\r\n\t(1) Sustainable Waste Management; \r\n\t(2) Micro(nano)plastics in the Environments; \r\n\t(3) Electronic Waste and Circular Economy; \r\n\t(4) Reducing, Recycling and Recovery of Agricultural and Food Waste; \r\n\t(5) Biomass Valorization: Waste to Resources; \r\n\t(6) Governmental Policy on Waste Management and Valorization.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book will offer a timely opportunity for knowledge exchange of sustainable management agenda for biological waste and remediation of soil, water and air in the local context, which satisfies the environmental compatibility, financial feasibility and social needs. It will deliberate on state-of-the-art treatment technologies, advanced management strategies, and political issues pertaining to recycling and recovery of organic waste.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-913-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-912-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-914-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"4ef7ac85e87a3131afb9b858b79aa870",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Tao Zhang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11256.jpg",keywords:"Waste Management, Microplastics, Nanoplastics, Electronic Waste, Agricultural Waste, Food Waste, Recycling, Recovery, Biomass, Resources, Governmental Policy, Environmental Protection",numberOfDownloads:15,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 10th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 26th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Dr. Zhang was a visiting scholar at Arizona State University in 2014 and at the University of Hohenheim in 2017. He is the director of the Circular Economy Committee of the Chinese Society for Environmental Sciences and Water Treatment and Recycling Committee of the Chinese Society for Environmental Sciences. He has been authorized 17 invention patents in China and has won the Chinese prize for the "Outstanding Young Scientist” in 2019.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"185487",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"tao-zhang",fullName:"Tao Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185487/images/system/185487.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tao Zhang is an Associate Professor and Ph.D. Supervisor at the College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, China. His academic background covers waste management, wastewater treatment, utilization of agricultural waste. He is awarded the Scientific Chinese - Outstanding Young Scientist Award, the Innovation Award for Industry-University-Research Cooperation of China, the Character Award - Invention and Entrepreneurship Award of China Association of Inventions. His H-index is 23 (Scopus) and he has published more than 50 papers in Chemical Engineering Journal, Water Research, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Green Chemistry, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, and so on. Amongst, 11 ESI Highly Cited Paper and 4 ESI Hot Paper. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"19218",title:"Zooplankton Abundance, Biomass and Trophic State in Some Venezuelan Reservoirs",doi:"10.5772/16491",slug:"zooplankton-abundance-biomass-and-trophic-state-in-some-venezuelan-reservoirs",body:'\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
The zooplankton community in freshwater bodies is composed principally of protozoa (flagellates and ciliates; from just a few to hundreds of micrometres), rotifers (from 30µm to 1mm) and crustaceans (copepods and cladocerans, some hundreds of µm up to 1cm), as well as insect larvae (such as Chaoborus), freshwater jellyfish (Craspedacusta), ostracods (Cypria), aquatic mites (Hydracarina), fish larvae and even trematode cercariae (Infante, 1988; Lampert & Sommer, 1997; Rocha et al., 1999; Conde-Porcuna et al., 2004). This community represents a vital component in the food web of aquatic ecosystems (López et al., 2001). Especially in dammed rivers, information on the zooplankton community is important for the analysis of the functioning of these ecosystems and for the establishment of management policies for water use.
\n\t\t\t
The density of zooplankton, expressed as the number of organisms per unit of area or volumen, does not necessarily provide exact information about the actual biomass of this community, since this consists of a huge variety of taxa with a wide size range (Matsumura-Tundisi et al., 1989). Zooplankton biomass is also an important and necessary parameter for calculating the secondary production of this community (Melão & Rocha, 2004). Thus, the estimation of the dry weight of zooplankton species is a more useful variable for the study of trophic structure in aquatic ecosystems than density, especially considering its relationship with the trophic states of the water bodies (Rocha et al., 1995).
\n\t\t\t
In Venezuela, there is little data on the dry weight of zooplankton or their biomass (\n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález et al., 2008\n\t\t\t\t). Although this country has over 100 operating reservoirs (MINAMB, 2007), information on the ecological aspects of zooplankton is only available for about 20% (López et al., 2001). In this study we aimed to establish the relationships between the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton with phytoplankton biomass (estimated as chlorophyll a) and the trophic states of reservoirs, using data collected from 13 of these water bodies.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Study areas
\n\t\t\t
We collected plankton samples from the following reservoirs, distributed in the northeastern and north central regions of Venezuela: 1) Agua Fría, 2) Taguaza, 3) Lagartijo, 4) Clavellinos, 5) Tierra Blanca, 6) El Pueblito, 7) El Cigarrón, 8) El Cují, 9) El Andino, 10) La Mariposa, 11) La Pereza, 12) Quebrada Seca and 13) Suata (Figure 1).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Map of Venezuela, showing the relative locations of the reservoirs studied. For reservoir names, see numbers in text.
\n\t\t\t
Some of the main morphometric features of the reservoirs surveyed are shown in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reservoir \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mean depth (m)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Area (m2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Volume (m3)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Residence time (d)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Location \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAgua Fría\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
13.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
440,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5,800,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
38
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10º23’ N - 67º10’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTaguaza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
20.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6,490,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
134,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10º10’ N - 66º26’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLagartijo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4,510,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
80,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
243
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10º11’ N - 66º43’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClavellinos\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
12.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10,500,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
131,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
106
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10°21’ N - 63°36’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTierra Blanca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
12.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
400,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
144
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9º58\' N - 67º25\' W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Pueblito\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
49,500,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
315,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
152
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9º12’ N - 65º34’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Cigarrón\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
50,500,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
246,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
158
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9º12’ N - 65º40’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Cují\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
12,720,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
49,310,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
375
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9º37’ N - 65º14’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Andino\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1,780,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
14,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
167
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9º32’ N - 65º09’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa Mariposa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
13.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
540,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10º24’ N - 66º33’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa Pereza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
562,500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8,000,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10º27’ N - 66º46’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQuebrada Seca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
950,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7,500,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10º13’ N - 66º43’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuata\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8,498,00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
43,540,000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
84
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10°12’ N - 67°23’ W
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Mean morphometric features of the studied reservoirs.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Methods
\n\t\t\t
The data analyzed was taken from the results of 6-12 monthly sampling periods at each reservoir. Samples for estimating phytoplankton biomass (as chlorophyll a) were collected using an opaque van Dorn bottle (3 – 5 liters) from the euphotic layer of reservoirs and preserved in cold and dark conditions until their analysis in the laboratory. Chlorophyll a concentration was estimated by extraction of the photosynthetic pigments with ethanol after filtering with Whatman glass-fiber filters (Nusch & Palme, 1975). Zooplankton samples were obtained from the limnetic zone of the water bodies using vertical trawls in the oxygenated strata with a plankton tow net (77µm mesh). Samples were preserved in 4% formaldehyde (final concentration). Abundance was determined by counting animals in Sedgwick-Rafter chambers (1ml), according to Wetzel & Likens (2000) and biomass was estimated as dry weight (d.w.) after desiccation at 60°C for about 20-24 h, according to Edmondson & Winberg (1971). Parametric correlations were determined using the PAST program (Hammer et al., 2001).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Results
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.1. Description of reservoirs and phytoplankton biomass
\n\t\t\t\t
Agua Fría (AFR): Located within a protected area (Macarao National Park, Miranda State). Used to supply drinking water to the city of Los Teques (population approximately 172,000). This reservoir shows low nutrient concentrations, but the water level has declined over the years due to the increase in the demand for drinking water. Meromictic with a tendency to warm monomictic, following Lewis’ (1983) criteria; shows hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (González et al., 2004).
Taguaza (TAG): Located within a protected area (Guatopo National Park, Miranda State). Used to supply drinking water to areas surrounding the city of Caracas (population approximately 4 million). Shows low nutrient concentrations. Meromictic with a tendency to warm monomictic and with permanent hypolimnetic anoxia (González et al., 2002).
Lagartijo (LAG): Located within a protected area (Guatopo National Park, Miranda State). Used to supply drinking water to the city of Caracas (population approximately 4 million). Shows low nutrient concentrations, but due to the increasing demand for water by the metropolitan area of Caracas, water is pumped to the reservoir from the Tuy river (a highly contaminated river) after sedimentation and chlorination, although this pumped water only affects a small part of the water body. Meromictic with a tendency to warm monomictic and with nearly permanent hypolimnetic anoxia (Infante et al., 1992; Infante & O. Infante, 1994; Ortaz et al., 1999).
Clavellinos (CLA): Located in Sucre State and used to supply drinking water to the town of Carúpano and Nueva Esparta State (population 512,366) as well as for irrigation. High nitrate concentrations were detected in its waters, possibly from the use of fertilizers on the surrounding land. Warm monomictic; shows anoxic conditions in the hypolimnion during the rainy season (Merayo & González, 2010).
Tierra Blanca (TBL): Situated in Guárico State and used to supply drinking water to the city of San Juan de Los Morros (population 85,000); it is also used for recreational purposes. Its drainage basin is partially protected, although this is limited by free public access. Its water level fluctuates strongly due to demand. Meromictic with a tendency to warm monomictic and with nearly permanent hypolimnetic anoxia (González, 2006).
El Pueblito (EPU): Located in Guárico State and used for flood control, subsistence agriculture, irrigation and recreation. Shows moderate nutrient concentrations. Classified as warm monomictic according to the criteria of Hutchinson (1957) and Lewis (1983), with hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (González, 2000a).
El Cigarrón (ECI): Located in Guárico State and used for flood control, subsistence agriculture and irrigation. Shows high nutrient concentrations due to the use of fertilizers in the surrounding areas. Warm monomictic; with hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (Unpublished data).
El Andino (EAN): Located in Anzoátegui State. Used for subsistence agriculture and irrigation. Shows moderate nutrient concentrations due to the use of fertilizers in the surrounding areas. Warm monomictic; with hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (Infante et al., 1995; González, 2000b).
El Cují (ECU): Situated in Anzoátegui State and used for the supply of drinking water to the towns of Onoto and Zaraza, as well as for flood control and irrigation. Warm monomictic; with hypolimnetic hypoxia and anoxia during the rainy season (Infante et al., 1995).
La Mariposa (LMA): This is an urban reservoir, located 8 km from the city of Caracas (population approximately 4 million) and used to supply drinking water as well as for recreation. The catchment area is highly intervened and its waters show high nutrient concentrations, which has recently produced excessive growth of the macrophyte Eichhornia crassipes. In spite of low residence time, its waters show thermal stratification during the rainy season, when hypoxic conditions may also be detected in the hypolimnion (Ortaz et al., 1999).
La Pereza (LPE): Located in Miranda State and used for recreational purposes and the supply of drinking water to areas surrounding Caracas (population approximately 4 million). Its waters show high nutrient concentrations, which come from nearby pig and chicken farms, as well as waste waters from a galvanized steel factory. Warm monomictic; with anoxic conditions in the hypolimnion during the rainy season (Ortaz et al., 1999).
