of enrichment also leads to hygienic problems, especially when wooden sticks are used. As a consequence, there is a recommendation to fix the sticks on the walls or the ceiling of the cage instead of the floor, in order to avoid an undesirable contamination of the sticks by pathogenic microorganisms that could cause the animals severe illnesses [29].
Refugees/hiding places: this type of enrichment is especially important when the breeding does are housed in groups, as they provide a place to the animals when they are threatened, so they can reduce the number of aggressions [30]. In fact, hiding places can even help to reduce the number of does culled as a consequence of aggressive interactions [31].
Mirrors: they are a source of sensory enrichment, which is especially important for rodents and rabbits [32]. According to recent studies [33], mirrors act positively on the behavioural repertoire of the rabbits, as they might reduce the effects of isolation and they compensate the lack of social contact [34], so they become an interesting enrichment device in individual housing systems, although group living rabbits also showed preference for cages half covered with mirrors [35].
Platforms (Figure 4): this is the most-studied enrichment in rabbit housing systems. According to different studies, does prefer jumping on elevated places if they exist [36, 25] and they use them to escape from the kits once they have left the nest.
Gnawing sticks previous to allocation in a cage and after 1 month of use.
Cages with elevated platforms in which breeding does standing and with erect ears can be observed.
According to our own unpublished results, breeding does use the platform mainly during the first 2 weeks of lactation, when the kits are still in the nest. During this period, the percentage of time spent on the platform reaches to 15% of time (Figure 5). During the third week of lactation, kits start to leave the nest, but they still cannot go up to the platform, so the doe uses it almost 35% of time, presumably to avoid the kits [37]. On the contrary, from the fourth week of lactation, the kits can rise to the platform and the percentage of time they spend on it is up to 66%, whereas the time of the doe decreases to 7% of time. From this moment, the use of the platform by the doe decreases and the kits continue using it up to 94% of the time, being clear the exclusion effect of the platform between does and kits. Moreover, some problems derived from the use of an elevated platform have been observed, mainly related to hygiene, as they can defecate and urinate in the platform (and beneath) and thus, the level of cleaning of both does and kits is reduced and the possibility of infection rises, as the animals are in contact with their faecal material [25, 38]. Daily health checking is also impaired because the animals are less visible and handling of the animals becomes more dangerous as does are hidden below the platform and defensive attitudes can be developed.
Plastic floor, plastic mesh or slat: wire floor cages are being banned in certain Northern European countries such as Belgium or Switzerland [39], so there are several studies using alternative materials, such as slatted plastic floor. However, not all of them are suitable for countries such as Germany or Austria, where legislation requires specific dimensions of gaps. In general, common slats present good results both in production and leg health, but for example, slats with circular holes are not suitable for rabbit husbandry due to the level of dirtiness [39]. In general, the presence of plastic-slatted floors also decreases sore hock problems and improves doe welfare conditions [24].
Litter flooring: some authors have studied the impact of housing rabbits on litter, but results show an impairment of productivity as well as enteric disorders. Ulcerative pododermatitis can also be increased when the rabbits are housed on litter, mainly in the hind legs [5]. In addition, choice tests do not show a preference for straw flooring as compared to wire and plastic flooring [40].
Other sensory enrichment such as music has been revealed as useful to improve the well-being of the animals when they are housed in cages [41].
Time spent by the breeding does and the kits on the elevated platform as the lactation period advances (unpublished results).
NOTE: some of these enrichment aspects have been implemented in the “WRSA cages”, which are being used in newly renovated farms along Europe [5].
During the last years, there have been some approaches to develop group housing systems for breeding does. This grouping approach relies on the fact that wild does feed their kits once per day and they spend the rest of the day sharing time with conspecifics, leaving the kits in the nest.
When continuous group housing systems have been evaluated, several problems have been found, leading to unacceptable results in terms of welfare and productivity. Some of these were infertility, pseudopregnancy, high kit mortality and aggression [5], difficult health control, behaviour abnormalities, replacement of the does, higher productive costs [36], shorter lifespan and higher culling rate [5, 8]. Moreover, relationships among does are difficult in the first days after parity, and kit mortality is very high because of competition among does. They compete for the nests, attack the kits and sometimes raising of 2 or 3 does in the same nest box is found [5]. This can be related to the previous explained theory about “the number”, as rabbit does try to guarantee the success of their own litter, even if they have to attack other does’ litters.
