Baekdusan volcano stratigraphy and petrography of the volcanic products simplified after Wei et al. [7, 28, 29].
\r\n\tIt is a relatively simple process and a standard tool in any industry. Because of the versatility of the titration techniques, nearly all aspects of society depend on various forms of titration to analyze key chemical compounds.
\r\n\tThe aims of this book is to provide the reader with an up-to-date coverage of experimental and theoretical aspects related to titration techniques used in environmental, pharmaceutical, biomedical and food sciences.
When active volcanoes are located in strategic and controversial territory with a history of political and military conflicts [1, 2], their studies and the better understanding of how those volcanoes work are much more difficult, especially when the earth scientists have to deal with mitigation measures to protect the population living around [3–6]. This is surely the case of an active volcano known by a few until 15 years ago, situated between the China and North Korea borders, called by different names by the countries that surround it. The name of the volcanic field surrounding Tianchi(=Cheonji) caldera lake is 长白頭山 in Chinese characters which means “White Head Mountain” These characters are Romanized as Baegdu-san, Baekdu-san, or Paektu-san in Korea, Hakuto-san in Japan, and Changbaishan(長白山) in China [7, and references therein]. From now on, we will use the Korean name, Baekdusan, to avoid confusion. Baekdusan volcano has recently become of greater interest to volcanologists after the sign of unrest during the period 2002–2009, with several volcanic precursors such as volcanic earthquake, surface inflation, specific volcanic gas emission, higher temperatures of hot springs [8–10], which have prompted the Eastern Asian Volcanological Community to pay major attention to this volcano by establishing a Volcanological Observatory (the Chinese Tianchi Volcanological Observatory has collected data since 1999 [11]) and by setting up an improved monitoring network around the volcano [12, 13]. Since 2012, the South Korean scientists have also taken steps in this direction, and the National Emergency Management Agency of Korea (Ministry of Public Safety and Security of Korea) has sponsored a vast research project on Baekdusan volcano (NEMA-BAEKDUSAN-2012-1-2), granted from the Volcanic Disaster Preparedness Centre (MPSS-NH-2015-81), and through the Natural Hazard Mitigation Research Group. Under the auspices of these groups, we analyzed the hazards from pyroclastic density currents and their impact on the population and infrastructures around Baekdusan volcano [14]. Further, we present arguments as to why this volcano has many characteristics as a potential site for the development of the conditions that can cause a super-eruption. Thus, we must also consider this extreme event if we do have to prepare for the next eruption, as it would have a global impact [15].
\nRegional setting of Baekdusan (Tianchi) volcano. Symbols mean the following. ○ Densely populated city or town: (a) Erdaobaihe; (b) Songjianghe; (c) Changbai; (d) Hyesan; (e) Baishan; (f) Fusong; (g) Lushuihe; (h) Yanji, and (i) Tumen. ° Populated village. ∆ Mountain tops with the elevation asl. Baekdusan (Tianchi) volcano. Capital letters indicate places referred to in text: T, Baekdusan (Tianchi) volcano; W, Wangtiane volcano; B, Bukpotaesan volcano; Z, Zhenfengshan volcano; SH, Songhua River; YL, Yalu(Aprok) River; and TM, Tumen (Duman) River.
\nA. Regional tomography from the surface down to 1,300 km depth along a cross-section line shown on the inset map. The velocity perturbation scale is shown below the cross section. White dots denote earthquakes. The two dashed lines show the 410 and 670 km discontinuities. The red and black triangles show the active volcanoes. The surface topography along the profile is shown at the top of the tomographic image. The blue lines on the inset map denote the major plate boundaries (modified from [17]). B. A sketch showing the main features of the upper-mantle structure around Baekdusan volcano in East Asia, emphasizing the possible relationship between the intraplate volcanism and deep earthquakes in the Pacific slab [17], DXAL, Daxing-Anling (modified from [17]).
Siping–Changbaishan–Japan seismic profile of the structure of Changbaishan area [24].
Baekdusan volcano is an intraplate stratovolcano included in the larger Changbaishain area, where we can list a series of intraplate volcanoes (Wangtiane volcano, Bukpotaesan volcano, Zhenfengshan volcano, [7], Figure 1). Cenozoic intraplate basalts are widely distributed around the Changbaishan volcanic area. Beneath the Baekdusan volcano, a prominent low-velocity anomaly with a plume-like shape has been imaged in the upper mantle by P-wave tomography [16, 17]. This suggests an upwelling of hot and wet material from the mantle transition zone (410–670 km [18]), where a stagnant subducted Pacific slab produces fluids and deep earthquakes through faults preserved in the stagnant slab. Hence, fluids and magmas may be supplied to the upper mantle under Baekdusan volcano, unlike beneath other volcanic and nonvolcanic areas in NE Asia, because large deep earthquakes occur frequently in the vicinity (a distance of about 200 km) of the Baekdusan volcano. At least some of these earthquakes are caused by the reactivation of faults which were produced within the plate, even after plate subduction. Further, the fluids could be released to the overlying mantle wedge from the preserved faults in the slab when large deep earthquakes occur. As a result, the Baekdusan volcano has to be considered much more active and prominent than other intraplate volcanoes in NE Asia [9, 10], because more magmas are produced from the fluids released from the slab by the deep earthquakes [19]. Further, Kuritani et al. [20] use the trace element and Pb isotope data to demonstrate the intense hydration of the big mantle wedge beneath the Baekdusan volcano, through two different dehydration events of an ancient stagnant slab (~1.5 Gyr) and the most recent subducted Pacific slab (Figure 2A and B show the most recent setting). The wet mantle wedge is likely to result in more frequent rise of diapiric wet melts, as shown from the tomography [17, references therein], and develop a deep hot zone intruded by mafic sills repeatedly at the MOHO depth or/and scattered in the lower crust [21, and references therein]. Enrichment in fluid-mobile elements (e.g. Cs, Ba, K, Sr, U, Pb), a lack of enrichment in nonfluid-mobile elements (e.g. Nb, Ta, Ti, etc), together with specific isotopic signatures (e.g. 87Sr/86Sr, 206Pb/204Pb) in island-arc basalt or subduction- related magmatism are interpreted as a result of metasomatism of the magma source by slab-derived fluids or melts. Their detailed investigation has helped to establish the current, rather empirical, model of slab dehydration and subduction-related melting processes. But, according to petrochemical characteristics and magma genesis of Holocene volcanic rocks at Mt. Baekdusan [22], trace elements from the Baekdusan volcano do not indicate significant contributions from a subduction slab of the Pacific plate. Volcanic activity in Mt. Baekdusan summit during Holocene resulted from intraplate magmatism [after 23, 24], caused by upwelling of asthenospheric mantle under extensional tectonic conditions (Figure 3 [24]). Hot zone melts are H2O-rich as in Baekdusan volcano (e.g., Millennium eruption [25]). Consequently, they have low viscosity and density, and can readily detach from their source and ascend rapidly. Crystallization begins only when the ascending magma intersects its H2O-saturated liquidus at shallow depths. Decompression and degassing are the driving forces behind crystallization, which take place at shallow depths on timescales of decades or less. Degassing and crystallization at shallow depths lead to large increases in viscosity and stalling of the magma to form volcano-feeding magma chambers [26, 27]. The above model is well confirmed from the study of Wei [24] at the Baekdusan volcano. The heating of the deep crust was inefficient in early times, because much of the basalts erupted out directly, and much of the heat from magma was not used to heat the wall rocks. Annan and Sparks [27] state that there is an initial incubation period in which the basalt intrusions solidify. Generation of silicic melts initiates when the solidus temperature of either the basalt magma or the surrounding crust is reached. At an intrusion rate of 50 m per 10,000 years, incubation periods in the range 105–106 years are estimated, consistent with geochronology and stratigraphy at Baekdusan volcano, with its evolution from mafic to silicic volcanism (the stratigraphy and geochronology will be treated in the next section). Once a zone of residual partial melt develops in the deep hot zone and starts to prevent the basalt from eruption, the temperature rises more efficiently, and the production of residual melt is accelerated. Large amounts of evolved residual silicic melt have been formed in the last 10,000 years and then intruded into the upper crust to form magma chambers large enough to result in the caldera-forming explosive eruptions. The repose time between eruptions of size similar to the Millennium eruption was about thousands of years, one order greater than less-explosive parasitic eruptions of hundreds of years [7].