Quebrada Seca (QSE): Located in Miranda State and used for purifying untreated water from the Tuy river before pre treating and pumping it to the Lagartijo reservoir, from which it is used to supply drinking water to Caracas. Its catchment area is highly intervened, with surrounding rural communities that discharge their wastewaters directly into the reservoir. It mixes only once a year (warm monomictic) and shows hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (Ortaz et al., 1999).
Suata (SUA): Located in Aragua State and used to supply water for subsistence agriculture and cattle ranching. This reservoir is fed by the Aragua river which collects the wastewaters of several populations along its course that are then deposited into the reservoir without prior treatment. It is polymictic, due to the shallowness of its waters (González et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t\t
The reservoirs represent a gradient of different trophic states, from ultra-oligotrophic (Agua Fría and Taguaza) to hypertrophic (Quebrada Seca, La Mariposa and Suata), according to their total phosphorus concentration following Salas & Martinó (1991), and determined by the authors cited for each reservoir description. Phytoplankton biomass, estimated as the concentration of chlorophyll a in the euphotic zone of each water body, also reflects the trophic state of the reservoirs (Table 2). The mean values of both total phosphorus and chlorophyll a for the euphotic zone of these reservoirs varied between 4 and more than 1500 µg/l and between 2.16 and 92.89 µg/l, respectively, for Agua Fría (the most oligotrophic) and Suata (the most eutrophicated) reservoirs.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.2. Zooplankton abundance and biomass
\n\t\t\t\t
The variation intervals of the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton for each of the reservoirs surveyed are shown in Table 3. The dominant zooplankton taxa for each water body are also specified.
\n\t\t\t\t
Copepods were the dominant group in 8 of the 13 reservoirs sampled (Agua Fría, Taguaza, Lagartijo, Clavellinos, El Pueblito, El Cigarrón, El Cují and La Mariposa) and second in numeric abundance in the El Andino reservoir, where rotifers were the most dominant. Ostracods dominated in the Tierra Blanca and Suata reservoirs and protozoa showed the highest relative abundances in La Pereza and Quebrada Seca. The relative proportions of the different zooplankton taxa are shown in Figure 2. It can be appreciated that copepods were the dominant group in all of the ultra-oligotrophic and oligotrophic reservoirs, but as the trophic state of the water bodies increased other taxa became more abundant.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reservoir \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Total P (µg/l)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Chlorophyll a\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t (µg/l)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Trophic state \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAgua Fría\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.57
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.27
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ultra-oligotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTaguaza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.63
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.67
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ultra-oligotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLagartijo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.08
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.78
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Oligotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClavellinos\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.60
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.41
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Oligotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTierra Blanca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
23.11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.66
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Oligo-mesotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Pueblito\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
21.31
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.46
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Oligotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Cigarrón\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
37.21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.71
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mesotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Cují\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
23.58
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.05
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Oligo-mesotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Andino\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25.60
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
26.10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mesotrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa Mariposa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
136.83
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
41.92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hypertrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa Pereza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
94.64
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
44.36
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Eutrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQuebrada Seca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
121.25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
62.71
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hypertrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuata\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1616,43
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
92.89
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hypertrophic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Mean values of total P, chlorophyll a and trophic state in the studied reservoirs.
\n\t\t\t\t
It can be observed that in general, as the trophic state of the reservoir increases, the mean abundances of the zooplankton also seem to increase. This can be seen from Figure 3, where the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton were ordered according to the mean concentrations of chlorophyll a in the water bodies. Thus, the lowest phytoplankton biomass values (as chlorophyll a) and the lowest abundance and biomass values of the zooplankton are found in the ultra-oligotrophic reservoirs (24 individuals/l and 48.51 µg d.w./l in Agua Fría, and 86 individuals/l and 28.71 µg d.w./l in Taguaza), whilst the highest
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Relative proportion of zooplankton groups in the studied reservoirs. AFR: Agua Fría, TAG: Taguaza, LAG: Lagartijo, CLA: Clavellinos, TBL: Tierra Blanca, EPU: El Pueblito, ECI: El Cigarrón, ECU: El Cují, EAN: El Andino, LMA: La Mariposa, LPE: La Pereza, QSE: Quebrada Seca, SUA: Suata.
\n\t\t\t\t
phytoplankton biomass values and the highest mean abundance and biomass values of the zooplankton are found in the hypertrophic reservoirs (1130 individuals/l and 1127.26 µg d.w./l in Quebrada Seca, and 753 individuals/l and 2026.14 µg d.w./l in Suata).
\n\t\t\t\t
Given the associations found between the phytoplankton and zooplankton, we explored the relationships between phytoplankton biomass, zooplankton abundance and zooplankton biomass in greater detail using a further set of graphs: 1) Chlorophyll a vs zooplankton abundance (Figure 4), 2) chlorophyll a vs zooplankton biomass (Figure 5) and 3) zooplankton abundance vs zooplankton biomass (Figure 6). The relationships between these parameters are presented using both the raw and logarithmically transformed data, in order to see which gives a better fit.
\n\t\t\t\t
From Figure 4 we can see that there is a good fit between the mean chlorophyll a values of the water bodies and the mean abundance of the zooplankton, either when the raw data were used (Figure 4a) or after logarithmic transformation (Figure 4b). In both cases the relationship best fitted to a straight line, and the linear regression coefficients were higher than 0.60 and statistically significant (p<0.05).
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 5 shows another good fit, this time between the mean chlorophyll a values and mean zooplankton biomass, either when using the raw (Figure 5a) or logarithmically transformed (Figure 5b) data. In both cases, as for the relationship between phytoplankton biomass and zooplankton abundance, the association was linear; although the linear regression coefficients were lower, they remained statistically significant (p<0.05).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6 shows that the relationship between the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton can also be described linearly, both with the raw (Figure 6a) and logarithmically transformed (Figure 6b) data.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reservoir
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Abundance (Ind./l) Min. – Max. (Mean ± S.D.)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Biomass (µg/l) Min. – Max. (Mean ± S.D.)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Dominant zooplankton group
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Agua Fría \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.68 – 39.41 (23.91 ± 8.98)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.56 – 123.44 (48.51 ± 32.08)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copepods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Taguaza \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
43.86 – 150.00 (85.58 ± 29.79)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.82 – 55.03 (28.71 ± 15.91)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copepods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lagartijo \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.00 – 373.00 (155.64 ± 128.34)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
82.43 – 863.78 (251.31 ± 218.53)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copepods + Rotifers
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Clavellinos \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30.48 – 99.94 (61.84 ± 22.33)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
97.40 – 1406.29 (504.28 ± 351.84)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copepods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Tierra Blanca \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
131.80 – 688.67 (309.16 ± 187.14)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100.08 – 2307.10 (607.21 ± 571.54)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ostracods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
El Pueblito \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
73.00 – 218.00 (123.17 ± 41.17)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
69.80 – 228.10 (127.25 ± 49.77)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copepods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
El Cigarrón \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
35.00 – 272.00 130.00 ± 69.66)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40.00 – 360.00 (164.67 ± 103.86)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copepods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
El Cují \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
125.50 – 330.60 (228.05 ± 145.03)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
141.37 – 1643.14 (1092.40 ± 546.93)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copepods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
El Andino \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.80 – 616.40 (287.89 ± 201.36)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
402.98 – 634.67 (381.72 ± 169.46)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rotifers + Copepods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
La Mariposa \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
111.00 – 669.00 (423.33 ± 182.13)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
154.83 – 1297.77 (787.42 ± 355.74)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copepods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
La Pereza \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
32.00 – 643.00 (278.40 ± 262.17)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20.09 – 184.18 (121.77 ± 79.50)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Protozoans
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Quebrada Seca \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
98.00 – 2472.00 (1129.80 ± 871.30)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
259.46 – 1833.49 (1127.26 ± 710.50)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Protozoans
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Suata \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
133.76 – 2518.47 (752.93 ± 678.60)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
305.73 – 13853.50 (2026.14 ± 3757.81)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ostracods
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Zooplankton abundance, biomass and dominant groups in the studied reservoirs.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
Mean values of chlorophyll a, zooplankton abundance and biomass in the studied reservoirs. AFR: Agua Fría, TAG: Taguaza, LAG: Lagartijo, CLA: Clavellinos, TBL: Tierra Blanca, EPU: El Pueblito, ECI: El Cigarrón, ECU: El Cují, EAN: El Andino, LMA: La Mariposa, LPE: La Pereza, QSE: Quebrada Seca, SUA: Suata.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 4.
Relationship between chlorophyll a and zooplankton abundance: a) Raw data, b) logarithmically transformed data. For reservoir names, see Figures 2& 3.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Relationship between chlorophyll a and zooplankton biomass: a) Raw data, b) logarithmically transformed data. For reservoir names, see Figures 2& 3.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Relationship between zooplankton abundance and biomass: a) Raw data, b) logarithmically transformed data. For reservoir names, see Figures 2& 3.
\n\t\t\t\t
As for the associations shown in Figures 4 and 5, the linear regression coefficients for zooplankton abundance vs biomass were also statistically significant (p<0.05) and higher than 0.51.
\n\t\t\t\t
The linear correlation coefficients (r) between these variables were also calculated and were also statistically significant (p<0.05), as was to be expected from the linear regressions obtained:
\n\t\t\t\t
Chlorophyll a vs. zooplankton abundance; r= 0.778.
Chlorophyll a vs. zooplankton biomass; r= 0.718.
Zooplankton abundance vs. zooplankton biomass; r= 0.751.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Discussion and final considerations
\n\t\t\t
The majority of the reservoirs included in this study show a tight linear relationship between total phosphorus and the concentration of chlorophyll a; thus these variables are good predictors of their trophic state (\n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález, 2008\n\t\t\t\t; González & Quirós, submitted). Reservoirs whose drainage basins are protected or in areas with low anthropogenic impact show the lowest total phosphorus and chlorophyll values, whilst those found in degraded catchment areas give the highest values.
\n\t\t\t
As regards the zooplankton, Matsumura-Tundisi (1997) suggests that an understanding of the population dynamics of the different groups constitutes a useful tool for the management of reservoirs, since the composition, abundance and spatial distribution of the zooplankton communities are strongly related to their trophic state and the degree of biological interactions that occur within them, and that furthermore, the prevalence of certain species could indicate of the trophic state of the ecosystem.