So the main reasons for the failure of this housing system are the very high rates of aggression among females and injured does and kits.
As a consequence, some Belgian research groups in 2011 (mainly ILVO and Ghent University, [42]) examined the possibility of a part-time group housing system, in which the does are kept in groups only some part of the lactation period (Figure 6). The does are group housed while they are pregnant, and 2 or 3 days before parity, they are separated (normally by closing a removable wall in their home park). They give birth and live with their kits during part of the lactation period, and between 11 and 18 days, the walls are again removed and the does are mixed. This means that they cannot fight at the peripartum and they cannot hurt each others’ litters [43].
Semi-group housing system in which removable walls can be observed, as well as hiding places and straw dispensers.
In this type of systems, does spend more time moving, sniffing and grooming, mainly after grouping [44]. However, aggressions are still present although the does give birth separately. Aggressions between does mainly take place in the first days after grouping, when the hierarchy has to be re-established [43, 45]. Furthermore, these fights can lead to severe injuries in the skin of the rabbits, they impair the body condition and sometimes, they have to be separated [46].
There are several factors that can affect the level of aggressiveness during the mixing process. One of them is the group size, as aggression level rises as the group size increases [47]. The other one is the age of the kits when the does are grouped. Interactions between does when the kits are 18 days old are lower than when they are 11 days old, as their capacity of moving and leaving the nest weaken the interactions between the mothers [46].
However, there are still some problems that need to be solved in these systems, such as the introduction of does to a previously formed group or the enrichment needed to allow alert and hiding behaviours. The does are commonly mixed after sexual maturity (mainly if it is necessary to remake the group), when the level of individual aggressiveness is higher [14]. Tunnels and hiding structures have been used [31], but they must ensure the possibility of inspection of the animals, as there can be specific animals that hide in the structure and their level of fearfulness is so high that they do not move from that place, even dying from starvation. The revision of the animals in this type of systems is crucial, as well as the evaluation of the animals in order to separate them as soon as any especially aggressive animal is detected.
To correct some of these problems, some alternatives have been developed [48]. They proposed a system in which the breeding does are individually identified with an electronic chip, which allows the doe to enter only in its own nest (similar to the pregnant sows’ system), avoiding kits’ thefts and cannibalism. However, this system is valid for research purposes, but it appears unaffordable for commercial production, so new alternatives and improvements have to be searched.
Rabbits’ welfare must be assessed from a multifactor perspective, considering productivity, health, behaviour and emotions. Current housing systems present failures when considering animal welfare. A deep research work is being developed to create new housing systems to promote an enhanced animal welfare level. Different strategies are being considered, from cage sizing, environmental enrichment, social interactions, etc. Although a golden standard has not been yet obtained, significant milestones have been achieved, which may encourage researches to keep working in this area.
I thank my colleagues Dr. Zsolt Szendro, Dr. Angela Trocino, Dr. Stephen Hoy, Dr. Gerolamo Xiccato, Dr. Luc Maertens and Dr. Cristina Zomeño for their contribution to this chapter as a consequence to our recent collaborations in some reviews and projects’ preparation.