\n\n\nThe volcanic activity at the Baekdusan volcano goes back as far as nearly 25 Ma B.P [7, 28, 29]. Wei et al. [7] describe the volcanic activity in three stages: early shield-forming; middle cone-construction; and late ignimbrite-forming eruptions. The volcanic rocks were alkaline and tholeiitic basalts during the shield stage, trachyte and comendite lavas, and their pyroclastic equivalents during the cone-construction stage, and mostly comenditic pyroclastic rocks in the final stage (Table 1, Figure 4). However, Yang et al. [30] affirm on the basis of a large amount of age and stratigraphic data (40Ar/39Ar, U-series disequilibria) that Baekdusan volcano has been more active in the last 20 ka (~19, 16, 11 ka) than that was previously thought. From historical records, several authors [31, 32] affirm the high frequency of eruptive events, and since the Millennium eruption, more than 31 eruptive events have been documented, most of which are the Plinian eruptions with volcanic ash that dispersed into the regions in the vicinity of the volcano. Many authors concord that the last explosive eruptions are in chronological order, 1668 AD (Figure 5), 1702 AD (Figure 6), and 1903 AD (Figure 7) [32–34]. In Figure 4 is shown the Baekdusan volcano’s geological map with all the terrains outcropping (see the legend of Figure 4 for more major details). The shield-forming stage lasted from the Miocene into the early Pleistocene. Alkali olivine and tholeiite basalt form the main part of a shield-like lava plateau that covers an area of 7,200 km2 centered at Cheonji. In addition to the eruptions from central vents, there also were fissure eruptions, as evidenced by feeder dikes along the headwaters of the Tumen (Duman) and Heishihe Rivers. The youngest shield basalts are located near Cheonji cone and are overlain by the alkaline trachytes of the cone, except in the northwestern part of the shield. The shield basalts are ∼150 m thick near the Baishan Forestry Center in the headwaters of the Yalu River (Aprok River). The cone-construction stage lasted from ∼1.0 Ma to perhaps as young as ∼20 ka. The latter is about the age of the youngest trachyte lava on the caldera rim near Tianwenfeng (K–Ar, 19 ± 5 ka) and one of the youngest comendite lavas, Qixiangzhan, which was dated recently at 17 ± 1 ka. This stage was characterized by eruption of trachyte and comendite lavas and pyroclastic rocks, and dominated by trachyte lava effusion from the center of Cheonji volcano. The cone-construction stage has been subdivided into four stratigraphic formations for the main cone and the Laofangzixiaoshan part of the shield (Table 1). In general, outcrops of lava decrease image with elevation on the cone. In plane view, the eastern sector of the cone consists of younger trachytes, whereas older lavas are distributed more widely. However, all the rocks share similar geochemical compositions and appear to be genetically related. The young Laohudong basalts are sparsely distributed as monogenetic vents around the caldera. Its largest and most explosive Plinian eruption occurred around 946–947 AD and is known as the “Millennium eruption.”
\nStages | \n\n | Formation and age | \n\n | Lithologies | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | Liuhaojiie Tuff Ring (1903 AD) | \n\n | Comendite phreatomagmatic eruption | \n
Late: | \n\n | Wuhaojie (1702 AD) | \n\n | White gray comentite fine glass | \n
Igninbrite- | \n\n | Baguamiao (1668 AD) | \n\n | Dark gray trachyte ignimbrite and pumice | \n
forming | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n | \n | \n | White gray comentite ignimbrite and | \n
\n | \n | Millennium eruption (~936–1200 AD) | \n\n | Air fall pumice with minor trachyte | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n | Ignimbrite and air fall pumice | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n | Qixiangzhan (17 ka) | \n\n | Comentite lava and pyroclasts | \n
Middle: Cone | \n\n | Baitoushan III (0.02–0.22 Ma) | \n\n | Trachyte and comendite lava | \n
construction | \n\n | Baitoushan II (0.25–0.44 Ma) | \n\n | Trachyte with Laohudong basalt | \n
\n | \n | Baitoushan I (0.53–0.61 Ma) | \n\n | Trachyte | \n
\n | \n | Laofangzixiaoshan (0.75–1.17 Ma) | \n\n | Basalt | \n
\n | \n | Xiaobaishan (0.75–1.17 Ma) | \n\n | Trachyandesite and trachyte | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n | Baishan (1.48–1.66 Ma) | \n\n | Basalt | \n
Early: Shield- | \n\n | Toudao (2.35–5.02 Ma) | \n\n | Basalt | \n
forming | \n\n | Naitoushan (15.6–22.6 Ma) | \n\n | Basanite, Basalt | \n
Geological map of the summit area of Baekdusan volcano. Northeast distribution of the basaltic shield, trachytic composite cone, and the comenditic ignimbrite sheet of the Baekdusan volcano. 1, Torrent deposit, the fourth debris flow (1994); 2, The third fan-shaped debris flow; 3, 1903 phreatomagmatic eruption; 4, The second fan-shaped debris flow; 5, Dark trachytic ignimbrite and surge (1668); 6, Dark trachytic fallout (1668); 7, The first fan-shaped debris flow; 8, Rock fall deposit; 9, Fallout (?1413–1668); 10, Outer flank dark lahar; 11, The Millennium ignimbrite and secondary deposits; 12, The Millennium valley and pond ignimbrite; 13, The Millennium eruption comenditic Plinian fallout; 14, Outer flank avalanche deposits; 15, Qixiangzhan distal comenditic lava; 16, Qixiangzhan middle comenditic lava; 17, Qixiangzhan proximal comenditic lava; 18, Qixiangzhan calstogenic lava, comendite, and obsidian; 19, Ice ground brown and gray trachytic ignimbrite, lahar; 20, Heifengkou Lag breccias (3950 ±120 a); 21, Upper trachyte and comendite cone (0.04–0.2 Ma); 22, Middle trachyte cone (0.25–0.44 Ma); 23, Lower trachyte cone (0.53–0.61 Ma); 24, Xiaobaishan trachyandesite and trachyte (1–1.49 Ma); 25, Laohudong parasitic basalt and scoria (0.32–0.34 Ma); 26, Laofangzixiaoshan basalt (0.31–0.58 Ma); 27, Baishan basalt (0.93–1.39 Ma); 28, Toudao basalt (1.91–2.77 Ma); 29, Comendite dyke; 30, Trachytic welded tuff dyke; 31, Trachyte dyke; 32, Ring and radioactive faults; 33, Caldera rim; 34,Avalanche scar; 35,Vent; 36, Hot spring; 37, Inferred geologic boundary; 38, Flow units boundary; 39, Facies boundary; 40, National boundary. β, Basalt; τ, Trachyte; λ, Comendite; π, Porphyry dyke (modified from [7]; Yun, unpublished data).
The Buguamiao welded ignimbrite of the 1668 AD pyroclastic flow eruption is shown in all the pictures. The outcrops are in the vicinity of the Tianchi caldera. In the Baguamiao ignimbrite is also apparent its welded character.
The 1702 AD pyroclastic flow eruption on the summit of the cliff.
The 1903 AD pyroclastic flow deposits. The outcrop is separated by levels. The 1° level belongs to the 1702 AD eruption, and the others belong to the 1903 pyroclastic flow eruption. It is clear that the thickness of the 1903 deposit is near the caldera.
Distribution of pyroclastic density currents of the Millennium eruption in China side. Numbers are thickness (m). Units C and F are the two pyroclastic flow levels.
This eruption has a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 7, comparable to the 1815 eruption of Tambora in Indonesia. Horn and Schmincke [25] have suggested that the Cheonji eruption column reached ca 25 km in height, injecting about 9 ×1010 kg of volatile halogens into the atmosphere, with an estimated volume of pyroclastic material on the order of ~100 km3. Volcanic ash from the eruption has been found 1,000 km away from the site of the eruption. A 5 cm thick deposit was observed in southern Hokkaido, Japan [38]. Accordingly, the Millennium eruption of the Baekdusan Cheonji volcano has been considered as one of the greatest volcanic eruptions of the past 2000 years.
\nStratigraphy of the Millennium eruption on the eastern slope of Baekdusan volcano (modified from [35]). pfa, pyroclastyc fall deposit; pfl, pyroclastic flow deposits; dfl, debris flow deposits.
One of the most largest destructive eruptions from the Baekdusan volcano occurred on Earth in the last millennium, about 1,000 years ago, and it is named the Millennium eruption [25, 29, 34, 35]. It involved more than ~100 km3 of magma erupted [10], and the Plinian column was estimated to have had a height of 25 km. A widespread ash-fall deposit has been traced across the Sea of Japan to Hokkaido, and it is several centimeters thick, at more than 1,000 km from the source [35, 37]. Unwelded pyroclastic flows associated with collapse events of the Plinian eruption column extended to more than 70 km from the crater rim (Figure 8). The Millennium eruption formed a large caldera with a diameter of about 5 km and an area of 20 km2, forming the Cheonji (Tianchi = Sky) lake. Currently, the lake has a maximum depth of 374 m and an area of ~ 9.8 km2, with a water surface elevation of 2,189 m. It has a volume of 2 km3. A composite stratigraphic section of the Millennium eruption is given by Machida et al. ([35]; Figure 9). According to Machida et al. [35], the section is broadly composed of five levels (A, B, C, E, F; for major details, see Figure 9). Figure 10 shows some unwelded Millennium pyroclastic flow outcrops with relative thicknesses and sites. However, there is a controversy if the complete volcanological section of the Millennium eruption has to be interpreted as a single continuous eruption rather than one with two distinct pulses, with the initial phase anticipating the major phases of tens or hundreds of years [39]. The scientific literature reports a large range of ages for the Millennium eruption [40]. The results show a variety of periods ranging from approximately AD eighth to fourteenth centuries, which are the dates of the Balhae(= Bohai) and Goryeo dynasties [40, and references therein]. The last geochronological data (radiocarbon wiggle-match dating) on the Millennium eruption show a much more restricted range, respectively, of 938–939 AD [41], 946–947 AD [42], and 1024 AD [28].
\nMillennium unwelded pyroclastic flow outcrops at the north and south flanks of the caldera with the respective thicknesses. (A) Millennium eruption pyroclastic flow deposits, northern slope: 20 m thickness. (B) Millennium eruption pyroclastic flow deposits, southern slope: 60 m thickness.
The scenarios envisaged here are based on the large amount of data that have been collected by the Korean research project, CATER2011-5210 [36], and by the new literature produced [25, 32–34, among others] in order to assign a selected VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index [43]). The main parameters are summarized in Table 2 (VEI, maximum volume erupted, and column height) for each eruption. The volumes considered for just the pyroclastic density currents are obviously less than the total volume and are listed in Table 3. Figure 11 shows that between several volcanic-related disasters, the pyroclastic density currents have to be considered the most dangerous, given the number of fatalites in the last 2,000 years.