\n\t\t\t
According to Esteves (1998), an increase in phytoplankton primary production due to eutrophication has immediate effects on heterotrophic organisms, considerably increasing their production. As for phytoplankton, the specific composition of zooplankton and the relative density of each species changes with eutrophication (Esteves, 1998; Pinto-Coelho et al., 2005; Leitão et al., 2006; Landa et al., 2007; Tundisi et al., 2008). Thus many species either reduce in abundance or disappear completely, and are substituted by others that take over as the dominant zooplankton taxa. For example, Infante & Riehl (1984) suggested that pelagic cladocerans, such as Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Diaphanosoma sp. and Moina micrura, may be more susceptible to the proliferation of cyanobacteria than copepods and rotifers in highly eutrophicated systems. In most cases, cyanobacteria negatively affect zooplankton (Zhao et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\t
As far as we are aware this is the first comparative analysis of the relationships between the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton and phytoplankton biomass in reservoirs with different trophic states in Venezuela that takes into account the mean annual cycles of these three variables. Several previous studies only consider fluctuations in the abundance and biomass of zooplankton with respect to physicochemical changes and phytoplankton abundance and biomass (Infante, 1993; Infante et al., 1995; Mendoza, 1999; Carrillo, 2001; González et al., 2002; Gavidia, 2004\n\t\t\t\t; González, 2006; Cabrera, 2009\n\t\t\t\t; Merayo & González, 2010). In some of these investigations, statistically significant correlations between phytoplankton and zooplankton were not found, especially in eutrophic systems, where links between the two communities may be weakened by the proliferation of microalgae that are not the preferred food of zooplankton (Mc Queen et al., 1986). In these cases, zooplankton dynamics were registered as being principally determined by environmental fluctuations, although some of the abundance and biomass peaks coincided with peaks of chlorophyll a concentrations. In contrast, in several oligotrophic systems, such as the Agua Fría and Taguaza reservoirs in this study (González et al., 2002; González, 2006) and the Jucazinho reservoir in Brazil (Mélo-Júnior et al. 2007), significant correlations between phyto- and zooplankton have been reported.
\n\t\t\t
From the analyses done in this study, it seems common that in water bodies with a higher degree of eutrophication, zooplankton abundance and biomass are higher compared to oligotrophic reservoirs. This relationship has been reported in other comparative studies of these variables in water bodies with contrasting trophic states in both Venezuela and Brazil (González et al., 2002; González, 2006; Sendacz et al., 2006; Blettler & Bonecker, 2007), the only countries in which these types of investigations have been done within the South American tropics (\n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález et al., 2008\n\t\t\t\t).
\n\t\t\t
From this study it can be observed that the association between phytoplankton biomass and the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton is not perfect (see Fig. 3). The explanation for this is indicated by Fig. 2, however, which gives the relative proportions of the different zooplankton groups, as well as the information given in Tables 2 and 3.
\n\t\t\t
As has already been mentioned, copepods dominate in the oligotrophic environments considered in this study, but as the trophic state increases, the relative abundances of other groups also increase. Thus, the lack of association between the variables could be due to the dominance of zooplankton taxa with small sized species, which contribute little in terms of weight to the total zooplankton biomass. In contrast, copepods contribute more to total zooplankton biomass in many fresh water bodies due to their larger sizes and heavier dry weights (Infante, 1993; Infante et al., 1995; Castilho-Noll & Arcifa, 2007; \n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález et al, 2008\n\t\t\t\t; Merayo & González, 2010).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSendacz et al. (2006) affirm that rotifers tend to dominate zooplankton communities in tropical and sub-tropical lakes and reservoirs, independently of their trophic state, but due to their small size and light weight, often contribute little to total zooplankton biomass. This could explain the lack of a perfect association between zooplankton abundance and biomass in the Venezuelan reservoirs studied.
\n\t\t\t
In contrast to that indicated by Sendacz et al. (2006), the zooplankton community in most Venezuelan reservoirs seems to be dominated by copepods (López et al., 2001). This agrees with our results where copepods were the dominant group in 8 out of the 13 Venezuelan reservoirs studied. This could be promoted by high water residence times that favor species with relatively long development cycles (Santos-Wisniewski & Rocha, 2007). The dominance by groups other than copepods in Venezuelan systems could be related to factors such as temperature, the quantity and quality of available food, species genotypes, climatic periods and differences in habitat conditions, among others (Gavidia, 2004; Sendacz et al., 2006; Mustapha, 2009; Merayo & González, 2010).
\n\t\t\t
In spite of the lack of a perfect fit between phytoplankton biomass and the abundance and biomass of zooplankton, strong linear relationships between the annual means were found. Thus, in the same way as for the strong linear relationships found between nutrients and phytoplankton biomass in Venezuelan reservoirs (\n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález, 2008\n\t\t\t\t; González & Quirós, submitted), a strong linear association was also found between zooplankton abundance and biomass, between each of these and phytoplankton biomass (estimated as chlorophyll a), and between all these variables and the trophic state of the reservoirs.
\n\t\t\t
Due to the fact that zooplankton dynamics are associated with the effects of anthropogenic activities in the drainage basins of these fresh water bodies (Infante, 1993), the identification of the dominant taxa (composition), and estimates of their abundance and biomass provide us with valuable tools for the determination of the trophic state, and thus should be taken into account when designing policies for the adequate management of reservoirs in Venezuela.
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\n\t
Acknowledgments
\n\t\t\t
The authors would like to thank the Organization of American States, Fondo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (Project S1-98-1361), Consejo de Desarrollo Científico y Humanístico – UCV (Projects 03.33.4728.2000 and 03.00.6495.2006), Hydrological Companies HIDROVEN, HIDROCAPITAL, HIDROCARIBE and HIDROPAEZ, Ministerio del Ambiente for logistic and financial support. We also thank Mario Ortaz for field and laboratory assistance and discussions on zooplankton. We would also like to thank the Coordinación de Investigación, Ciencias – UCV and Frances Osborn who helped with the translation of the manuscript into English.
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\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/19218.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/19218.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19218",totalDownloads:2366,totalViews:181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:78,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 12th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 24th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/19218",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/19218",book:{id:"459",slug:"biomass-and-remote-sensing-of-biomass"},signatures:"Ernesto J. González, María L. Matos, Carlos Peñaherrera and Sandra Merayo",authors:[{id:"25286",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto",middleName:"Jose",surname:"Gonzalez",fullName:"Ernesto Gonzalez",slug:"ernesto-gonzalez",email:"ernesto.gonzalez@ciens.ucv.ve",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25286/images/19_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Central University of Venezuela",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Venezuela"}}},{id:"38955",title:"MSc",name:"Maria",middleName:"Leny",surname:"Matos",fullName:"Maria Matos",slug:"maria-matos",email:"lenymatos@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"38956",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Peñaherrera",fullName:"Carlos Peñaherrera",slug:"carlos-penaherrera",email:"capenaherrera@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Study areas",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Description of reservoirs and phytoplankton biomass",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Zooplankton abundance and biomass",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Discussion and final considerations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBlettler\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. C. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBonecker\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007Longitudinal distributions of microcrustacean biomass in three tropical reservoirs (Paraná State, Brazil). 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Matsumura-Tundisi (Eds.), 151\n\t\t\t\t\t165Brazilian Academy of Sciences, Brazilian Limnological Society, 8-57093-003-8de Janeiro.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRocha\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMatsumura-Tundisi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEspíndola\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. L. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRoche\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRietzler\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999Ecological theory applied to reservoir zooplankton, In: Theoretical reservoir ecology and its applications. J.G. Tundisi & M. Straškraba (Eds.), 457\n\t\t\t\t\t476Brazilian Academy of Sciences, International Institute of Ecology, Backhuys Publishers, 905782034São Carlos.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B45",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSalas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMartinó\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tA simplified phosphorus trophic state model for warm-water tropical lakes\n\t\t\t\t\tWater Research\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t3March 1991), 341\n\t\t\t\t\t350\n\t\t\t\t\t0043-1354\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B46",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSantos-Wisniewski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRocha\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tSpatial distribution and secondary production of Copepoda in a tropical reservoir: Barra Bonita, SP, Brazil.\n\t\t\t\t\tBrazilian Journal of Biology, 67\n\t\t\t\t\t2May 2007), 223\n\t\t\t\t\t233\n\t\t\t\t\t1519-6984\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B47",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSendacz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCaleffi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSantos-Soares\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tZooplankton biomass of reservoirs in different trophic conditions in the state of São Paulo, Brazil.\n\t\t\t\t\tBrazilian Journal of Biology, 66\n\t\t\t\t\t1bFebruary 2006), 337\n\t\t\t\t\t350\n\t\t\t\t\t1519-6984\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B48",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTundisi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMatsumura-Tundisi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tThe ecological dynamics of Barra Bonita (Tietê River, SP, Brazil) reservoir: Implications for its biodiversity.\n\t\t\t\t\tBrazilian Journal of Biology\n\t\t\t\t\t68\n\t\t\t\t\t4Supp.) (November 2008), 1079\n\t\t\t\t\t1098\n\t\t\t\t\t1519-6984\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B49",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWetzel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLikens\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000Limnologycal analyses (3rd edition), Springer, 0-38798-928-5York.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B50",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRamin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCheng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArhonditsis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tPlankton community patterns across a trophic gradient: The role of zooplankton functional groups\n\t\t\t\t\tEcological Modelling\n\t\t\t\t\t213\n\t\t\t\t\t3-4May 2008), 417\n\t\t\t\t\t436\n\t\t\t\t\t0304-3800\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ernesto J. González",address:"",affiliation:'
Universidad Central de Venezuela, Instituto de Biología Experimental, Caracas, Venezuela
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"María L. Matos",address:null,affiliation:'
Universidad Central de Venezuela, Instituto de Biología Experimental, Caracas, Venezuela
Universidad Central de Venezuela, Instituto de Biología Experimental, Caracas, Venezuela
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1. Introduction
Regenerative agriculture is a farming and land management concept based on several principles and techniques that strengthen and restore ecosystem functions and health. Long-term usage of regenerative agriculture has shown many benefits in terms of quality and profitability for farmers, as well as improving the environment and contributing to the maintenance of a healthy agricultural landscape. Given that it is not always very clear how each action contributes to better agricultural management and drought mitigation, this chapter aims to recall the key elements that farmers must consider in regenerative agriculture in order to have the best results. It should be noted that there is more than one approach that may differ depending on local circumstances, however, the elements described in this chapter serve as a starting point for practitioners and academics who wish to learn more or deepen one of the related domains.
The existence of life is largely dependent on the richness and health of soils, which is why soil structure, together with water availability are the most valuable resources for humanity. The annual degradation of the agricultural lands puts even more pressure on farmers, forcing them to use more chemical inputs and these practices may eventually lead to extreme phenomena such as drought, floods, and eventually soil abandonment [1]. However, both farmers and policymakers continue to be neglecting the need for soil health preservation and they do not take firm restoration measures even when the situation becomes concerning.