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This chapter discusses the organization of these initiatives into networks and examines the challenges and benefits of such practices that promote grassroots resilience and contribute to reducing both the adverse impacts of cities on climate and environmental change (UN sustainable development target # 11.6) as well as urban poverty (Goal # 8).",book:{id:"6396",slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Jutta Gutberlet",authors:[{id:"188532",title:"Prof.",name:"Jutta",middleName:null,surname:"Gutberlet",slug:"jutta-gutberlet",fullName:"Jutta Gutberlet"}]},{id:"52704",doi:"10.5772/65996",title:"Comparison of Spatial Interpolation Techniques Using Visualization and Quantitative Assessment",slug:"comparison-of-spatial-interpolation-techniques-using-visualization-and-quantitative-assessment",totalDownloads:3719,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Spatial interpolation has been widely and commonly used in many studies to create surface data based on a set of sampled points, such as soil properties, temperature, and precipitation. Currently, there are many commercial Geographic Information System (GIS) or statistics software offering spatial interpolation functions, such as inverse distance weighted (IDW), kriging, spline, and others. To date, there is no “rule of thumb” on the most appropriate spatial interpolation techniques for certain situations, though general suggestions have been published. Many studies rely on quantitative assessment to determine the performance of spatial interpolation techniques. Most quantitative assessment methods provide a numeric index for the overall performance of an interpolated surface. Although it is objective and convenient, there are many facts or trends not captured by quantitative assessments. This study used 2D visualization and 3D visualization to identify trends not evident in quantitative assessment. This study also presented a special case, a closed system in which all interpolated surfaces should sum up to 100%, to demonstrate the interaction between interpolated surfaces that were created separately and independently.",book:{id:"5241",slug:"applications-of-spatial-statistics",title:"Applications of Spatial Statistics",fullTitle:"Applications of Spatial Statistics"},signatures:"Yi-Hwa (Eva) Wu and Ming-Chih Hung",authors:[{id:"181853",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Hwa",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"yi-hwa-wu",fullName:"Yi-Hwa Wu"}]},{id:"58196",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72191",title:"The Multivariated Effect of City Cooperation in Land Use Planning and Decision-Making Processes: A European Analysis",slug:"the-multivariated-effect-of-city-cooperation-in-land-use-planning-and-decision-making-processes-a-eu",totalDownloads:1079,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Spatial and urban planning processes regarding border cooperation have reached unprecedented levels in recent decades, not only due to their potential for territorial integration, i.e., infrastructure construction and planning activities worldwide. Bearing in mind the European project, for a united and strong network of nations, this scenario is more evident in European territories. In this regard, through multivariated analyzes of city cooperation on European border areas, it is possible to identify the factors that influence the territorial success and also a sustainable regional development and even their effects over the urban agglomerations. From the identified factors, the study pointed out one that is common to all cases: connectivity-movement between cities.",book:{id:"6396",slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Luís Carlos Loures, Rui Alexandre Castanho, José Manuel Naranjo\nGómez, Ana Vulevic, José Cabezas and Luis Fernández-Pozo",authors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"},{id:"215340",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Vulevic",slug:"ana-vulevic",fullName:"Ana Vulevic"},{id:"215341",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Cabezas Fernández",slug:"jose-cabezas-fernandez",fullName:"José Cabezas Fernández"},{id:"215342",title:"Prof.",name:"José Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Naranjo Gómez",slug:"jose-manuel-naranjo-gomez",fullName:"José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"},{id:"222742",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández-Pozo",slug:"luis-fernandez-pozo",fullName:"Luis Fernández-Pozo"},{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho"}]},{id:"69962",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90039",title:"Nanosatellites and Applications to Commercial and Scientific Missions",slug:"nanosatellites-and-applications-to-commercial-and-scientific-missions",totalDownloads:1612,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"In the past two decades, a silent revolution has taken place in the space domain, leading to what today is known as “New Space.” We have passed from a selected group of countries, space agencies, and big industries building, launching, and operating satellites and other spacecrafts, of a scenario in which many universities and research institutes can do it. The key