\nEruption date | \nVEI | \nVolume (m3) | \nColumn height (km) | \n
---|---|---|---|
1903 AD eruption | \n2 | \n106–108 | \n1–5 | \n
3 | \n3–15 | \n||
1668–1702 AD eruption | \n4 | \n108–1010 | \n10–25 | \n
5 | \n>25 | \n||
Millennium eruption | \n7 | \n1011–1012 | \n>25 | \n
Summary of the main parameters for the 1093 AD, 1702 AD, 1668 AD, and the Millennium eruptions. Volumes are taken from Newhall and Self [43] compared with the VEI for each eruption.
Eruption type | \nRunout length (m) | \nVolume (m3) | \nInitial velocity (m/s) | \nTime duration (s) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n1903-type\n | \n\n~3000\n | \n\n10\n\n7\n\n–10\n\n8\n\n | \n\n30\n | \n\n3600\n | \n
\n1668–1702 type\n | \n\n~4000–5000\n | \n\n10\n\n9\n\n | \n\n50\n | \n\n>3600\n | \n
\nMillennium eruption\n | \n\n7–80,000\n | \n\n10\n\n10\n\n | \n\n80–300\n | \n\n>3600\n | \n
Statistical percentage of fatalities for volcanic-related phenomena in last 2000 years. Pyroclastic density current is the most deadly phenomena in the last 2,000 years (Figure taken from the web and modified).
Branney and Kokelaar [44] illustrate in detail how different types of pyroclastic density currents originate (Figure 12). From Figure 12, the pyroclastic density currents most likely to occur at Beakdusan volcano are the following: A, B, C, depending on the size and the amount of interaction with external water. For laterally moving systems, the pyroclastic density currents can be identified as two end-member types: (A) Concentrated currents or pyroclastic flows, (B) Dilute currents or pyroclastic surges (Note that these are often a spectrum, with gradations in between). The end-member A has the following main characteristics:
It has solids in concentrations of tens of volume percentage, and so they have higher densities than surges.
They have a free surface, above which solids’ concentration decreases sharply.
Transport of material is by fluidization, and most flows are considered to be laminar.
Velocities vary, typically by 10s of meters per second up to several hundred meters per second, inferred from the heights of obstacles overcome by flows.
Origins of pyroclastic density currents. (A) Short single-surge current derived by momentary collapse from a Plinian eruption column. (B) Sustained current derived from prolonged pyroclastic fountaining. The height of the jet (gas thrust) that feeds the current may vary and is transitional into (C). (C) A sustained current derived from a prolonged low pyroclastic fountaining explosive eruption. (D) Current with a single (or multiple) surge derived from lateral blasts initiated by catastrophic decompression of a magmatic and/or hydrothermal system. (E) Single-surge current derived from a collapsing lava dome or flow front. Hot rock avalanches generate turbulent density currents. (F) Deposit-derived pyroclastic density current caused by gravitational collapse and avalanching of unstable loose ignimbrite. The current may be a single-surge or more sustained where the collapse is retrogressive. Most large-volume ignimbrites derive from current types (B) and (C), which may involve periods of quasi-steady flow. Many may include significant components derived from currents of type (F) [44, 45]. For Baekdusan, we chose the following three types: Soufriere, Pelee, and Merapi types (modified from [62]).
The end-member B has the following main characteristics:
It contains less than 0.1–1.0% by volume of solids, even near ground surface, and so they are relatively of low density.
They are density-stratified, with the highest particle concentration near the ground surface.
Material is transported primarily by turbulent suspension.
Transport system is modeled as one that loses particles by sedimentation, which depletes the system of mass. Eventually, the system may become buoyant, in which case it becomes a plume.
Velocities vary, typically by 10s of meters per second, but they can also be much faster [44–48].
4D immersive visualization of the simulated partial column collapse scenario at Vesuvius. The collapse of the volcanic eruption column and the propagation of pyroclastic density currents (PDCs), for selected medium-scale (sub-Plinian) eruptive scenarios at Vesuvius, Italy (modified from [55]).
In fluid dynamics, the equations that govern the concentrated current are well known [49, 50], and the mathematics based on this volcanic phenomena is broadly used to model pyroclastic flows, along with other gravity currents: avalanches, seafloor turbidity currents, lahars, and lava flows. Two numerical codes apply these equations with small differences: Titan2D [51] and Volcflow [52, 53], but so far they have not produced any modeling for diluted currents. The only numerical code that models the diluted currents is called PDAC [54]. An application is shown for Somma-Vesuvius volcano, where pyroclastic density currents are modeled on the data of the 1631 AD sub-Plinian eruption ([55]; Figure 13). Kelfourn [53] tried to model two-fluid model block-ash flows and cloud-ash surge at Merapi volcano, developing new equations, but there is not yet an agreement (Kelfourn, personal communication). The importance of modeling diluted currents together with dense currents for the hazard of an explosive active volcano is commonly witnessed from the volcanological history, as seen in the work of Mastrolorenzo [56] who demonstrate the causes of mortality in PDCs at Pompeii and surroundings, on the basis of a multidisciplinary volcanological and bioanthropological study. Field and laboratory studies of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicate that heat was the main cause of death. Their results show that exposure to at least 250°C hot surges at a distance of 10 km from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings. Despite the fact that impact force and exposure time to dusty gas declined toward PDCs’ periphery up to the survival conditions, lethal temperatures were maintained up to the PDCs’ extreme depositional limits. This study suggests that diluted currents are very dangerous, and if the runout of the pyroclastic flow must be chosen, it is always underestimated when considering diluted currents, especially for large eruption.
\nAs indicated in Table 1, the 1903 AD, 1668–1702 AD, and the Millennium eruptions are characterized by the following VEI, respectively: 2–3, 4–5, and ~7. From the classification of Newhall and Self [43], the magnitude of each eruption with all the volcanological parameters can be deduced. If we compare the total volume ejected from Baekdusan volcano in the last Millennium activity with the most devastating eruptions in the recent history of volcanology, it appears that the two most recent eruptions shown, from Mount St. Helens and Mount Pinatubo, each caused extensive damage and received intense media interest. Ejected volumes, however, were only about 1/10,000 (St. Helens) and 1/500 (Pinatubo) of the volumes associated with either the 74 ka Toba or the 2 Ma Yellowstone super-eruptions. Even the 1883 Krakatau eruption, which accounted for over 35,000 deaths, was smaller than the Toba and Yellowstone eruptions by two orders of magnitude. The 1815 Tambora eruption, which had an ejected volume of less than 5% of those of Toba or Yellowstone and was distinctly less than “super,” affected global climate and was responsible for over 50,000 deaths (Figure 14A and B [57]). The 1903 AD eruption can be compared to two recent eruptions: (A) Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985, (B) Soufrière Hills, West Indies, 1995 (Figure 14B). The two eruptions of 1668–1702 AD of similar size can be compared to the following eruptions: (A) Soufrière Hills, West Indies, 1995, (B) Mount St. Helens, USA, 1980 (Figure 14B). The Millennium eruption may have been slightly larger than the 1815 Tambora eruption, Indonesia. Millennium eruption can be considered a super-eruption alike other eruptions (e.g., Campanian Ignimbrite, Campi Flegrei, Napoli [58]; Figure 15). This assumption is confirmed from some South Korean scientists that during the 2nd International Workshop for Volcanic Disaster Preparedness at Chungbuk National University, Korea affirmed that the Millennium eruption could have been as high as 7 VEI. Further, Xu et al. [42, 59] suggest that the Millennium eruption was a Toba-like "ash giant/sulfur dwarf" and had much smaller global climatic impacts. Sun et al. [60] confirm that the eruption most probably occurred around AD 940s, 7 years after the Eldgjá eruption on Iceland, and examining the eruption’s potential for climate-forcing using the sulfate records from the ice cores, they conclude that it was unlikely to have had a global impact. Zircons U–Th data of Millennium eruption indicate that magma resided only ~8 ka prior to eruption. Therefore, Baekdusan volcano can produce catastrophic, explosive eruptions in the foreseeable future [36]. Thus, Baekdusan is the most active volcano in China [14], and it is a high-risk volcano because more than 100,000 people live on or near the slopes, with the addition of many tourists.
\nA. Relative volumes of pyroclastic material erupted from the large eruption in the 2 Ma [57]. B. Classification of the VEI modified after [4] (modified from [57]).
The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is calculated with a logarithmic-based scale of erupted mass, as well as past examples, estimated frequency, and probability. It includes large eruptions from 40 km3 in magma volume up to the largest super-eruptions known (modified from [15]).
The size of the 1903 AD eruption has been evaluated, and consequently some Titan2D simulations are presented, taking into account where the vents of the 1903 AD, 1668 AD, and 1702 AD were located. Five vent locations are considered: three inside the caldera lake and two outside the caldera, as illustrated in Figure 16. The simulations start with an initial column (or pile) that collapses. The column is a vertical cylinder with a diameter 250 m and the height Hcol (Table 4). In Figure 17 we report the thickness of the deposit when the flow is stopped. We consider 1 h (3,600s) after the initial collapse of the eruption column which can be formed by the Plinian eruption. The scenario performed shows, according to the vent locations, that the flow moves in diverse directions (NE, SE) with a thickness of 3 m, and that if the vent is located inside the caldera the flow fills the caldera with a thickness of 5 m. If the vent is on the border of the caldera, the flow will deposit thickly, mostly in the northern valley, the upper stream region of Erdaobaihe (Figure 17 [34, 61]).