Water, minerals, and organic matter combine to make the soil in a natural process. Soil minerals are produced in the process of natural erosion, while the organic matter is formed by the decomposition of plants and other organisms that have died. Many scientists consider soiling a finite resource that cannot be renewed during a human lifespan. We propose, in the present chapter, several techniques used and validated for faster restoration of soil properties, which may help recovery in very shorter time periods, depending on the degree of soil impairment.
Degraded soil is described as a change in the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that results in a reduced capacity to support plant growth. The most common phenomena that usually occur are related to the fact that soil loses the capacity to deliver nutrients and water, while toxic compounds restrict plant growth, topsoil lacks of organic matter content, subsoil resources are insufficient to support plant roots, the compaction rate is substantially increased, drainage occurs with difficulty, and many of the needed microorganisms are absent.
In most common cases, the quality of the soil decreases as a result of the anthropogenic intervention, while some natural causes are aggravating the circumstances, often leading to erosion. Human activity is the most frequent cause of agricultural soil degradation and for accelerating natural soil erosion. Agriculture has deteriorated the Earth\'s soils during the last 100 years, with disastrous consequences, David R. Montgomery [2] estimates that humanity is losing 0.3% of our global food production each year due to soil erosion and degradation. Soil degradation and loss has been a problem since the beginning of agriculture and played a major role in the demise of past civilization including Mesopotamia, Antic Greece, and the Rome Empire. The element that contributes probably the most to the negative damage to the soil, more important even than deforestation is the plowing activity. Stanford University in a study from 2015 estimated the degradation rate of topsoil worldwide at a rate of 70%, with margins between 54% in Africa and 74% in North America [3]. At this time, there is no allotted restoration period, since we are eroding soil 20 times faster than we are regenerating it.
Degraded soils have a poor health state, reducing the ecosystem\'s ability to provide water and nutrients to plants, and affecting the soil nutrient web. Degraded soils have a weak structure attributable to a lack of soil biodiversity, which causes flooding, erosion, and low production. Water cannot penetrate inferior soil structures, so the rains follow the flow of gravity, transporting major amounts of minerals and salts to the groundwater, rivers, or lakes. During a drought period, there will be no moisture, and groundwater will not be replenished easily. Plants will be stressed, and yields will decrease very fast. In the tropics especially on fertile land, soil deterioration is prevalent. Natural erosion caused by wind, sun, severe rainfall, and poor human management are the most common causes.
It is critical to understand that poor agricultural management before and during a drought has a synergetic effect on soil properties. Land degradation in arid, semiarid, and sub-humid areas may be generated by various external factors including climate change, and draught may lead to desertification. Desertification may be irreversible if not intervened in time, especially when the environment becomes too dry and the soil becomes further degraded through erosion and compaction.
One of the most important hazardous environmental events in recent history was the American Dust Bowl during the years 1930–1936, when large dust storms swept topsoil from significant land areas, making 75% of the original topsoil quality to be lost [4]. Commenting on the American Dust Bowl, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt said “The nation that destroys its soil, destroys itself”, a remark that is still relevant to modern crop management practices.
Storms, torrential rains, floods, and droughts are becoming more frequent and intense as a result of climate change. Every year, soil deterioration worsens, plants get stressed, and yields decrease. Soil management is, therefore, an essential element of sustainable agriculture.
Proper regenerative soil management will slow down or stop soil degradation and start to rebuild soil fertility. Management should be focused on obtaining healthy and superior plants that do not need intense chemical treatments since it is proven that a high immunity system protects crops from diseases and insect attacks. Increasing plant immunity will be pointed out in high yields, quality products, plants will get increased resistance to diseases and pest attacks. At the same time soil will become healthier, full of nutrients with an active and rich soil food web. Healthy soils with a balanced nutrients ratio, promote biological high activity and replenish groundwater, and will help the plants to withstand better the drought. To stop soil degradation, special attention must be paid to the phenomena that produce natural erosion, and rejuvenate the soil, while human activities have to change rapidly. Soil regeneration practices sequester an important part of the required amount of carbon in the soil, allowing mankind to maintain control over climate change. Soil carbon allows the land structure to function as a sponge, each gram of carbon-absorbing 8 grams of water. In addition to the positive effect on the mineralization process, carbon helps to build the soil structure, which aids in the supply of air, water, and nutrients to plants. Plants, in response, emit liquid carbon from their roots, increasing, even more, the synergies and water absorption. This phenomenon occurs more frequently when aggressive tilling works are avoided, and the synthetic fertilizer and synthetic biocides application are not used. The techniques, if they are applied indiscriminately have the opposite result, eliminating the carbon. Figure 1 depicts the most common approach to regenerative agriculture at three levels of management: acknowledge the objectives and benefits, comprehend the fundamental concepts, and put the best practices into action.
Figure 1.
A simplified approach to regenerative agriculture implementation.
Regenerative agriculture requires a complete redesign of the farming system, as well as a shift in the procedures and metrics used in traditional agriculture, and a longer-term commitment of farmers.
2. Main causes of soil degradation
FAO [5] defines soil degradation as a change in the soil health status, resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries. Degraded soils have a state of health that prevents them from generating the standard products and services in a given ecosystem. Soil degradation is caused by unfavorable interaction between physical, biological, and chemical soil characteristics, accelerating erosion, and leading to poor drainage, salinization, nutrient imbalance, decrease in soil organic matter, and suppressing biology. Physical soil deterioration includes changes in soil structure (crusting, compaction, etc.), imbalance in water content and air ratio, leading to extreme surface temperatures. Chemical soil deterioration includes nutrient leaching, fertility depletion, or even toxicity. Biological deterioration includes a decrease in the microorganism population and a drop in their activity, as well as, a severe reduction of organic matter content. Degraded soil is being studied at specialist institutions in nearly every country, and warnings are coming from all across the scientific world [6, 7, 8].
Major causes of soil degradation are divided into natural, as climate variations (soil degradation caused by wind, sun, drought, or heavy rains favoring the fertile soil to be washed away) and anthropogenic activities (overgrazing, deforestation, excessive use of chemicals fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, bare soils, excess of tillage, overdraft of groundwater, etc.) [9].
Conventional agriculture is considered to be one of the biggest contributors to soil degradation [10]. After Second World War, the Chemical Industry provide agriculture with new and advanced chemical formulas used as fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. The first results showed great success for everyone; however, the long-term effects were not anticipated since they have affected over time the soil structure and soil food web. Over few decades, the soil became degraded, plants are now mostly unhealthy, animals and humans experience unexplained medical conditions, and yields are going down every year. Chemicals use and tillage technology are producing the most detrimental influence on soil deterioration; as a result, their usage must be closely monitored and, if possible, avoided.
2.1 Bad practices that negatively influence the quality of agricultural soil
Farmers, working in conventional agriculture, that usually apply intensive chemical technologies, come across many harmful practices like those described below. The practices described in this section aim to draw attention to the most common activities that farmers do voluntarily or unknowingly, which may lead to soil degradation and floods.
2.1.1 Lack of efficient soil parameters evaluation
In Romania only a few farmers perform soil analysis annually, the majority of them use a standardized technology learned from books or advice from chemical companies. Soil parameters analyzed in a laboratory report do not contain enough information, the evaluation gives most often information regarding land chemistry, but ignores several important physical and biological properties. Sustainable agriculture changes the view of soil performance and soil quality [11]. Farmers need to invest more in complete soil assessment and perform some measurements by themselves, like soil acidity (pH) or soil conductivity (EC). The Haney report is another good analysis report that offers information about soil health, microbial respiration, water-extractable organic carbon, water-extractable nitrogen, etc. Haney soil test report offers farmers additional values to improve plant-available nutrients and estimate the soil health as related to carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) cycling [12].
2.1.2 Leaving the soil uncovered
Topsoil is being washed and lose its properties, microorganisms die, while its structure degrades. Uncovered soil favors natural soil erosion generated by rains, sun, or wind [13]. Soil loss of moisture and high soil temperature suppress bacteria and fungi living in the soil. In this environment, weeds germinate easily, and farmers cannot control them without using highly aggressive herbicides [14].
2.1.3 Excess of soil tillage
Tillage works as plowing and disking suppress the fungi network, appear losses the soil moisture, and may destroy soil structure [15]. Plowing is creating the hardpan at 15–30 cm deep. Hardpan is a compact layer of soil below the soil surface that inhibits roots movements through the soil [16]. Water is moving gravitationally on the hardpan, forming ponds, and soil gets salted [17].
2.1.4 Excess of synthetic fertilizers
Synthetic fertilizers suppress biology [18], contributing to soil compacting, loss of fertility, and humus total rate decrease. Plants are using only 15–30% of total inorganic fertilizers, while the rest is leaching in lakes, rivers, groundwater, etc. Accumulation of nitrogen in groundwater has different sources, being caught in irrigation lakes [19, 20]. As groundwater is the main source of drinking water, contamination poses several human health problems. At present in the United States of America, there are used 20 times more chemicals than in the American Dust Bowl period, and soil degradation continues dramatically.
2.1.5 Excess of one specific nutrient
Using in excess a specific nutrient especially N in a cation form, inhibits absorbing others nutrients cations as calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na). The nutrient balance is one of the most important factors in plant nutrition [21, 22, 23], when plants receive too much N, during a 24 h photosynthesis process, N under forms of nitrate (NO3) or ammonium (NH4), is not transformed into proteins and became attractive for insects [24]. Excesses of N develop elongation, delay maturity, change biochemistry, cause plant stress and make plants vulnerable to drought [25].
2.1.6 Monoculture technology
Monoculture is not resilient to climate change, soil is losing carbon, while carbon dioxide (CO2) is increasing in the atmosphere. Monoculture is a source of scarcity because the diversity principle is strongly affected [26]. Monoculture combined with bare soil practices decreases the fertility of agricultural lands dramatically [27].
2.1.7 Overdraft of groundwater
Groundwater overdraft is related to a dry aquifer, loss of water in streams and lakes, soil compacting, and polluted groundwater [27, 28].
2.1.8 Neglecting the soil’s biology
If the biology of the soil is ignored in drought years, is a major problem, since the soil loses nutrients and water, putting plants under a high level of stress. The plant\'s nature enables to fill in the gap of water and nutrients. In recent decades, scientists from many laboratories have studied the interactions between microorganisms and plants, and they have concluded that the soil food web plays the most important role in plant nutrition [29].
2.1.9 Micronutrients are underused
In the last decades\' scientific reports demonstrated that micronutrients are as important as major elements, the only difference is the needed quantity. Micronutrient deficiency is widespread in the world due to low organic matter, bicarbonate content in irrigation water, long time of drought, and imbalanced application of fertilizers. Micronutrients application contribute to plant health, soil health, and increase yield by up to 15–50% [30, 31, 32].