of this was the definition of the “CubeSat” standard, back to 1999. In 2013, it all took off on the commercial Earth Observation sector with the first launches from two companies that are now running 100+ CubeSat constellations for optical imaging or weather prediction, with very low revisit times. Today, the same revolution is taking place in the fields of Telecommunications, and Astronomical Scientific missions. In this chapter, the evolution of the space sector is briefly revised until the arrival of the CubeSats. Then, the CubeSat intrinsic limitations are discussed as they are key to understand the development and current situation of the CubeSat sector. NASA and ESA strategies are also presented. The chapter concludes with a summary of the technology roadmap to enable the next generation of CubeSat-based missions, including satellite constellations or federations, formation flying, synthetic apertures…",book:{id:"9246",slug:"satellites-missions-and-technologies-for-geosciences",title:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences",fullTitle:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences"},signatures:"Adriano Camps",authors:[{id:"299991",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Camps",slug:"adriano-camps",fullName:"Adriano Camps"}]},{id:"59481",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73524",title:"Characteristics of Urban Agglomerations in Different Continents: History, Patterns, Dynamics, Drivers and Trends",slug:"characteristics-of-urban-agglomerations-in-different-continents-history-patterns-dynamics-drivers-an",totalDownloads:2823,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Urban agglomerations show different development patterns and stages. Here, we describe, discuss and compare urban agglomerations in different continents. The introduction section gives a general overview of specific issues of urban agglomerations. Different characteristics in Europe, Asia and America are discussed as experienced by the article’s co-authors, living in or working for urban agglomerations in these continents. First, the history of urbanization and agglomeration evolvement is described, then patterns, functional structures and relations, drivers as well as social and demographic characteristics are discussed (e.g. migration, aging, household structure, housing patterns, workplaces, etc.). Transportation infrastructure (roads, public transport systems) is also addressed as trigger for spatial dynamics causing certain effects (floor space, office and apartment rents releasing urban sprawl or hyper-densification), as well as gentrification. Further topics are urban governance and its impact on agglomeration development. Recent state and future trends will be debated, if important. A conclusion section summarizes the comparison of state, dynamics, drivers and trends.",book:{id:"6396",slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Wolfgang Loibl, Ghazal Etminan, Ernst Gebetsroither-Geringer,\nHans-Martin Neumann and Santiago Sanchez-Guzman",authors:[{id:"160720",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernst",middleName:null,surname:"Gebetsroither",slug:"ernst-gebetsroither",fullName:"Ernst Gebetsroither"},{id:"167419",title:"Dr.",name:"Wolfgang",middleName:null,surname:"Loibl",slug:"wolfgang-loibl",fullName:"Wolfgang Loibl"},{id:"214919",title:"MSc.",name:"Ghazal",middleName:null,surname:"Etminan",slug:"ghazal-etminan",fullName:"Ghazal Etminan"},{id:"214920",title:"MSc.",name:"Hans-Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Neumann",slug:"hans-martin-neumann",fullName:"Hans-Martin Neumann"},{id:"214923",title:"MSc.",name:"Santiago",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez-Guzman",slug:"santiago-sanchez-guzman",fullName:"Santiago Sanchez-Guzman"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73592",title:"A Review of the Machine Learning in GIS for Megacities Application",slug:"a-review-of-the-machine-learning-in-gis-for-megacities-application",totalDownloads:901,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Machine learning (ML) is very useful for analyzing data in many domains, including the satellite images processing. In the remote sensing data processing, ML tools are mainly founded out a place for filtering, interpretation and prediction information. Filtering aims at removing noise and performing transformations, which is vital segment of data processing as useful performance of data validation. An interpretation is significant part of it as the stage of objects classification depends of existing task for solution. Prediction is performed to estimate precise values of underlying parameters or future events in the data. It can be used successfully above achievements in a variety of areas. An urbanization is one of the spheres of advance technology application where highly need to collect appropriate data for understanding of challenges facing society. The process of urbanization becomes very important problem, thanks to city expansion. Each city is a complicated system. It consists of various interactive sub-systems and is affected by multiple factors, including population growth, transportation and management policies. To understand the driving forces of the urban structure change, the