\nLocation of the considered vents for the Titan2D simulation of the small-scale 1903 AD eruption.
Number | \nVent | \nInt. frict. | \nBed. Frict | \nHcol (m) | \nDiameter (m) | \nVolume (m3) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nA | \n30 | \n25 | \n1000 | \n250 | \n4.9 × 107 | \n
2 | \nA | \n30 | \n16 | \n1000 | \n250 | \n4.9 × 107 | \n
3 | \nA | \n25 | \n16 | \n1000 | \n250 | \n4.9 × 107 | \n
4 | \nA | \n25 | \n16 | \n2000 | \n250 | \n9.8 × 107 | \n
5 | \nB | \n25 | \n16 | \n2000 | \n250 | \n9.8 × 107 | \n
6 | \nC | \n25 | \n16 | \n2000 | \n250 | \n9.8 × 107 | \n
7 | \nD | \n25 | \n16 | \n2000 | \n250 | \n9.8 × 107 | \n
8 | \nE | \n25 | \n16 | \n2000 | \n250 | \n9.8 × 107 | \n
Parameters used to simulate the pyroclastic flow of 1903 AD eruption needed by Titan2D code.
Results of the Titan2D simulation for a small-scale scenario (VEI 3) similar to the 1903 AD eruption [34, 61].
Possible area covered by a pyroclastic density current of the size of the 1668–1702 AD eruption. The runout chosen could have been underestimated so that the impact would be more severe than expected.
From the pyroclastic density currents scenario of the 1668–1702 AD eruptions with a runout around 5,000 m (Figure 18), two densely populated cities which are nearest to Baekdusan volcano would suffer significant damage: Erdaobaihe and Songjianghe. Possibly, the pyroclastic density currents could also affect two other cities located slightly further away, such as Fusong and Lushuihe. In the case of the Millennium eruption, considering only the direct impact, without considering the indirect effect which in the case of such eruption could be severe, and considering an underestimation of the runout, the following cities will be hit: Erdaobaihe, Songjianghe, Changbai, Huishan, Baishan, Fusong, Lushuihe, and Tumer (Figure 19).
\nPossible area covered by a pyroclastic density current of the size of the Millennium eruption. The runout chosen could have been underestimated so that the impact would be more severe than expected and surely of regional scale, if not global.
The worst-case scenario is surely an eruption of a colossal size (Millennium eruption), but it has to be excluded from the scenario of the 1668–1702 AD eruption. In this case, the hazard and the risk must be evaluated carefully, and the population around Baekdusan volcano must be informed in detail. We think in this case, the population at risk is not aware of the possible hazard of the volcano. In all sorts of circumstances, the population has to be alerted. Every sign of unrest has to be monitored and communicated to everybody involved in the decision-making to the people. As far as we are concerned there is not a robust monitoring system around Baekdusan volcano, especially on North Korea side. An emergency plan must be created for Baekdusan volcano.
\nIn the near future, there are several points in research direction that the Asian scientists could undertake, if they have not done yet: (A) Evolution of the Baekdusan volcano plumbing system in the least 20,000 years. (B) Developing an open source numerical code to model diluted density currents (surge) for the worst-case scenario, (C) Making an event tree study of Baekdusan volcano like that of Somma-Vesuvius volcano, Napoli, Italy.
\nThis research was supported by a grant [MPSS-NH-2015-81] through the Natural Hazard Mitigation Research Group funded by Ministry of Public Safety and Security of Korean government. Thanks to Dr. Giovanni Macedonio for helping in making the simulation of Figure 17 at Osservatorio Vesuviano, INGV, Napoli, Italy. Thanks to Chris Hawkesworth for an early review of the manuscript. Thanks to Steve Sparks to critically looking at the manuscript and addressing the journal for the content of the manuscript.
\nReading is an extraordinarily sophisticated task that involves the synthesis of a number of different motor, sensory and cognitive functions [1]. Its proper performance largely depends on the state of the macula lutea and the optical pathway and visual cortex. Conditions affecting these areas such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and acquired brain injury (ABI) are frequent in the elderly and can compromise the reception or the conduction and processing of central visual information, with the consequent impairment of this ability, of great importance for the vocational, educational and daily life of the individual. Consequently, in low vision rehabilitation services, reading is the most common clinical complaint, as well as the primary goal for patients with central vision loss [1, 2, 3], whose prevalence is expected to increase in the coming years, as well as the diseases continues to rise in line with the aging of the population. Thus, improvement of reading performance in central vision loss patients is nowadays considered as one of the main objectives pursued by neuro-vision rehabilitation (NVR).
\nWhen the vision in the center of the visual field decreases, reading speed declines and oculomotor pattern differs compared with normal reading, showing an increase in the mean fixation duration and in the number of saccades [4, 5]. It is known that many of these individuals may eventually adopt one or more locations on the retinal periphery to serve as the preferred retinal locus (PRL). Therefore, for these patients, visual function is still malleable and able to adapt to unfavorable conditions [6, 7].
\nWhen you hear the word blind or low vision, Braille system and the inability for the person to perform everyday tasks such as moving around comes to your mind [7].
\nIf we trace a low vision timeline backwards in history, we can find that it is known that Marco Polo discovers elderly Chinese people using magnifying glasses for Reading (1270), and the first magnifying aid for visual defects attributed to Rene Descartes in 1637 [8]; But it is not until the nineteenth century that the LVR receives attention. In 1850, Amsterdam separately counts the number of inhabitants with impaired vision, Hermann von Helmholtz invents the ophthalmoscope (1851) and, in 1897, Charles Prentice invents the typoscope [8]. The beginnings of the current era can be said to have begun at the first international congress in low vision, sponsored by the American Foundation for the Blind, in 1986. In 1996, International Society for Low-vision Research and Rehabilitation (ISLRR) officially incorporated in Amsterdam [8]. By the mid-twentieth century, the first manuals including information on methods of visual rehabilitation were published. E. Faye was the first person to coin the term low vision.
\nIn 1973, the first Low Vision Diplomate program established was registered within American Academy of Optometry first diplomate awarded Western Michigan University (USA) offers first required low vision course as part of orientation & mobility program Low Vision Clinical Society founded in the United States [8].
\nCurrently, a person with distant visual acuity (VA) 0.3 or less (20/60 Snellen notation), a visual field of 10° from the point of fixation, and with reduced functionality is considered low vision [7]. This definition was not always universal, previously low vision was defined by a VA of 20/70 or less, however, it did not include the degree of functional defect. The subject’s functionality may be affected (even in VAs greater than 20/70) by problems of loss of contrast sensitivity (CS) and glare [9].
\nIn 2018, the International Classification of Diseases separated visual impairment into two groups: far and near. Thus, the near vision impairment is an VA lower than N6 or N8 at 40 cm with the existing correction. There are signs that worldwide the World Health Organization estimates that there are 1300 million people with visual impairment [10].
\nIt should be noted that visual rehabilitation requires multidisciplinary work, which includes ophthalmologists, optometrists and visual therapists, in most cases psychologists and social workers work together.
\nThe work of psychologists is important in those patients who are in a state of depression. Depression can be detected by optometrists or ophthalmologists through anamnesis and the use of questionnaires. Studies have found that people with vision loss have four times more depression than a person without visual impairment [11]. One of the main objectives of the visual rehabilitation service is to improve the functional capacity of each subject and the action plan must be adapted individually [12].
\nVisual rehabilitation, apart from improving the quality of life of subjects by increasing their functionality, avoids a series of events that can be triggered by their visual impairment. Among the events are: falls, being people with low vision more likely to suffer [13] and depression, which more than 30% of these subjects develop and show an improvement in VR by eliminating it [14].
\nVisual rehabilitation seeks to regain the skills of a person with visual impairment. This recovery is done gradually, using optical and non-optical aids, in addition to the strategies proposed by the visual therapist. The action of reading necessarily implies using the central retina. Therefore, a visual disability due to an ophthalmological pathology that affects the central visual field will significantly affect to the action of reading.
\nSeveral studies indicate that reading is one of the most important actions that visually impaired people want to recover [15, 16]. This task is usually the main objective in the elderly, children and adolescents with low vision.
\nBeing referred to low vision service implies a loss of vision that can generate loss of functionality, and consequently the subject may be perceived as not very competent, which will influence his mental state. Such a state can influence the outcome of rehabilitation, which in turn can contribute to changing the way in which the subject views himself.
\nEvery time we read, the eyes perform a sequence of movements. The ocular movements by which these jump from one stimulus to another are called saccadic movements. Normally in the reading process, they go from left to right, but sometimes there are movements in the opposite direction to change lines or to return to what was read, in which case they are called regression movements [17].
\nWe call fixation to the pause between a saccadic movement and another, in which moment the information is extracted. The amount and duration of this fixation calculates the reading capacity of the subject. The reading speed serves to evaluate the reading ability of the subject; in a subject in normal vision, recognize from 7 to 11 characters in the fovea during fixation in the right half but four or five characters in the left half. In other words, it is called visual span to the number of letters that can be recognized without moving the eyes [17].
\nIn a subject with low vision restoring its functionality and independence has a lot of meaning. Reading is also important for those children or adolescents who suffer from low vision, these subjects need to continue schooling or simply enjoy reading as a leisure, remaining functional, independent and psychologically motivated. Our world has been designed for the reader, for those people who are able to interpret all the information that surrounds us. Reading is an activity that affects all the orders of daily life, from access to the content of a letter or a medicine label, to the buy of a product or the information that we can find in the street or in a public building.