2.1.10 Too much importance given to quantity and not to quality
There is no special interest nowadays in the quality of the products obtained in conventional agriculture [33]. Healthy plants that are resistant to illnesses, insect attacks, and drought are used to produce high-quality products, while also improving yields. Highly nutritional plants have a substantial positive impact on soil health [34], animal, and human health.
3. Principles of restoring soil and plants health
Regenerative Agriculture is organic agriculture, using only natural available resources. In organic agriculture, farmers are certified if they produce non-GMO plants without using synthetic chemicals, approaching soil conservation and preservation for biodiversity. Farmers are allowed to use only inputs from certified organic agriculture. In 2018, at Rodale Institute was introduced for the first time a new higher standard for the farmers working in a regenerative system called Regenerative Organic Certified (ROC) [35]. Regenerative Agriculture is the way to sustainable farming practice, regenerate soil fertility, grow healthy plants that create healthy soils, less sensible to draught. Using methods from Regenerative Agriculture technology, carbon is sequestered in the soil, soil structure and soil fertility improve, water retention, and crop yield increase, while drought and flood ameliorate [36]. Regenerative agriculture can be defined by a holistic system approach that starts with the soil characteristics and also includes the health of the plants, animals, farmers, and community. The main aims envisage to regenerate topsoil, restoring degraded soil biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem services, improving water cycling and improving the resilience of soil to extreme weather. Regenerative Agriculture focuses on improving soil health by following four main mandatory principles and one optional. All specialists in Regenerative Agriculture accept the four principles that include soil cover, living roots, biodiversity, and minimalizing soil disturbance. The last principle which is the integration of animals is partially accepted and can be even more important in a few specific situations.
Everything plants need is cycled by soil microorganisms before becoming available to plants\' roots. Earth life is based on photosynthesis, a process that transforms photonic energy into chemical energy. It varies, depending on the availability of light, water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll concentration, and plant nutrition. Photosynthesis is the most efficient cycle and sustainable process in nature [37, 38], and it is the engine we can rely in Regenerative Agriculture. Farmers know that water, nitrogen, and high-temperature influence the photosynthesis process. During drought, plants switch from photosynthesis to photo-respiration process, when are consuming their reserve of proteins [39]. To avoid this happening, proper management has to be used that optimize nutrition. When monitoring fields frequently, one should notice nature needs [40].
3.1 Limited soil disturbance
Only a limited mechanical, chemical, and physical disturbance of soil is permitted. Tillage destroys soil structure, resulting in bare or compacted soil that is destructive to soil microorganisms and creates a hostile environment for them. Soil stability is a quantitative indicator of soil health that is based on a mix of biotic and abiotic soil parameters. The impact of physic and chemical qualities on soil resistance and resilience is mediated by the microbial community [41]. Living organisms in soil improve the structure, create pore spaces that allow water and air to infiltrate the soil. Intensive tillage destroys macro and microorganism habitat, disrupt the fungi hyphae and soil aggregate.
Synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides suppress life in the soil, having a negative impact on soil fertility. Inputs application disrupts the symbiotic relationships between fungi, bacteria, and plants roots. Overgrazing is a form of biological disturbance that reduces roots mass, increases soil temperature and runoff. All forms of soil disturbances affect microorganisms and diminish the soil food web.
3.2 Soil protection (defensive armor)
The principle is oriented toward keeping soil covered at all times, especially by setting up cover crops or intercropping. This is a critical step toward rebuilding soil health because bare soil is not a normal state, nature always works to cover the soil surface. When providing a natural vegetal shield, the soil is protected from wind and water erosion, while providing foods and a habitat for macro- and microorganisms [42]. It will also prevent moisture evaporation, reduces temperature, intercepts raindrops, and reduces germination of weed seeds. Soil cover offers a habitat for soil food web members that spend some of their time above ground. Keeping the soil cover on allows microorganisms to break down leftovers while recycling nutrients back into the soil.
3.3 Diversity
Nature aims for the diversity of both plant and animal species. Farmers should do the same, since monocultures are present only where humans have established them. The preservation, conservation, and restoring biodiversity should be a priority nowadays. Biodiversity is a major determinant in ecosystem stability, productivity, and nutrients dynamics. High diversity can be twice as productive as monoculture [43]. Different plant species use carbohydrates to feed certain microorganisms in return for water and nutrients via their roots. Biodiversity of plants is required to support the biodiversity of microbes. Each microorganism plays a specific role in maintaining soil health, and diversity enhances ecosystem functioning [44]. The key to improving soil health consists in a soil food web that is populated with several types of plants and animals. A fully functioning soil food web provides nutrients, water, energy, and allows the soil to express its full potential. The diversity has to be increased using crop rotation and cover crops.
3.4 Living root maintenance
Living roots have to be maintained in soil as long as possible because they are feeding soil biology by providing basic food source carbohydrates [45]. This biology feeds plants with water and nutrients, having the capacity to store nutrients and water that will be provided during drought. Farmers within conventional agriculture used to think there are 120 days to rest soil until the growing season. It is now considered wrong since living plants continue growing into early winter and break biological dormancy earlier in the spring. Their roots are feeding soil organisms and keep the biological population at a high rate. Healthy soil is dependent upon how well the food web is fed. Providing food to soil microbes helps them cycle nutrients that plants needed to grow.
3.5 Integrated animals
Nature does not function well without animal organisms. Integrated livestock into an operation provides many benefits. The major benefit is that grazing stimulates the plants to pump more carbon into the soil. This drives nutrient cycling by feeding biology, also has a major positive impact on climate change by cycling more carbon out of the atmosphere and putting it into the ground. Pasture cropping is another way of practicing regenerative agriculture for growing food and restoring degraded soil. Farmers should provide a home and habitat not only for farm animals but also for pollinators, predator insects, earthworms, and all the microbiology that drive ecosystem function.
3.6 Monitoring
Monitoring the field every day is also a key factor in keeping plants healthy. Checking the soil compaction, earthworm activity, soil structure, erosion risks, poor crop growth, etc., and keeping a recording of everyday activity helps the agricultural management system. Minimum information recorded are data, weather, fertility and irrigation program, yield, insects attack, diseases, etc.
There are different technologies according to these principles that are already used by some farmers. The most commonly used are the NO-TILL or STRIP-TILL, but they are rather used for profit maximized than for reducing drought effect and regenerating soil health. NO-TILL is studied in many countries, over a long period of years, concluded that is a big step forward [46]. However, these technologies are included in regenerative agriculture methods of growing plants during drought. A special part that is additional to these methods in regenerative agriculture, concerns breaking the hardpan and biological inoculation.
4. Methods to control draught by using the principles of regenerative agriculture
Drought stress is reduced when plants are healthy and thrive in healthy soil. For plants to overcome the draught on degraded soils, a new management strategy is required. Water, balanced nutrients, and biology are the three most important requirements for plants. Plants that are well-managed produce soil that is rich in humus. Growing healthy plants to overcome the drought and the elements that impact the process are provided in the appropriate sequence.
4.1 Weeds management
The field control has to begin in the autumn before the new agricultural year begins. Weeds like quack grass and foxtail can be found in dry clay soil, indicating calcium deficits and compact soil. Mow the grasses and compost the cuttings into the soil to help with calcium deficits. Broadleaf weeds, like ragweed, indicate copper deficiencies problem, and a phosphate/potassium imbalance. The rate between phosphate and potassium should be 2/1 for row crops and 4/1 for grass crops. Succulent weeds increase soil water capacity, replenish carbonate ions while covering the ground to protect against soil erosion. Weeds role is to deposit nutrients and metabolites in the soil or rearrange the nutrients existing in the soil. There is plenty of information in the literature about weeds role and weeds usage as a soil indicator [47, 48, 49]. This information is important to design a fertilization plan, in order to balance the nutrients. Herbicides must be avoided as much as possible since weeds get resistant to synthetic inputs, plants get unhealthy while the microbial population will decrease. Brix index in plants leaf must be measured before foliar application and 2 h after. After a few foliar applications, the crop will thrive and weeds will be attacked by insects and diseases, and not the established culture. As the nutrients are balanced, pH changes and weeds are under control.
4.2 Hardpan management
Hardpan management is the compact layer of soil just below the ground surface. Excess plowing leads to soil moisture loss by evaporation [50]. Avoiding working with moldboard plows, farmers must use instead a strip subsoil breaker in the first year to break the hardpan and apply a NO-TILL technology in the next years. Hardpan reduces the soil depth for plants roots and enhances soil waterlog. Plant roots grow in the surface layer reducing access to water and nutrients.
Well, aggregate soils are rarely found, usually, soils are crusted, compacted in layers or plow pans [51]. The agricultural year start in autumn and farmers first issue should be checking the hardpan with a penetrometer. After that, has to be measured the distance from soil surface to hardpan and hardpan thickness. If hardpan thickness is more than 5cm, then must be used a subsoil strip breaker. Soil improvement usually includes subsoil adding biological fertilization to break the hardpan and inoculate with microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) at the same time. Breaking the hardpan will allow water and nutrients to infiltrate deep in the ground, while microorganisms will keep the moisture and nutrients for a long period. Underground water and nutrients are stored naturally and through capillarity, the plants have access to water and nutrients during the drought period. In order to maintain the microbiology alive, they should be multiplied by feeding them and keeping constant moisture and temperature in the soil. In time, they will improve the soil structure, porosity, and the humus percentage will increase. In the photosynthesis process plants secret carbohydrates (sugar) and protein through the roots, which are food for bacteria and fungi. Bacteria and fungi are eaten by bigger microorganisms like nematodes and protozoa. Plants are thriving in such an environment even in drought conditions. With a restored soil food web, plants can control the water and nutrients cycling in the rhizosphere neighborhood. A restored food web reduces irrigation and tillage requirements, provides protection against pests and diseases and inhibits weeds. Pesticides and herbicides are not required, since applying these methods yields and farms profitability will be increasing.
Living life provides soil structure that resists wind and rain erosion. The first step will be in accordance with principles to use no plowing or disking, by implementing a no-till system. Figure 2 compares three types of agricultural soil processing: in the first plan the work was performed with soil loosening equipment, in the second plan it is proposed the minimal processing technology by breaking the hardpan, and in the third plan a plowed land is highlighted.
Figure 2.
Comparison between three types of agricultural soil processing: soil loosening equipment (first plan); minimal processing technology-hardpan breaking (second plan); plowing (third plan).
The proposed technology within INMA institute is performed with an equipment that can be carried by an agricultural tractor, that cut the soil linearly without overturning the furrow, break the hardpan, and inoculate the ground with beneficial microorganisms. An active microorganism life restores the soil food web, which keep the pore open. This could be the first phase in rebuilding a healthy soil and ecosystem.