satellite-based estimates are considered to monitor these changes, in long term. GIS (geographic information system) is equivalent to methods related to the use of geospatial information. Besides, the increasing application of ML techniques in various fields, including GIS, is undeniable. Thus, the chapter attempts to review the application of ML techniques in GIS with a focus on megacities and theirs features fixing/identification and solution.",book:{id:"9381",slug:"geographic-information-systems-in-geospatial-intelligence",title:"Geographic Information Systems in Geospatial Intelligence",fullTitle:"Geographic Information Systems in Geospatial Intelligence"},signatures:"Nasim Tohidi and Rustam B. Rustamov",authors:[{id:"59174",title:"Dr.",name:"Rustam B.",middleName:null,surname:"Rustamov",slug:"rustam-b.-rustamov",fullName:"Rustam B. Rustamov"},{id:"317547",title:"Dr.",name:"Nasim",middleName:null,surname:"Tohidi",slug:"nasim-tohidi",fullName:"Nasim Tohidi"}]},{id:"64204",title:"GIS and Remote Sensing for Mangroves Mapping and Monitoring",slug:"gis-and-remote-sensing-for-mangroves-mapping-and-monitoring",totalDownloads:2329,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Malaysia is one of the few South East Asian counties with large tracts of mangroves. They provide ecosystem goods and services to the environment and the surroundings regarding shoreline stabilization, storm protection, water quality maintenance, micro-climate stabilization, recreation, tourism, fishing and supply of various forest products. Despite extensive distribution of the mangroves, threats posed by different land use activities are inevitable. Therefore, knowledge on mangroves distribution and change is importance for effective management and making protection policies. Although remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) has been widely used to characterize and monitor mangroves change over a range of spatial and temporal scales, studies on mangroves change in Malaysia is lacking. Effective mangrove management is vital via acquiring knowledge on forest distribution and changes to establish protection policies. This chapter will elaborate technically how GIS and RS were utilized to identify, map, and monitor changes of mangroves ecosystem in Malaysia. It also highlights how GIS can enhance the current governance and regulations related to forestry in Malaysia.",book:{id:"7362",slug:"geographic-information-systems-and-science",title:"Geographic Information Systems and Science",fullTitle:"Geographic Information Systems and Science"},signatures:"Hamdan Omar, Muhamad Afizzul Misman and Samsudin Musa",authors:[{id:"264176",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamdan",middleName:null,surname:"Omar",slug:"hamdan-omar",fullName:"Hamdan Omar"},{id:"272549",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhamad Afizzul",middleName:null,surname:"Misman",slug:"muhamad-afizzul-misman",fullName:"Muhamad Afizzul Misman"},{id:"272550",title:"Dr.",name:"Samsudin",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"samsudin-musa",fullName:"Samsudin Musa"}]},{id:"67603",title:"The Color of Water from Space: A Case Study for Italian Lakes from Sentinel-2",slug:"the-color-of-water-from-space-a-case-study-for-italian-lakes-from-sentinel-2",totalDownloads:1123,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Lakes are inestimable renewable natural resources that are under significant pressure by human activities. Monitoring lakes regularly is necessary to understand their dynamics and the drivers of these dynamics to support effective management. Remote sensing by satellite sensors offers a significant opportunity to increase the spatiotemporal coverage of environmental monitoring programs for inland waters. Lake color is a water quality attribute that can be remotely sensed and is independent of the sensor specifications and water type. In this study we used the Multispectral Imager (MSI) on two Sentinel-2 satellites to determine the color of water of 170 Italian lakes during two periods in 2017. Overall, most of the lakes appeared blue in spring and green-yellow in late summer, and in particular, we confirm a blue-water status of the largest lakes in the subalpine ecoregion. The color and its seasonality are consistent with characteristics determined by geomorphology and primary drivers of water quality. This suggests that information about the color of the lakes can contribute to synoptic assessments of the trophic status of lakes. Further ongoing research efforts are focused to extend the mapping over multiple years.",book:{id:"7304",slug:"geospatial-analyses-of-earth-observation-eo-data",title:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data",fullTitle:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data"},signatures:"Claudia Giardino, Kerttu-Liis Kõks, Rossano Bolpagni, Giulia Luciani, Gabriele Candiani, Moritz K. Lehmann, Hendrik Jan Van der Woerd and Mariano Bresciani",authors:[{id:"292340",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Giardino",slug:"claudia-giardino",fullName:"Claudia Giardino"},{id:"300416",title:"Ms.",name:"Kerttu-Liis",middleName:null,surname:"Kõks",slug:"kerttu-liis-koks",fullName:"Kerttu-Liis Kõks"},{id:"300418",title:"Dr.",name:"Rossano",middleName:null,surname:"Bolpagni",slug:"rossano-bolpagni",fullName:"Rossano Bolpagni"},{id:"300419",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulia",middleName:null,surname:"Luciani",slug:"giulia-luciani",fullName:"Giulia Luciani"},{id:"300420",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Candiani",slug:"gabriele-candiani",fullName:"Gabriele Candiani"},{id:"300421",title:"Dr.",name:"Moritz K.",middleName:null,surname:"Lehmann",slug:"moritz-k.