\nThe Johns Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute study showed that 60% of patients referred to low vision report that the main reason for consultation is the difficulty to read, other studies such as, see [18, 19] give similar results. There are also studies on age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the most common pathology that causes severe disability in the western world, where they mention the increase in emotional state, cognitive and quality of life of patients by improving the speed of reading [20].
\nWhen a person cannot use the fovea, all eye movements involved in the reading process are affected and as a consequence performance decreases considerably; other daily activities are also affected. Understanding that there are ophthalmological pathologies that affect the central field of vision, it is necessary to use the peripheral retina. Subjects use a region of para-central retina, normally less than 20° from the damage fovea [21]. This retinal place to use is known as preferential retinal locus (PRL). This PRL gives the ability to perform the function of the damaged central retinal area, can be trained and used for activities such as reading. In short, it is necessary to evaluate the PRL, know its location, characteristics (a microperimeter offers a precise method for this action) and from then on use optical and non-optical aids to rehabilitate the reading. Studies show that the use of microperimetry for rehabilitation generates improvements in visual acuity, fixation stability and reading speed.
\nWhen central field loss (CFL) is present, saccadic movements are erratic, with constant regression movements; fixation is very unstable and, as a consequence, perceived information is scarce and partial. All this affects two fundamental aspects for a satisfactory reading: reading speed and reading comprehension. In order to assess reading ability, these aspects must be measured. One of the goals of visual rehabilitation is to help the subject establish their own PRL as well as learn to use it efficiently. Sometimes the person has more than one PRL, and may even use it consciously or unconsciously.
\nOther aspects that affect the reading process and are involved in rehabilitation are the effect of crowding, which together with the visual span, present a correlation that is clarifying; reducing crowding enlarge the visual span and can facilitate reading [22].
\nCentral field loss is associated with macular diseases. Examples of these diseases are age-related macular degeneration, macular hole, macular edema and diabetic retinopathy [23]. In general, patients with these pathologies have preserved peripheral vision. As central vision is affected, reading or face recognition are affected. Rehabilitation strategies and visual aids are focused on those tasks.
\nIn atrophic diseases, there is not a specific treatment, so actions are directed to prevention and in advanced cases, rehabilitation. In exudative diseases such as exudative AMD, there has been a wide range of treatments, including laser, radiation and anti- vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapy [24].
\nLaser photocoagulation was the first treatment for exudative AMD from 1979 [24]. This treatment stopped neovascularization progression, but laser burned retinal tissue, so patients with macular neovascularization could not be treated [24, 25]. This technique consisted in impacting with a laser on the retina to produce heat and that the proteins coagulate in order to slow down the appearance of neovases [26].
\nAnother therapeutic strategy is radiation. This procedure attempts to affect the angiogenesis of choroidal neovases either directly by destroying endothelial cells and cytokines or indirectly on genes that regulate the action of cytokines. It can be administered by brachytherapy directly on the affected tissue; or by teletherapy administering the isotope externally [24]. It can be combined with anti-VEGF therapy [27].
\nWith photodynamic therapy a photosensitive substance is injected in vein in order to activate it with a laser at a choroidal vessels level. In 1999, the efficacy of photodynamic therapy to stop choroidal neovascularization was tested, as well as the maximum and minimum doses to achieve the desired effect, being 150 and 25 J/cm2, respectively [24].
\nRepeated intravitreal injections of anti-VEGF drugs are currently the most widely used treatment in AMD. VEGF is an angiogenic and vasculogenic factor; that is, it is involved in the formation of new vessels from existing ones and in the formation of embryonic vessels; as well as in their reappearance [28]. Several drugs had been developed, such as pegaptanib, bevacizumab, ranibizumab and, recently aflibercept. However, these anti-VEGF drugs only are trying to slow down the progression, they are not able to reverse the effect of the disease [25].
\nOCT is a diagnostic and control technology based on the principle of Michelson interferometry whereby light is divided into two optical pathways to the eye and a mirror. Thanks to this we can analyze the posterior retina, the macula, the papilla and the relations they have with the vitreous and the choroid [29]. The OCT Macular Cube 512 × 128 strategy allows, in addition to the analysis of macular layers, comparison with different measures in the same patient and comparison with the OCT database to establish whether the values are within normal or not, analyzing the macula in nine areas, being a central and two rings with four layers each (Figure 1). By means of this strategy, an area of 6 × 6 mm is measured using 128 A-Scans with 512 B-Scans.
\nAn example of the nine analysis areas of macular cube strategy (from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4478143/).
The term low vision was coined in the 1950s to convey the idea that vision can vary between the extremes of sighted and blindness [30]. Low vision generally refers to any chronic form of visual impairment that cannot be corrected with eye glasses, contact lenses, medical treatment or surgery and that negatively affects daily function of the individual [31, 32]. Although there is no universally accepted definition of “low vision,” it is globally conceived as visual acuity of less than 0.3 (6/18) but equal or better than 0.05 (3/60) and/or visual field loss of less than 20 degrees in the better eye with the best possible correction [33].
\nThis is based on the 10th revision of International Classification of Diseases derived from a World Health Organization Study group on the Prevention of Blindness that was convened in 1972 to provide a standardized definition to facilitate the data collection of population on prevalence of vision impairment and blindness.
\nTraditionally, low vision has been known by other numerous names such as partly sighted or subnormal vision, concepts that have already been outdated.
\nIn 2002 at the 29th International Congress of Ophthalmology, the International Council of Ophthalmology (ICO) adopted a resolution where the following terminology was recommended [33, 34]:
Blindness: to be used exclusively for total vision loss and for conditions where individuals have to rely predominantly on vision substitution skills.
Low vision: to be used for lesser degrees of vision loss, where individuals can be helped significantly by vision enhancement aids and devices.
Visual impairment: to be used when the condition of vision loss is characterized by a loss of visual functions, such as visual acuity or visual field, at the organ level since “impairment” is defined as any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function. Many of these functions (for example, visual acuity) can be measured quantitatively and in each eye separately.
Visual disability: to be used when the condition prevents the undertaking of specific visual tasks, for example, loss of ability to read, since “disability” is defined as any restriction or lack resulting from an impairment of the ability to perform an activity in a manner or within a range considered normal.
Visual handicap: to be used when the condition is described as a barrier to social participation (for example, loss of a driving license), since handicap is defined as a disadvantage for a given individual resulting from a disability or impairment that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal for that individual (depending on age, sex and cultural factors).
Functional vision: to be used when the vision loss is defined in terms of the individual’s abilities with regard to activities of daily living (ADL). Thus, it applies to the individual and not to the visual system.
Several research pieces have attempted to improve reading performance in people with central vision loss. Some authors have proposed to determine the mode of text presentation that offers these patients the fastest reading speed [35, 36] while others have suggested to examine whether simple manipulations of text typography or text typesetting (such as increasing letter or line spacing) could enhance this ability [37, 38]. Unfortunately, most of these studies did not found statistically significant differences in reading speed for different text presentations or when text typography or text typesetting were modified.
\nTo date, only measures that have led to modest gains in reading speed among this group of people have been magnified font size, increased lighting and contrast conditions and the provision of optical magnifiers [39, 40, 41]. More recently, some works have established that reading performance on retinal periphery may benefits from perceptual learning based on certain tasks that include training in reading or identifying random letters sequences at various points across the visual field, although considerable individual variability was found in the results obtained from these investigations [42, 43].
\nAs well as until the 1970s of the last century, people with low vision were rehabilitated as people with blindness, it is from that moment on that the magnification of texts and especially the use of optical and electronic aids allowed the development of the specific field of visual rehabilitation. The introduction of microscopes, magnifiers, telescopes and filters, together with the use of lecterns and adequacy of lighting, have allowed the development of a complete body of knowledge concerning to the new skills implemented when the person with CFL reads. The same can be said of electronic aids such as close-circuit television (CCTV) magnifiers and electronic magnifiers, which provide improved contrast and magnification that common optical aids of this type. These tools can be available mounted on a stand, head-mounted or hand-held.
\nAs technological progress advances, numerous software apps and tech devices emerge to meet the reading needs of low-vision population. The production and distribution of digital documents was the beginning of harnessing technological advances for the visually impaired and brought new opportunities for reading improvement by allowing customization of lighting, contrast and font size variables to optimize the text display on the screen [44].
\nWe are talking about software that magnify and provide contrast improvements or text to speech reproductions, compatible with computers and tablets, as well as the tablets and electronic books themselves, which thanks to the options they offer of brightness control, contrast, selection of type and font size, have been an important progress for people with AMD, and has enabled them to have free access to information.
\nAt present, high-tech digital image enhancement programs are under study to provide better visualization for central vision loss patients. They represent an important challenge due to the change of model that they offer in the intervention in visual rehabilitation. It is necessary at this point to expand the reach and depth of research related to the use of these devices and software for reading.
\nA very relevant innovation is retinal implants; this is a prosthetic system that performs a process that captures the image, processes it and transforms it into electrical impulses and stimulates the retina’s ganglion cells (RGCs) [45]. It appears to increase vision with acceptable safety profiles, even though the amelioration of functional vision generated by the prosthesis nowadays remains limited [46]. But it is still hopeful and promising in degenerative retinal diseases, and will surely bring a major challenge in the rehabilitation of these persons.
\nComprehensive reading is a tremendously complex activity. Although for skillful readers, it is a task that does not seem to offer too many difficulties, and proof of this is the speed with which it is read (between 150 and 400 words per minute), the truth is that in such a short time several cognitive operations have to be carried out [47].
\nReading is only possible if a good number of cognitive and visual operations function properly. It has been verified that the reading system is made up of several separable, relatively autonomous modules, each of which oversees carrying out a specific function. Specifically, four modules or processes are distinguished: perceptual processes, lexical processing, syntactic and semantic [48].