4.2.1 Amendment and treatments
Amendment and treatments have a significant effect on soil\'s physical and chemical properties and increase microbial activity. Amendments improve soil water retention and soil structure as permeability, drainage, air holding capacity, etc. Soil acidity is potentially serious land degradation, acid soil is crusted and compacted, requires calcium, phosphorus, and minerals. The recommendation is to apply on soil a minimum 200 kg of lime and 200 kg of soft rock phosphates per hectare every autumn and spring during the first 2–3 years. These small quantities are recommended only in soils with degraded food web, or if microorganisms are being incorporated into the soil. Microorganisms are highly important because they break down the amendments and make them available to plants. High quantities of minerals suppress microorganisms. The amendments are spread best in autumn, before planting the cover crops and in spring before planting the main crop. Any other nutrient must be added as a result of the soil analysis. Organic amendments like compost or vermicompost have a benefic effect, increasing macro and micronutrient, organic matter, physical, and chemical soil properties like pH and EC. Humic acid found inside vermicompost, improves phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals [52]. Vermicompost soil amendments combined with foliar fertilizer, based on vermicompost, reduces the period to regenerate the soil fertility. Vermicompost can be produced in every farm, is cheap and have a tremendous effect on plants that grow during draught.
4.2.2 Mineral nutrients addition
Plants need minimum 17 mineral nutrients divided into macro- and micronutrients to grow and complete plants\' life cycle. Each of the nutrients perform specific functions within the plant and the amount of each needed by the plant depends on what role the plant has each element [53, 54]. Microelements are needed in a small amount, but they are as important as macro-elements. Micronutrient deficiencies induce stress in plants, cause yield losses, resulting in poor health for animals and humans [29]. Supplying plants with micronutrients, through soil application or foliar spray, increases yields, produces higher quality, but also increases macronutrient use efficiencies. Micronutrients application is cheaper and needs less labor and transport because there are small quantities to manipulate. There are nine macronutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) from which conventional agriculture is using six, but focus only on three N, P, K. Farmers in conventional agriculture, concentrating on NPK, can deliver excellent yields in irrigated conditions or rainy years, but less quality is usually obtained. Finite products, full of nutrients, for healthy animals and humans, are obtained when plants absorb balanced nutrients. To design a fertilizer plan, one need proper knowledge of the interaction between nutrients [55]. The key to controlling the mineral nutrients is restoring the soil food web. First-year must fertilize with biofertilizers and 70% of the recommended macronutrients N and P to obtain better yields and better-quality crops, low nitrate and nitrite levels in crops [56]. In two-three years, with a soil food web restored, microorganisms will takecare of plant nutrition, bacteria will fix the nitrogen in the soil, while other specific bacteria will solubilize the needed minerals. Biofertilizer is keeping beneficial microorganisms in the soil healthy and allow plants to overcome the drought [57].
4.2.3 Organic fertilizer
Organic fertilizer is added to the soil to improve soil structure, feed both the plants and microorganisms. Microorganisms break down the organic materials and release nutrients slowly to the plants. Organic fertilizers increase soil\'s ability to hold water and nutrients. Solid organic fertilizer made from bat guano, fish meal, or manure can be spread on the soil before planting the main crop. Liquid fertilizer can be sprayed on soil or leaves. Chelated liquid fertilizer should be used for a slow-release technique. A cheap method is to spread the fertilizers in furrows, in this way, it will produce the same effect, but the quantity needed is much less (approximately 20–30% of the total quantity needed).
4.2.4 Seed inoculation
Seed inoculation is a cheap and beneficial tool to grow healthy plants, considering that each plant has a group of bacteria or fungi that work in association with the plant roots. The colonization of plants roots by associated bacteria and fungi result in better performance than plants colonized by the wild population of microorganisms [58]. Inoculations have to be performed for both the main crop and cover crop. Inside the cover crop, there have to be various legume seeds that can be inoculated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. No need to fertilize the soil with nitrogen if seeds are inoculated with these types of bacteria [59, 60]. Biological control agents protect seedlings from disease as fusarium, pythium, etc. [61]. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi play an important role in plant growth. Corn inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal have a higher phosphorus absorption, increases vegetative biomass and grain yield, especially in low or medium available phosphorus [62].
4.2.5 Soil food web
Soil food web is a new model of soil fertility based on biology. This new model works better, presenting a lower cost, preventing diseases, do not pollute and use minimal chemical inputs [63]. Microorganisms are the link between water, nutrients and plants. Plants are in control of a viable soil food web, and exudates, in the form of carbohydrates and proteins, attracting specific bacteria and fungi. Bacteria and fungi consuming root exudates are at the bottom of the soil food web. Bigger microbes, nematodes, and protozoa are consuming bacteria and fungi, and are excreted as nutrients right in the rhizosphere. Protozoa and nematodes are eaten by arthropods. Arthropods may eat other arthropods or they might be eaten by snakes, birds, moles, etc. Worms, insect larvae, and moles are moving through the soil, in search of food, creating pathways and letting water and air enter. Members of the soil food web bind soil particles together, create tunnels for air and water to help create soil structure. Soil food web has a natural design and presents seven major benefits such as diseases suppression, nutrients retention, increase mineral nutrient availability to plants, improve soil structure, decomposition of toxic chemicals, production plant growth, and improve crop quality. Microorganisms and other soil food web members release root growing hormones. These growth hormones help the plant to cross the draught or a flood and increase yield.
4.2.6 Cover crops
The presence of plant cover crops in the agricultural system aids in the production of large amounts of biomass. This boosts the soil\'s organic content, improving fertilization. The physical, chemical and biological qualities of the soil are improved by maintaining permanent cover crops, and in time, contributing to the restoration of its health. It is recommended to use biodiversity, which include at least one species of leguminous plants. Inoculation has to be achieved with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, especially for leguminous plants. Then the amendments can be spread and may plant various cover crop seeds. Incorporation of amendments can be done with a disk harrow, while the cover crops may consist of oats, rye, buckwheat, radish, mustard, vetch, clover, etc. Plants\' biodiversity will attract various bacteria and fungi, each plant species attracting its own specific microorganisms. In this way, the soil food web will be restored sooner and better. Cover crops have to be chopped or mowed in spring before full bloom, and a minimum of two weeks before planting the main crop. The cover crop will maintain the soil moisture, while soil temperature will not vary too much during drought or between day and night. After mowing, cover crops are used as mulch. Raindrop energy will be dissipated by living crops and mulch, and in this way, erosion will be under control. Cover crops are being decomposed by fungi and bacteria. Another advantage is that in winter cover crops are one of the best options to defend against topsoil loss due to erosion. If it is managed correctly, the decomposition of cover crops by bacteria and fungi provides nutrients to the main crop (cash crop), while biodiversity of cover crop suppresses weeds, prevents NO3 leaching and produces above-ground biomass N [64, 65]. Plant diversity helps to reduce pathogens, pests, and weed invasion, reducing the need for insecticides and pesticides.
A diversified crop rotation enhances soil structure by varying the length of planting zones, allowing for better water penetration. Different crops with varying nutrient requirements, as well as waste products, will help to create a more balanced and resilient soil ecosystem. The duration of these rotations is usually between 4 and 6 years.
4.2.7 Maincrop (cash crop) management
When sowing, it is recommended to inoculate the main crop seeds with different solutions based on microorganisms and nutrients. The seeding should start in spring, two weeks after mowing the cover crops and apply foliar fertilizer during the critical point of influence. Each crop has different important phases that may be influenced by inoculation with microorganisms: when planting (to enhance germination), strengthening plant structure, growing the fruit and finishing fructification. Foliar fertilizer must contain at least calcium, manganese, boron, zinc, amino acids. Balance calcium with potassium starting filing fruit point of influence and replace calcium with potassium at the finishing fruit. Get the maximum feedback from the plant when adding biology in the fertilizer solution. A healthy plant will cross the drought. Harvest the corn seeds, but let the corn stalk on the soil to be decomposed by fungi and bacteria.
4.2.8 Foliar application
Foliar application is the most efficient and cheap way to grow healthy plants. Growing healthy plants increase the immune plants\' system, get resistance to diseases and insects attack, plants can cross the drought. In order to grow healthy plants, increase the photosynthesis process from 2- to 3 times by using the right foliar fertilizer solution. Aerated compost tea is a foliar biofertilizer with a benefic impact on plant growth [66]. Inside the aerated compost tea add other nutrients needed by plants.
A complete foliar fertilizer contains clean water, mineral nutrients, microorganisms, plant bio-stimulants, bacteria bio-stimulants, fungi bio-stimulants, and inoculants. It has a synergetic effect on plant growth. Plant reaction is tremendous, especially in degraded soils.
Water is the most important ingredient in foliar fertilizer solution. Using poor-quality water can determine a loss of 50% from the effect of the foliar solution. Do not use water from ponds, lakes, or others sources without water analysis tests. Good water for foliar application has less than 70 ppm, pH between 5.2 and 6.5, electrical conductivity EC between 1.6 and 2.8 ds/mm and temperature between 58 and 78 degrees Fahrenheit. For best results use rainwater or reverse osmosis water. Municipality water is usually unsuitable for foliar recipes because of the chlorine or chloramine, with high pH and potentially hardness.
Foliar solution when humidity is high has to be applied in larger particles (not fine spray), so the liquids remain on the leaf surface a long time without drying out. Sprayers with large droplets make a huge difference. The farmer should measure the effect of the foliar solution before application and 2 h after. If Brix reading is 2 points higher, the foliar solution is good and could apply on the entire field. A diagram of the Brix index reading should be done for every crop. Around 8 o’clock in the morning, after collecting healthy old mature leaf samples from 10 to 20 plants, they are squeezed on a refractometer.
In the Brix diagram example, the values are starting from 5, increasing to 9 at the first foliar application, but dropping after a few days to 6. After repeating the foliar application, the Brix index increases to 11, but drop in a few more days to 7. Every time when a good foliar application is applied, the Brix readings are higher and has been found that when Brix values are over 12, the plants present a health status that helps them overcome more easily the drought.
4.2.9 Sap analysis
A refractometer gives general information about plant health, but for more information including nutrients balance, a sap analysis is necessary. Plant sap analysis provides 21 nutrients parameters values that enable farmers to optimize the crops\' fertilization plan. The information is valuable because the uptake of plant nutrients are revealed in a few hours, the increasing performance can be tracked graphically, similar to the example shown in Figure 3. To a better understanding, one can compare a sap plant analysis with human blood analysis. A plant sap analyze tells the current uptake of nutrients, excesses or deficiencies of nutrients long term before can be seen on a plant leaf, plant reserves of nutrients, nutrient imbalance in soil, what nutrient plant can use at that moment for its own growth, or even fruit quality [67]. Sap analysis laboratory in less than one week will provide the analysis sheet with a fertilizer plan recommended. A balanced mineral uptake increases plants\' health that gets resistant to diseases and insects attack and crosses the drought.