-lehmann",fullName:"Moritz K. Lehmann"},{id:"300423",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariano",middleName:null,surname:"Bresciani",slug:"mariano-bresciani",fullName:"Mariano Bresciani"},{id:"305861",title:"Dr.",name:"Hendrik",middleName:"Jan",surname:"Van Der Woerd",slug:"hendrik-van-der-woerd",fullName:"Hendrik Van Der Woerd"}]},{id:"57824",title:"Waste in the City: Challenges and Opportunities for Urban Agglomerations",slug:"waste-in-the-city-challenges-and-opportunities-for-urban-agglomerations",totalDownloads:2850,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Worldwide cities are rapidly expanding, creating visible environmental and social challenges. The generation of waste is one of the central concerns in urban agglomerations, particularly in the global South, where inadequacies, absences and weaknesses shape the local waste management system. Uneven geographic development has created obvious spaces of exclusion and neglect. In response, informal and organized waste pickers engage in selective waste collection and recycling, serving their community and the environment. These contributions are still mostly unrecognized and unaccounted for. This chapter begins with emphasizing the challenges of urban growth, consumption, poverty and waste. In the global South, every day millions of informal waste pickers reclaim recyclables from household waste to earn their living. In doing so they make an important contribution to reducing the carbon footprint of cities, recovering resources, improving environmental conditions and health creating jobs and income among the poor, particularly in low-income residential areas. This chapter discusses the organization of these initiatives into networks and examines the challenges and benefits of such practices that promote grassroots resilience and contribute to reducing both the adverse impacts of cities on climate and environmental change (UN sustainable development target # 11.6) as well as urban poverty (Goal # 8).",book:{id:"6396",slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Jutta Gutberlet",authors:[{id:"188532",title:"Prof.",name:"Jutta",middleName:null,surname:"Gutberlet",slug:"jutta-gutberlet",fullName:"Jutta Gutberlet"}]},{id:"59481",title:"Characteristics of Urban Agglomerations in Different Continents: History, Patterns, Dynamics, Drivers and Trends",slug:"characteristics-of-urban-agglomerations-in-different-continents-history-patterns-dynamics-drivers-an",totalDownloads:2817,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Urban agglomerations show different development patterns and stages. Here, we describe, discuss and compare urban agglomerations in different continents. The introduction section gives a general overview of specific issues of urban agglomerations. Different characteristics in Europe, Asia and America are discussed as experienced by the article’s co-authors, living in or working for urban agglomerations in these continents. First, the history of urbanization and agglomeration evolvement is described, then patterns, functional structures and relations, drivers as well as social and demographic characteristics are discussed (e.g. migration, aging, household structure, housing patterns, workplaces, etc.). Transportation infrastructure (roads, public transport systems) is also addressed as trigger for spatial dynamics causing certain effects (floor space, office and apartment rents releasing urban sprawl or hyper-densification), as well as gentrification. Further topics are urban governance and its impact on agglomeration development. Recent state and future trends will be debated, if important. A conclusion section summarizes the comparison of state, dynamics, drivers and trends.",book:{id:"6396",slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Wolfgang Loibl, Ghazal Etminan, Ernst Gebetsroither-Geringer,\nHans-Martin Neumann and Santiago Sanchez-Guzman",authors:[{id:"160720",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernst",middleName:null,surname:"Gebetsroither",slug:"ernst-gebetsroither",fullName:"Ernst Gebetsroither"},{id:"167419",title:"Dr.",name:"Wolfgang",middleName:null,surname:"Loibl",slug:"wolfgang-loibl",fullName:"Wolfgang Loibl"},{id:"214919",title:"MSc.",name:"Ghazal",middleName:null,surname:"Etminan",slug:"ghazal-etminan",fullName:"Ghazal Etminan"},{id:"214920",title:"MSc.",name:"Hans-Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Neumann",slug:"hans-martin-neumann",fullName:"Hans-Martin Neumann"},{id:"214923",title:"MSc.",name:"Santiago",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez-Guzman",slug:"santiago-sanchez-guzman",fullName:"Santiago Sanchez-Guzman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"103",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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