\nThe first step for the reading is the perception of the text, the recognition of the word, opening here a question: is each letter identified separately or is the word identified in its entirety? Already in 1972, Gough found that it was easier to find or recognize a letter when it was part of a word than when it was isolated in a random series of letters [49]. On the other hand, it is possible that both theories have their share of reason and that using the letter or the global word as a processing unit depends on the task, the context, the characteristics of the word and the reader’s skill [50]. Also, spacing is important in reading speed. It has been proved that increasing letter spacing has a negative effect on reading speed in experienced adult readers; while in children has no effect [51]. On the other hand, Fischer-Baum researched word identification, taking special focus on double letters [52]. He also noticed that a patient with acquired dyslexia used to spell words in a similar way as a previous spelt word, including double letters [53]. He found that letter identity and double letters are separately represented in written language, showing a complex reading capacity and a common orthographic representation of reading and writing (Figure 2).
\nOrthographic representations in various theories of visual word processing of the words feed and food [52]. (a) Representation of letter identify and order theories. (b) Theory of grapheme identification. (c) Open bigram theory. (d) Separation of letter identity and letter doubling information theory (from https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758%2Fs13423-016-1149-8).
Eye movements and fixations are involved in the perceptual process. The information we extract passes into iconic memory, of great capacity but short duration. The information is transferred from iconic memory to short-term visual memory, which allows it to be maintained for a longer period of time and is now retained as linguistic material. Finally, a comparison is made with the long-term memory to check whether the word is stored [47].
\nThe next step is the recognition of the meaning of the word, a process that can be done in two ways. One of them is to compare the spelling of the word with a series of representations stored in the memory to see which one fits. All that is needed is the existence of a word store or mental lexicon in which all the words known to the reader are represented [53]. Reading by this route involves several operations: the visual analysis of the word that is transmitted to a store of orthographic representations of words called “visual lexicon”, where it is identified by comparison with the units stored there. This in turn will activate the corresponding phonological representation, located in another lexical warehouse, the so-called “phonological lexicon”, and from here it will be deposited in the “pronunciation warehouse” ready to be issued. This route is known by the name of lexical route or also visual route [53].
\nWe talk about the process of understanding how words are interrelate to each other. Isolated words do not convey any new information, but it is in the relationship between them that the message is found [54]. Once the words of a sentence have been recognized the reader must determine how they are related to each other. The parsing process therefore comprises three main operations [55], by means of which the areas to which the words correspond are labeled, the relationship between the components is established and a structure is constructed according to the hierarchy of its components.
\nIn this process, once the meaning of the sentence has been extracted, it is integrated and compared with previous knowledge; therefore, the richness of the person’s vocabulary and previous experience will be decisive. The process ends when extracted meaning is integrated into memory, with the rest of the reader’s knowledge. During this process, the reader makes certain inferences, makes deductions about the information and adds non-explicit information. This last phase of the process is the most complex but it is not carried out independently of the previous ones, but all the processes interact with each other [47].
\nWhen assessing reading comprehension, sometimes independent phrases are used, outside of a story or context. If there are no given part, the sentences could not be understood as we do not know what facts they refer to. If, on the other hand, there are no new parts, they would not provide any knowledge other than that which is already possessed [49].
\nReading is one of the most important visual activities, requiring complex cognitive processes. One of the most important reading skills is reading speed, being critical to understand the reading text. But achieving an adequate reading speed for compression requires mastery of the various eye skills and movements described above. The stimulus required for an optimal reading is also important. Its parameters are: characters size subtending 0.3–2°; field size up to 4 characters independent of character size; bandwidth up to 2 cycles/degree independent of character size; and 1 spatial-frequency channel suffices for reading [3]. Visual spam requires 7–11 characters to be recognized at the fovea for normal reading rates during fixation [56]. It is well-known that the maximum visual acuity is located in the fovea and decreases directly with eccentricity [57].
\nIn a meta-analytic study, reading skills components were evaluated to determine their importance on reading comprehension in healthy adults. Results showed a great relationship between comprehension and the following skills: morphological awareness, language comprehension, fluency, oral vocabulary knowledge, real word decoding and working memory [58].
\nThis section will address the assessment of cognitive skills in a rehabilitation program, the eccentric viewing training, the optical correction and other training techniques such as oculomotor control and perceptual training.
\nAssessment of cognitive skills is the step prior to the development of a visual rehabilitation program. Several tests are used for cognitive skills evaluation, such as MoCA, MMCT or CDT [59] or the scale COGEVIS, which is specially designed for low vision patients [60]. Also, it is essential to evaluate the level of literacy of the patient before visual and reading evaluation. If the patient is illiterate or has a low level of reading comprehension, it may be useful the tumbling E test for visual acuity [3].
\nEccentric viewing consists of using a non-central part of the retina for viewing. In this method of vision, given when central retina is damaged, the eye uses an eccentric retinal location, known as preferred retinal loci (PRL) [61]. It is common for many patients with eccentric viewing not to realize that they are fixing in that way. According to Jeong and Moon, no improvements were found in best corrected visual acuity after 2 weeks of self-training; however, there were significant improvements in reading speed and satisfaction scores [61].
\nNowadays, microperimeters can evaluate the visual field and the PRL even in patients without fixation, correlating the exact retinal locations with the visual field [62]. There are two microperimetry techniques: static and dynamic. The first of these can detect mild scotomas and defining their shape, with no movement of the stimulus. In dynamic microperimetry, the stimulus moves from the periphery towards the point of fixation, presenting difficulties in identifying the relative scotomas [7].
\nSometimes PRL is not located in an appropriate area and it should be relocated in a better retinal location, closer to the fovea so visual acuity will be the best [7]. Some studies have shown that patients trend to develop the PRL at the left side of the atrophy [63]. However, Greenstein et al. evaluated several patients with macular disease such as AMD and Stargardt disease, founding a majority of PRL located above the atrophic lesion [64]. A superior or inferior location of the PRL is better than a left location for reading because scotoma does not interfere much in continuous reading.
\nIn some patients, oculomotor deficits can reduce reading skills, so training methods with using eye movements are needed for these patients. It is the case of Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) training, which allows PRL training without eye movements to read. The words of the sentence are presented one by one at the center of the screen, allowing reading without eye movements because fixation with the PRL is maintained on the screen [3].
\nOptical correction plays a very important role to make the most of patients’ vision. Nevertheless, optical correction is not only optical lenses with the correction of patients’ refractive error, but also adds power for reading distance and prisms if necessary [65].
\nAs a field defect, prisms can be used for AMD patients. Several studies have been conducted to determine the benefits of repositioning the retinal image in its PRL, the area of the retina where the subject looks and replaces the pitting, using prisms in patients with macular degeneration. Three different studies evaluated the use of prisms in subjects with AMD, shifting the image from the visual field to the PRL predetermined by the subject for rehabilitation [66, 67, 68]. Visual acuity was assessed with the best correction, obtaining significant values of improvement with the use of prisms. In addition, the PRL preferred by patients was mostly in the upper retina and showed conformity and adaptation to the use of prisms in the three studies. This indicates that the use of prisms, with good PRL delimitation, may be an appropriate rehabilitation option for patients with AMD.
\nFirst of all, we must make a distinction between optical devices and non-optical devices for low vision patients. An optical aid is an optical system made up of high-powered lenses that help people with reduced vision make the most of their remaining vision. On his behalf, a non-optical aid, such as light flexes or lecterns, is a complement to help make the most of vision. For reading, spectacles magnifiers and hand and stand magnifiers are the most classical optical aids used; while macro types, lecterns and an appropriate illumination are the non-optical aids most important for central vision loss patients [7]. Filters are used in patients suffering from photophobia and glare and they have a great visual impact in macular disease patients [7]. Over the years several studies have shown the effects of filters on glare, but there is no global filter prescribing protocol for each disease [69, 70, 71]. One of those studies found that with a blue-violet filter, patients with central and peripheral scotoma improved visual acuity, contrast sensibility and glare better than the yellow filter [71].
\nContrast plays an important role on training reading skills. Reading materials should have a 100% black and white contrast and reading conditions should reduce the amount of glare, specially created by short wavelength light. Also, light position is a crucial point to be considered, being recommendable that light source is placed above or behind the patient [3]. Finally, text font is also important. In a Canadian research with patients with AMD, Courier text font was found as the most recommendable font for these patients, whereas Arial was found as the worst for reading smaller print [72].
\nIt is necessary to train eye movements, saccades and fixation stability in order to rehabilitate reading performance. The flashlight technique is useful to train oculomotor movements and fixation stability on distance targets. The patient holds a flashlight and, keeping their head still, follows the light with their eyes. A test variation uses a laser pointer directed to the wall as a stimulus, which allows the patient to detect relative scotomas [3]. The King-Devick test (KDT) for low vision patients is an advanced training of fixation stability, saccades and tracking eye movements. It is based on performance of rapid number naming. In a 6 weeks research with KDT training in first and second grade children, the treatment group improved significantly compared with the control group in reading fluency and reading comprehension, with efficient eye movements [73].
\nPerceptual training is the last step of the rehabilitation program. Then, an example of a protocol is shown [3]:
Start with large print: it is important to start with large print and, to decrease the size as the patient improves his or her reading skills. If it is possible, the ideally size is comparable with a newspaper print (size 1 M).
Start reading single letters: its aim is to get the patient to recognize each letter and number detail with eccentric vision for, then, explore simple words. At the end of this process, the patient may be capable of reading a continuous text.