Figure 3.
Example of the variation of the Brix index for tomato juice, for a period of 30 days.
4.2.10 Water management
Water is the most important nutrient for plants. A source of water is critical for drought years, but as long as the regenerative methods presented are met, plants can cross the draught without an irrigation water source. Knowledge of irrigation water quality is critical in understanding long-term soil management. The most influential water parameter is the salinity measured by electrical conductivity EC [68]. High sodium related to calcium and magnesium contends, in irrigation water, causes surface crusting, pore plugging, swelling, and dispersion of soil clay. The acidity or basicity of irrigation water is expressed as pH. Normal irrigation pH is between 6.5 and 8.5. Specific ions like boron, sulfate, chloride, and nitrate, may affect plants grown. An irrigation water analysis is required.
4.2.11 Crop rotation
Keep a crop rotation, with cover crop intermediate, for minimum 3 years after starting your regeneration soil program. After concluding that the soil food web is active and the soil is healthy crop rotation is not as important anymore, since biology will take care of plant nutrition and will suppress diseases, insects attack will decrease.
4.2.12 Aerated compost tea
Aerated compost tea, produced by a compost tea brewer, allow microorganisms to be extracted from compost and multiplied. The result consists in beneficial aerobic microorganism production that provides plants with nutrients and helps build the soil food web [69]. The tea is used for spraying both the leaf and soil. Vermicompost is also used to avoid pathogens. Red worm castings are free of pathogens. There are farmers, involved in regenerative agriculture, buying different products that contained few families of fungi and bacteria, but inside aerated compost tea there are thousands of families. A compost tea brewer can be purchased or can easily be built. All a farmer needs is a tank, an air pump, a hose, and an air splitter distributor. To brew the compost needs clean water, vermicompost, mineral nutrients and bio-stimulants for plants, bacteria and fungi. Brew all these ingredients for 24–36 h, then measure the pH and EC. If pH is higher than 6.5 must add 100–300 ml of vinegar and measure again. When measuring EC a few hours before stopping the air pump, If the values are too low must add more vermicompost. The tea has to be used within 4 h after the air pump stops, to improve the synergetic effect on plants and soil [70].
4.2.13 Managing livestock
Good and efficient management of animal grazing can rebuild soil health. This is a way for a healthy ecosystem, farm profitability, human health, food system resilience. Studies that use a complementary approach to animal husbandry with organic farming use found that adopting some grazing strategies could regenerate the soil and make them more profitable. Holistic management of livestock management includes grazing, land, and financial planning and ecological monitoring.
4.2.14 Agroforestry
Agroforestry can provide suitable tools for landscape restauration because it can enhance physical, chemical, and biological soil characteristics. Agroforestry is restoring and increasing land productivity because the presence of the trees can fix nitrogen, stabilize the soil, reduce soil erosion, increase fertility, and regulate water available in degraded lands.
Trees increase fertility by retrieving nutrients from deeper soils and adding them to the soil surface through the leaf litter. Because of their deep root system, trees prevent nutrients from leaching, combat soil salinization, and acidification. The use of trees with fixing-nitrogen bacteria is increasing crop productivity. Experiments in Zambia, for example, showed that maize yields increased by 88–190% when grown in an agroforestry system under a canopy of Faidherbia Albida Trees (FAO report Agroforestry for landscape restauration).
Trees can reduce and prevent soil erosion planted in windbreaks trees protect soil from erosion and increase yield.
Agroforestry buffer strips increase water runoff, and soil evaporation and increase water infiltration and water retention capacity, helping plants to cross the drought.
4.2.15 Instrumentation
Minimum instrumentation required to grow healthy plants and cross the draught more easily is the penetrometer, refractometer, pH-meter, EC-meter. A penetrometer is the first instrument to be used in an agricultural season to measure soil compaction. The penetrometer is a device used to measure the resistance of soil to a vertical force. The penetrometer can determine the depth of the hardpan and help producers to determine if a subsoil is in need.
Refractometer measure Brix index values for liquids. Brix values indicate the total soluble solids. The refractometer is widely used in measuring the quality of the grapefruits and the time to harvest. The refractometer can be used to evaluate the overall assessment of plant health. Healthy plants with a minimum 12 Brix readings are resistant to diseases and insect attacks.
Soil pH-meter is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of soil. The values give information about the balance of the nutrients found in the soil. However, can be also used as a pH meter for liquids, and determine pH when adding 5 parts distilled water on 1 part of the soil.
EC (electrical conductivity) meter is used especially to estimate salinity levels. A high level of salinity reduces the plant\'s ability to take up water. For assessment is being used 5 parts distilled water and 1 part soil to determine the values of salinity in mSiemens/cm. In clay soils, values are between 0.2 and 1.0 mS/cm, but different plants tolerate different values.
4.2.16 Drought
During drought, when air temperature became too warm, plants switch from photosynthesis to photo-respiration and begin consuming their inside proteins. Healthy plants with a waxy sheen, on the leaf surface, have a cooler leaf temperature than plants with a lack nutritional integrity. Foliar applications with teas made from compost, with the addition of 3 L of molasses per hectare, during and after the drought, is a very good practice.
5. Conclusion
Regenerative agriculture is focused on farming techniques with the primary goal of regenerating the land, particularly increasing the organic composition in order to improve fertility. This strategy conserves and restores soil organic matter, thus, influencing the development and prosperity of micro- and macro-organisms with beneficial results against soil erosion and drought.
Farmers may be forced to adopt unsustainable practices due to economic pressures, as they rarely have enough ability to deal with the conditions imposed by larger corporations, that control prices and credit. As a result, agricultural policies must be implemented at the national level to assist farmers and ensure they are not compelled to deplete the resource that provides them with a means of subsistence.
Regenerative agriculture is based on a holistic approach that places the land at the core of the process to produce efficiently and sustainably a synergy between the soil, the animal world, and the plant world. This enables the development of food chains between all three ecosystems, while the restoration of soil health is ensured by the balance and diversity of species found within the environment.
Climate change is no longer a myth, but a fact and the consequences are becoming increasingly severe every day, influencing the drought phenomena. Every year, topsoil is leaching, soil gets compacted, crusted, loses the ability to supply nutrients and water to plants. Degraded soils, in drought conditions, are not able to support plants with the required water and nutrients, while yields decrease dramatically. In order to reduce the drought effect, farmers have to integrate their use of regenerative agriculture principles and methods, focusing on growing healthy plants and getting rewarded with good yields and increased farm profitability.
Water retention in agricultural lands is associated with soil organic carbon and is influenced by soil health. Soil organic carbon increases the percentage of water retention because carbon acts like a sponge that absorbs moisture. Regenerative management practices such as minimum tillage, cover crops, inoculation with microorganisms, mulching practices, nutrients cycling, maintenance of an optimal balance of organic fertilizers, foliar application, and other methods help to increase soil organic carbon. This strategy restores degraded soils, enhances biomass production, purifies groundwater, reduces the rate of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere and increases the percentage of water being retained in the soil.
An active soil food web is the link between water, nutrients, and plants. Healthy soils have an active soil food web that presents many benefits such as diseases suppression, nutrient retention, improve soil structure, making mineral nutrients available to plants, decomposition of toxic materials, improve crop quality. Soil food web works in synergy with plants and helps crops to overcome more easily drought or floods.
The primary goal of this technology is to grow healthy plants on a worldwide scale. Healthy plants achieve synergies with the soil and improve its health, recover carbon in the soil, increase water retention, and improve soil structure and nutritional status. Drought years will be more profitable for farmers using regenerative agriculture technology, since organically grown cereal prices will be higher, resulting in greater average yields. In a short period of time, farmers using regenerative agriculture technology will spend less money, yields will grow, profitability will increase, soils will regenerate, and drought years will become less risky.