Use training to improve comprehension: this can be possible by providing the patient reading material with higher levels. Improving reading speed a comprehensive rehabilitation can be achieved.
Transfer acquired reading skills into daily life activities.
Visual impaired patients require an individualize assessment and rehabilitation plan due to the affectation by their pathology varies from one patient to another. This fact makes it difficult to develop a standardized attentional plan for these patients. However, several assessment guidelines for central vision loss patients can be recommended.
\nFirstly, fluent reading requires a minimal visual acuity of 20/50, a visual field at least of 2° to the right and the left and a holding position of 250 ms between saccades [74].
\nNowadays, microperimetry is one of the most important tests in patients with central vision loss. The origin of microperimetry is due to the need to evaluate the visual field in people with unstable or extrafoveal fixation problems or because of problems in the macula. Conventional perimetry is based on the fixation of the subject. If the fixation is extrafoveal and/or unstable, the visual field will not be correct, with values displaced from their true location and incorrect scotoma sizes [75]. Microperimetry allows the points of the visual field to be correlated with the exact retinal location; at the same time, the fundus of the eye can be visualized while visual stimuli are projected [62] (Figure 3). It allows also eccentric fixation training.
\nMicroperimetric image in which the evaluated points and the anatomical situation in the fundus of the eye are observed (from https://www.canadianjournalofophthalmology.ca/article/S0008-4182(13)00209-3/fulltext).
In macular abnormalities, microsacadic movements are greater than in a normal eye, affecting fixation stability [76]. Due to poor fixation stability, the reading speed is affected and reduced [77]. This fixation stability can be improved by training, and microperimetry is essential for such training.
\nAn important consequence of central vision loss in some patients is depression, which has a prevalence of 2–5% [78]. Low-vision rehabilitation aids have shown to improve reading speed but no effects on depression have been reported in AMD patients [79]. If traditional rehabilitation protocols do not show a great impact on depression, prevention of depression may be an appropriate action. The sum of visual rehabilitator, behavioral activation and occupational therapist has shown an effective effect on depression.
\nAn improvement on quality of life and reading has been seen in AMD patients who already use magnifying aids, after a computer-based reading training at home [78]. On that randomized and controlled trial, patients were divided into two groups: primary reading training group and control group with placebo training. Control group started with reading training after 6 weeks of placebo, which consist of crossword puzzles. Reading speed was measured with the German version of the International Reading Speed Texts (IReST), eye movements were measured with a scanning lases ophthalmoscope (SLO); and degree of depression, cognition and quality of life were measured with Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), dementia detection test (DemTect) and Impact of Vision Impairment (IVI) questionnaires, respectively. Reading speed improved in training group, as well as emotional status. Such results were not given in the control group [78].
\nWith the development of technology, a new field of rehabilitation opened up, beginning with the first electronic aids. Tablets and iPads are currently widely used, even in elderly AMD patients. It has been shown in these patients that they read faster on iPad with larger text sizes when compared with paper. Also, patients reported to have the best clarity with it [80]. Moreover, it has been proved to improve reading speed in low vision patients, as well as other low vision devices such as closed-circuit television (CCTV); being the previous experience with an iPad decisive in order to obtain greater reading speeds [81].
\nAnother technological aids can be a virtual bioptic telescope and a virtual projection screen, implemented in a head-mounted display (HMD) [82]. In this research, two new magnification strategies were developed: a virtual bioptic telescope and a projection screen presented in virtual reality. The first one consists of a user-defined region of a wide-field binocular head-mounted display where the image can be magnified (Figure 4). With this system, visual function was significantly improved, including reading. The minimum clinically important difference (MCID) frequency in reading task was 85.7% of participants [82], which shows an appropriated visual aid for central vision loss patients.
\nExample of the user-defined region or “bubble” where image can be magnified [82] (from https://tvst.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2725386).
Intra-ocular telescopic implants are commercially invasive aids for low vision patients. Dunbar and Shawahir-Scala review showed the different implants available on the market for patients with AMD [83]. These implants consist of intra-ocular lens combined in order to create an optic system. Lipshitz mirror implant (LMI) is a modified conventional intra-ocular lens (IOL) with two miniature mirrors in a combination that creates a dual optical system in a similar way to multifocal IOL. The central part of the IOL magnifies the image while the peripheral portion remains unmagnified. Quality of life improved and single letter near acuity with early treatment diabetic retinopathy study (ETDRS) near vision chart at 20 cm improved [84]. With the same optical basis of a multifocal IOL, the Scharioth Macula Lens (SML) has a central optic zone with +10.00 D addition. Compared with a +6.00 D spectacle lens for near vision, SML reported 2.1 lines better visual acuity at 15 cm than the spectacle lens at 1 month [85]. Similar results to those of LMI were obtained with IOL-AMD after 4 months. This implant consists of a Galilean telescope in one eye with two hydrophobic IOLs, one negative and one positive [83]. Finally, the intra-ocular miniaturized telescope (IMT) takes advantage of corneal optical power. It is implanted in one eye, used for near vision, while the other eye is used for distance vision. At 1 year, 3.2 lines of improvement in near vision acuity in ETDRS was reported compared with baseline, remaining after 5 years of surgery [83, 86].
\nRelying on the development of technology, games have also undergone a revolution. Today, there are multiple games that can be played on iPad. AMD patients in a large percentage use personal electronic devices for playing games [87]. Due to these results, gaming could play an important role in earlier detection of AMD. Video games had been used to train visual acuity, fixation pattern and retinal sensitivity in patients with Stargardt disease [88]. Patients of this study played action video-game during 1 h per day each eye with alternate patching. Results showed an improvement of these visual functions, which opens a new option of rehabilitation based on video-games.
\nReading involves the participation of different perceptive and cognitive processes. When a person suffers a pathology such as AMD, the vision in the central visual field is reduced and all the processes are altered, being necessary a rehabilitative intervention that determines the scope of the visual loss, helps to establish a new point of visual fixation and trains in the ocular movements, so that the reading becomes fluid and comprehensive. In this rehabilitative process, it is necessary to implement optical and non-optical aids that improve the visual functioning of the person affected by AMD. New electronic devices and access to digital information are producing changes in the visual rehabilitation strategies of people with AMD.
\nNone of the authors have any conflict of interest on the devices or technology described in this chapter.
ABI | acquired brain injury |
ADL | activities of daily living |
AMD | age-related macular degeneration |
CCTV | close circuit television |
CFL | central field loss |
CS | contrast sensitivity |
CVF | central visual field |
ETDRS | early treatment diabetic retinopathy study |
HMD | head-mounted display |
ICO | International Council of Ophthalmology |
IOL | intra-ocular lens |
IMT | intra-ocular miniaturized telescope |
IReST | International Reading Speed Texts |
ISLRR | International Society for Low-vision Research and Rehabilitation |
IVI | impact of vision impairment |
KDT | King-Devick test |
LMI | Lipshitz mirror implant |
LVR | low vision rehabilitation |
MADRS | Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale |
MCID | minimum clinically important difference |
NVR | neuro visual rehabilitation |
OCT | optical coherence tomography |
PRL | preferred retinal locus |
RSVP | rapid serial visual presentation |
RGCs | retinal ganglion cells |
SLO | scanning laser ophthalmoscope |
VEGF | vascular endothelial growth factor |
VA | visual acuity |
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\\n\\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\\n\\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\\n\\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\\n\\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\\n\\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"
The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117096},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:63},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-health",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry",parent:{title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"},numberOfBooks:29,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:919,numberOfWosCitations:427,numberOfCrossrefCitations:285,numberOfDimensionsCitations:774,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"dentistry",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9387",title:"Oral Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76591a3bd6bedaa1c8d1f72870268e23",slug:"oral-diseases",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan, Anil Sukumaran and Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9387.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8202",title:"Periodontal Disease",subtitle:"Diagnostic and Adjunctive Non-surgical Considerations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0aee9799da7db2c732be44dd8fed16d8",slug:"periodontal-disease-diagnostic-and-adjunctive-non-surgical-considerations",bookSignature:"Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8202.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8837",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac055c5801032970123e0a196c2e1d32",slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"52177",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Bourzgui",slug:"farid-bourzgui",fullName:"Farid Bourzgui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52177/images/system/52177.jpeg",biography:"Farid Bourzgui is a professor of Orthodontics in the School of Dental Medicine at Hassan II University in Casablanca, Morocco. He received his PhD from the School of Dental Medicine at Hassan II University in 1995. He holds various certificates and diplomas: a Certificate of Higher Studies in Group A (major: Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry, 1996), a Certificate of Advanced Studies of group B, (major: Dentofacial Orthopaedics, 1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery at University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France, a diploma of Higher Studies in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002), a Certificate of Clinical Occlusal Odontology from the Faculty of Dentistry Casablanca (2004) and a university degree in Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca in 2011.\r\nFarid Bourzgui is a former intern and resident of Casablanca University Hospital, Ibn Rushd in Casablanca. Dr Bourzgui specialises in Orthodontics and received his National Diploma in Dentistry (major: Dentofacial Orthopedics) from the School of Dentistry in Casablanca in 2000.