\n',keywords:"climate change, regenerative ecological technologies, desertification, land degradation and drought",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81584.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81584.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81584",totalDownloads:23,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 7th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 10th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 29th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 29th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The agricultural sector has a limited capacity for expansion, consequently, deficient technologies based on the widespread use of synthetic chemicals have been implemented in the last decades, having a major negative impact on natural ecosystems, biodiversity, and environmental services. Desertification, land degradation, and drought, combined with human activity and environmental changes, cause important soil losses and a reduction in natural defenses against droughts and floods. The combined impact of climate change, land mismanagement and unsustainable freshwater use has long been affecting agricultural productivity, the most common cause being unsustainable land management practices. This chapter aims to briefly assess the most effective strategies for reducing the impact of climate change on agricultural crops, as well as to prevent or reverse the process of desertification and systematic loss in food quality and quantity. Regenerative management practices such as minimum tillage technologies, cover crops and mulching, inoculation with microorganisms, nutrients cycling, the balance of the organic fertilizers or foliar application help farmers in managing healthy soils, capable of growing rich and ecological crops without the use of chemical hazardous substances.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81584",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81584",signatures:"Eugen Popescu, Florin Nenciu and Valentin Nicolae Vladut",book:{id:"11131",type:"book",title:"Drought",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Drought",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Murat Eyvaz, Dr. Ahmed Albahnasawi, MSc. Mesut Tekbaş and M.Sc. Ercan Gürbulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11131.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-544-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-543-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-545-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Main causes of soil degradation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Bad practices that negatively influence the quality of agricultural soil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Lack of efficient soil parameters evaluation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Leaving the soil uncovered",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Excess of soil tillage",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Excess of synthetic fertilizers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.5 Excess of one specific nutrient",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.6 Monoculture technology",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.1.7 Overdraft of groundwater",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.1.8 Neglecting the soil’s biology",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.1.9 Micronutrients are underused",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.1.10 Too much importance given to quantity and not to quality",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Principles of restoring soil and plants health",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.1 Limited soil disturbance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.2 Soil protection (defensive armor)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.3 Diversity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.4 Living root maintenance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.5 Integrated animals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.6 Monitoring",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"4. Methods to control draught by using the principles of regenerative agriculture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.1 Weeds management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"4.2 Hardpan management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.2.1 Amendment and treatments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.2.2 Mineral nutrients addition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"4.2.3 Organic fertilizer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"4.2.4 Seed inoculation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"4.2.5 Soil food web",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_3",title:"4.2.6 Cover crops",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"4.2.7 Maincrop (cash crop) management",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"4.2.8 Foliar application",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"4.2.9 Sap analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"4.2.10 Water management",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"4.2.11 Crop rotation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_3",title:"4.2.12 Aerated compost tea",level:"3"},{id:"sec_34_3",title:"4.2.13 Managing livestock",level:"3"},{id:"sec_35_3",title:"4.2.14 Agroforestry",level:"3"},{id:"sec_36_3",title:"4.2.15 Instrumentation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_37_3",title:"4.2.16 Drought",level:"3"},{id:"sec_40",title:"5. 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Fleming and Gordon M. Harrington",authors:[{id:"47432",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard M.",middleName:null,surname:"Fleming",slug:"richard-m.-fleming",fullName:"Richard M. Fleming"},{id:"112635",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordon M.",middleName:null,surname:"Harrington",slug:"gordon-m.-harrington",fullName:"Gordon M. Harrington"}]},{id:"52656",doi:"10.5772/64781",title:"Assessment of Right Ventricle by Echocardiogram",slug:"assessment-of-right-ventricle-by-echocardiogram",totalDownloads:2250,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Assessment of right ventricular (RV) function is important to ascertain clinical outcome in patients with symptoms of right ventricular failure manifested as lower extremity swelling and abdominal congestion. RV function is not routinely assessed and reported in clinical practice. Unlike the bullet‐shaped left ventricle (LV), RV has a complex geometry with a triangular shape. RV is further divided into the inlet, trabecular apex, and infundibulum or conus. RV evaluation involves quantifying afterload and preload, assessing the mechanism and severity of tricuspid regurgitation (TR), and quantitative evaluation of RV performance. For quantification of RV size and function, we can use intravenous contrast for endocardial tracing of RV border to measure RV dimensions, tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), fractional area change (FAC), Doppler index of myocardial performance (Tei index or myocardial performance index), pulsed wave or color Doppler tissue imaging systolic velocity [s'], or strain imaging. For qualitative evaluation of RV, the RV size is compared to the LV size in parasternal, short axis, and subcostal projections.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Gunjan Choudhary, Arushi A. Malik, Dwight Stapleton and Pratap\nC. Reddy",authors:[{id:"183647",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunjan",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhary",slug:"gunjan-choudhary",fullName:"Gunjan Choudhary"},{id:"192261",title:"Dr.",name:"Arushi A",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"arushi-a-malik",fullName:"Arushi A Malik"},{id:"192262",title:"Dr.",name:"Dwight",middleName:null,surname:"Stapleton",slug:"dwight-stapleton",fullName:"Dwight Stapleton"},{id:"192263",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratap C",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",slug:"pratap-c-reddy",fullName:"Pratap C Reddy"}]},{id:"43925",doi:"10.5772/56118",title:"History of Antimicrobial Prophylaxis Protocols for Infective Endocarditis Secondary to Dental Procedures",slug:"history-of-antimicrobial-prophylaxis-protocols-for-infective-endocarditis-secondary-to-dental-proced",totalDownloads:2120,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3381",slug:"recent-advances-in-infective-endocarditis",title:"Recent Advances in Infective Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Infective Endocarditis"},signatures:"Inmaculada Tomás and Maximiliano Álvarez-Fernández",authors:[{id:"70085",title:"Dr.",name:"Inmaculada",middleName:null,surname:"Tomás-Carmona",slug:"inmaculada-tomas-carmona",fullName:"Inmaculada Tomás-Carmona"},{id:"149434",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximiliano",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Fernández",slug:"maximiliano-alvarez-fernandez",fullName:"Maximiliano Álvarez-Fernández"}]},{id:"16134",doi:"10.5772/24458",title:"Tissue Doppler in Ischemic Heart Disease",slug:"tissue-doppler-in-ischemic-heart-disease",totalDownloads:3286,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"344",slug:"establishing-better-standards-of-care-in-doppler-echocardiography-computed-tomography-and-nuclear-cardiology",title:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology",fullTitle:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology"},signatures:"Ola Gjesdal and Thor Edvardsen",authors:[{id:"40027",title:"Prof.",name:"Thor",middleName:null,surname:"Edvardsen",slug:"thor-edvardsen",fullName:"Thor Edvardsen"},{id:"58106",title:"Dr.",name:"Ola",middleName:null,surname:"Gjesdal",slug:"ola-gjesdal",fullName:"Ola Gjesdal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51931",title:"Speckle-Tracking Imaging, Principles and Clinical Applications: A Review for Clinical Cardiologists",slug:"speckle-tracking-imaging-principles-and-clinical-applications-a-review-for-clinical-cardiologists",totalDownloads:4570,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Evaluation of myocardial mechanics, although complex, has now entered the clinical arena, thanks to the introduction of bedside imaging techniques, such as speckle-tracking echocardiography.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Iacopo Fabiani, Nicola Riccardo Pugliese, Veronica Santini, Lorenzo\nConte and Vitantonio Di Bello",authors:[{id:"184730",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitantonio",middleName:null,surname:"Di Bello",slug:"vitantonio-di-bello",fullName:"Vitantonio Di Bello"},{id:"184733",title:"Dr.",name:"Iacopo",middleName:null,surname:"Fabiani",slug:"iacopo-fabiani",fullName:"Iacopo Fabiani"},{id:"184734",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Pugliese",slug:"nicola-riccardo-pugliese",fullName:"Nicola Riccardo Pugliese"},{id:"184736",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Conte",slug:"lorenzo-conte",fullName:"Lorenzo Conte"},{id:"185432",title:"Dr.",name:"Santini",middleName:null,surname:"Veronica",slug:"santini-veronica",fullName:"Santini Veronica"}]},{id:"16137",title:"Doppler Contrast Echocardiography",slug:"doppler-contrast-echocardiography",totalDownloads:2902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"344",slug:"establishing-better-standards-of-care-in-doppler-echocardiography-computed-tomography-and-nuclear-cardiology",title:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology",fullTitle:"Establishing Better Standards of Care in Doppler Echocardiography, Computed Tomography and Nuclear Cardiology"},signatures:"Vincent L. Sorrell and Sachin Kumar",authors:[{id:"62264",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent L.",middleName:null,surname:"Sorrell",slug:"vincent-l.-sorrell",fullName:"Vincent L. Sorrell"},{id:"62565",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachin",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sachin-kumar",fullName:"Sachin Kumar"}]},{id:"52583",title:"Role of Echocardiography in the Critically Ill Patients",slug:"role-of-echocardiography-in-the-critically-ill-patients",totalDownloads:2379,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Since its inception in 1950s, echocardiography has evolved significantly. Its role has expanded beyond cardiology into operating theaters, intensive care units, and emergency departments. It is an easy, inexpensive, noninvasive, and portable technique, which can be rapidly performed at bedside. It is devoid of complications and, for the most part, universally available. This review focuses on growing importance of echocardiography for critically ill patients in the intensive care and high dependency unit settings including indications, modalities, measurements, and therapeutic impact. Literature review of echocardiography use for the cardiovascular assessment of the critically ill patients was done and various indications are discussed including appropriate use scores. Methods being used include transthoracic and transesophageal echo with various modes. This does include assessment of volume status of the hemodynamically unstable patients, myocardial function, global left ventricular systolic function, regional wall motion abnormalities, cardiac output, cardiac tamponade, valvular function, left ventricular outflow obstruction, and right ventricular function. Other diagnostic assessments include aortic dissection, thromboembolisms, pleural effusions, and septal defects. Echocardiography is now considered as an indispensable tool for diagnosis and management including hemodynamic monitoring in critically ill patients. It provides advantages including noninvasiveness and real-time anatomical and functional assessment of the cardiovascular system.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Manivannan Veerasamy",authors:[{id:"185477",title:"Dr.",name:"Manivannan",middleName:null,surname:"Veerasamy",slug:"manivannan-veerasamy",fullName:"Manivannan Veerasamy"}]},{id:"51873",title:"Noninvasive Measurement of Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure by Speckle Tracking Echocardiography",slug:"noninvasive-measurement-of-pulmonary-capillary-wedge-pressure-by-speckle-tracking-echocardiography",totalDownloads:1596,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The severity of left-sided heart failure can be evaluated by pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) because PCWP reflects left ventricular (LV) filling pressure. Owing to developments in echocardiographic technology, speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) has allowed automatic construction of time-left atrial (LA) volume (LAV) curves. Thus, we developed a novel index based on a combination of LAV and LA function that would estimate PCWP using STE. The following regression equation described the relationship between PCWP that was obtained by right-heart catheterization and active LAEF/minimum LAV index (volume was indexed to body surface area: LAVI) in the patients with sinus rhythm: PCWP = 10.8–12.4 [log10 (active LAEF/minimum LAVI)] (r = −0.86, p <0.001) (measurements from the apical 4-chamber view). We defined this index [log10 (active LAEF/minimum LAVI)] as the kinetics-tracking index (KT index). The PCWP estimated by the KT index (ePCWP) had a strong correlation with PCWP obtained by right-heart catheterization (r = 0.92, p <0.001). The ePCWP measured by STE could be a useful parameter to improve clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Masanori Kawasaki",authors:[{id:"50603",title:"Dr.",name:"Masanori",middleName:null,surname:"Kawasaki",slug:"masanori-kawasaki",fullName:"Masanori Kawasaki"}]},{id:"51894",title:"Multimodality Echocardiographic Assessment of Patients Undergoing Atrial Fibrillation Ablation",slug:"multimodality-echocardiographic-assessment-of-patients-undergoing-atrial-fibrillation-ablation",totalDownloads:1975,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Atrial fibrillation (AF) is most common sustained arrhythmia in clinical practice. The new treatment standard in paroxysmal and persistent AF is the catheter ablation. Echocardiography plays a key role in risk stratification and management of patients with AF and is critical in the assessment of candidates for AF ablation, providing both anatomic and hemodynamic information. Echocardiography is crucial for patient selection, preprocedural left atrial appendage thrombus excluding, intraprocedural guidance, and detection and monitoring for early and late ablation related complications. Transthoracic echocardiography allows rapid and comprehensive assessment of cardiac anatomical structure and function. Transoesophageal echocardiography also provides accurate information about the presence of a thrombus in the atria and thromboembolic risk, making safe the ablation procedure by immediately detection of the complications related procedure. Intracardiac echocardiography has emerged as a popular and useful tool in the everyday practice of interventional electrophysiology, being very useful only during the ablation procedure. This paper presents the role of echocardiography in all these steps concerning AF ablation procedure, and also (1) delineates the role of echocardiographic techniques in guiding the procedure, (2) discusses the critical echocardiographic aspects of this procedure, and (3) underlines the strengths and limitations of various echocardiographic modalities.",book:{id:"5166",slug:"echocardiography-in-heart-failure-and-cardiac-electrophysiology",title:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology",fullTitle:"Echocardiography in Heart Failure and Cardiac Electrophysiology"},signatures:"Mariana Floria and Maria Daniela Tanase",authors:[{id:"185089",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanase",middleName:null,surname:"Daniela Maria",slug:"tanase-daniela-maria",fullName:"Tanase Daniela Maria"},{id:"185115",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Floria",slug:"mariana-floria",fullName:"Mariana Floria"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"982",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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