\r\nDr Bourzgui has published a number of articles and book chapters on various aspects of Orthodontics. He has served on the board of the Moroccan Society of Dentistry, and was the President of the Moroccan Society of Dentistry from 2002 to 2004.",institutionString:"University Hassan II of Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7497",title:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1e9812cebd46ef9e28257f3e96547f6a",slug:"computer-vision-in-dentistry",bookSignature:"Monika Elzbieta Machoy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işık Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işık Aslan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7056",title:"An Update of Dental Implantology and Biomaterial",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fab27916553ca6427ec1be823a6d81f2",slug:"an-update-of-dental-implantology-and-biomaterial",bookSignature:"Mazen Ahmad Almasri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7056.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"150413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazen Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Almasri",slug:"mazen-ahmad-almasri",fullName:"Mazen Ahmad Almasri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7244",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b83fa9a75b23711bfaaa169dfb1b94ec",slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",bookSignature:"Jane Manakil",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7244.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68285",title:"Dr.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Manakil",slug:"jane-manakil",fullName:"Jane Manakil"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5814",title:"Dental Anatomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"445cd419d97f339f2b6514c742e6b050",slug:"dental-anatomy",bookSignature:"Bağdagül Helvacioğlu Kivanç",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",middleName:null,surname:"Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",slug:"bagdagul-helvacioglu-kivanc",fullName:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6717",title:"Oral Microbiology in Periodontitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"746619365268c3b5cf92bafea23a6bfa",slug:"oral-microbiology-in-periodontitis",bookSignature:"Sonia Bhonchal Bhardwaj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6717.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178566",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia Bhonchal",middleName:null,surname:"Bhardwaj",slug:"sonia-bhonchal-bhardwaj",fullName:"Sonia Bhonchal Bhardwaj"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:29,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"18416",doi:"10.5772/16475",title:"Dental Implant Surface Enhancement and Osseointegration",slug:"dental-implant-surface-enhancement-and-osseointegration",totalDownloads:18205,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:78,book:{slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"S.Anil, P.S. Anand, H. Alghamdi and J.A. Jansen",authors:[{id:"25232",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukumaran",middleName:null,surname:"Anil",slug:"sukumaran-anil",fullName:"Sukumaran Anil"},{id:"28373",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Jansen",slug:"john-jansen",fullName:"John Jansen"},{id:"77058",title:"Dr.",name:"Seham",middleName:null,surname:"Alyafei",slug:"seham-alyafei",fullName:"Seham Alyafei"},{id:"82073",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhash",middleName:null,surname:"Narayanan",slug:"subhash-narayanan",fullName:"Subhash Narayanan"}]},{id:"18415",doi:"10.5772/16936",title:"Osseointegration and Bioscience of Implant Surfaces - Current Concepts at Bone-Implant Interface",slug:"osseointegration-and-bioscience-of-implant-surfaces-current-concepts-at-bone-implant-interface",totalDownloads:11810,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:34,book:{slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu and Yoshiki Oshida",authors:[{id:"26726",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Oshida",slug:"yoshiki-oshida",fullName:"Yoshiki Oshida"},{id:"29841",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ramazanoglu",slug:"mustafa-ramazanoglu",fullName:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu"}]},{id:"48165",doi:"10.5772/60010",title:"3D Scanning, Imaging, and Printing in Orthodontics",slug:"3d-scanning-imaging-and-printing-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:5467,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,book:{slug:"issues-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Emilia Taneva, Budi Kusnoto and Carla A. Evans",authors:[{id:"96409",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Evans",slug:"carla-evans",fullName:"Carla Evans"},{id:"96472",title:"Prof.",name:"Budi",middleName:null,surname:"Kusnoto",slug:"budi-kusnoto",fullName:"Budi Kusnoto"},{id:"172854",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia Taneva",middleName:null,surname:"Taneva",slug:"emilia-taneva-taneva",fullName:"Emilia Taneva Taneva"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61046",title:"Optical Diagnostics to Improve Periodontal Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"optical-diagnostics-to-improve-periodontal-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:3678,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fardad Shakibaie and Laurence Walsh",authors:[{id:"179467",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",slug:"laurence-walsh",fullName:"Laurence Walsh"},{id:"235443",title:"Dr.",name:"Fardad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakibaie",slug:"fardad-shakibaie",fullName:"Fardad Shakibaie"}]},{id:"65714",title:"Oral Mucosal Trauma and Injuries",slug:"oral-mucosal-trauma-and-injuries",totalDownloads:3917,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry"},signatures:"Meltem Koray and Tosun Tosun",authors:[{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun"},{id:"258195",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meltem",middleName:null,surname:"Koray",slug:"meltem-koray",fullName:"Meltem Koray"}]},{id:"54942",title:"Cleft Lip and Palate Management from Birth to Adulthood: An Overview",slug:"cleft-lip-and-palate-management-from-birth-to-adulthood-an-overview",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"insights-into-various-aspects-of-oral-health",title:"Insights into Various Aspects of Oral Health",fullTitle:"Insights into Various Aspects of Oral Health"},signatures:"Maen Hussni Zreaqat, Rozita Hassan and Abdulfattah Hanoun",authors:[{id:"38245",title:"Dr.",name:"Maen",middleName:"Hussni",surname:"Zreaqat",slug:"maen-zreaqat",fullName:"Maen Zreaqat"},{id:"52438",title:"Dr.",name:"Rozita",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"rozita-hassan",fullName:"Rozita Hassan"},{id:"205482",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulfattah",middleName:null,surname:"Hanoun",slug:"abdulfattah-hanoun",fullName:"Abdulfattah Hanoun"}]},{id:"67314",title:"Pathogenesis of Periodontal Disease",slug:"pathogenesis-of-periodontal-disease",totalDownloads:1588,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"periodontal-disease-diagnostic-and-adjunctive-non-surgical-considerations",title:"Periodontal Disease",fullTitle:"Periodontal Disease - Diagnostic and Adjunctive Non-surgical Considerations"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz-Carrillo, Viridiana Elizabeth Hernández-Reyes, Oscar Eduardo García-Huerta, Francisca Chávez-Ruvalcaba, María Isabel Chávez-Ruvalcaba, Karla Mariana Chávez-Ruvalcaba and Lizbeth Díaz-Alfaro",authors:null},{id:"71271",title:"Flap Techniques in Dentoalveolar Surgery",slug:"flap-techniques-in-dentoalveolar-surgery",totalDownloads:638,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"oral-diseases",title:"Oral Diseases",fullTitle:"Oral Diseases"},signatures:"Randa Abdulmoein AlFotawi",authors:[{id:"308701",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",middleName:"Abdulmoein",surname:"Alfotawi",slug:"randa-alfotawi",fullName:"Randa Alfotawi"}]},{id:"60376",title:"Management of White Spot Lesions",slug:"management-of-white-spot-lesions",totalDownloads:1876,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",title:"Dental Caries",fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management"},signatures:"Ceren Deveci, Çağdaş Çınar and Resmiye Ebru Tirali",authors:[{id:"233963",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"R. Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Tirali",slug:"r.-ebru-tirali",fullName:"R. Ebru Tirali"},{id:"233986",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Çağdaş",middleName:null,surname:"Çınar",slug:"cagdas-cinar",fullName:"Çağdaş Çınar"},{id:"233988",title:"Dr.",name:"Ceren",middleName:null,surname:"Deveci",slug:"ceren-deveci",fullName:"Ceren Deveci"}]},{id:"18420",title:"Stress Distribution on Edentulous Mandible and Maxilla Rehabilitated by Full-Arch Techniques: A Comparative 3D Finite-Element Approach",slug:"stress-distribution-on-edentulous-mandible-and-maxilla-rehabilitated-by-full-arch-techniques-a-compa",totalDownloads:4173,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Giuseppe Vairo, Simone Pastore, Michele Di Girolamo and Luigi Baggi",authors:[{id:"33843",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Vairo",slug:"giuseppe-vairo",fullName:"Giuseppe Vairo"},{id:"39843",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Baggi",slug:"luigi-baggi",fullName:"Luigi Baggi"},{id:"39844",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Pastore",slug:"simone-pastore",fullName:"Simone Pastore"},{id:"40011",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Di Girolamo",slug:"michele-di-girolamo",fullName:"Michele Di Girolamo"}]},{id:"65088",title:"Evaluation and Management of Mandibular Fracture",slug:"evaluation-and-management-of-mandibular-fracture",totalDownloads:1430,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry"},signatures:"Guhan Dergin, Yusuf Emes and Buket Aybar",authors:[{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin"},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes"},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar"}]},{id:"48165",title:"3D Scanning, Imaging, and Printing in Orthodontics",slug:"3d-scanning-imaging-and-printing-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:5467,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,book:{slug:"issues-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Emilia Taneva, Budi Kusnoto and Carla A. Evans",authors:[{id:"96409",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Evans",slug:"carla-evans",fullName:"Carla Evans"},{id:"96472",title:"Prof.",name:"Budi",middleName:null,surname:"Kusnoto",slug:"budi-kusnoto",fullName:"Budi Kusnoto"},{id:"172854",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia Taneva",middleName:null,surname:"Taneva",slug:"emilia-taneva-taneva",fullName:"Emilia Taneva Taneva"}]},{id:"18432",title:"Clinical Complications of Dental Implants",slug:"clinical-complications-of-dental-implants",totalDownloads:55211,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Su-Gwan Kim",authors:[{id:"27797",title:"Prof.",name:"Su-Gwan",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"su-gwan-kim",fullName:"Su-Gwan Kim"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"dentistry",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"65334",title:"Introductory Chapter: Some Important Aspects of Root Canal Treatment",slug:"introductory-chapter-some-important-aspects-of-root-canal-treatment",totalDownloads:308,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83653",book:{title:"Root Canal"},signatures:"Ana Luiza de Carvalho Felippini"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:1},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/116305/thelma-canto-de-cetina",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"116305",slug:"thelma-canto-de-cetina"},fullPath:"/profiles/116305/thelma-canto-de-cetina",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()