Lipinski’s Rule of Five
\r\n\tFurthermore, during the preparation of high-quality dairy products, several physical, chemical, enzymatic, and microbial transformations take place. We will consciously focus on this interaction of different constituents of milk under different processing conditions for the development of the products.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-093-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-092-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-094-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"420e687768b56ca7b3238d77f63f1302",bookSignature:"Dr. Neelam Upadhyay",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12173.jpg",keywords:"Protein, Fat, Lactose, Carbohydrates, Milk Processing, Milk Products, Milk Constituents, Acid Coagulated, Enzyme Treated, Heat Treated, Dairy Products, Protocols of Manufacturing",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 4th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"23 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Upadhyay has received many awards most notable being the Young Woman Scientist Award 2020 from the Agro-Environmental Development Society and the Best Poster Award 2021 from the National Conference on Moringa Food Conclave 2021. She is a dedicated researcher in food and dairy processing and has published many research articles and papers in both national and international journals and publications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"269538",title:"Dr.",name:"Neelam",middleName:null,surname:"Upadhyay",slug:"neelam-upadhyay",fullName:"Neelam Upadhyay",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/269538/images/system/269538.jpg",biography:"BRIEF BIODATA\n1.\tName in full: Neelam Upadhyay \n2.\tDate & Place of Birth: 29th December, 1987 at Delhi\n3.\tField of specialization: Food Technology\n4.\tPresent Position/ Designation: Scientist- Senior Scale\n5.\tAddress:\t(a)\tOfficial:\tTel. No.:0184-2259258\n\t\t\t\tE-mail: \ticar.neelam@gmail.com; neelam.upadhyay@icar.gov.in \n\t\t\t\tAddress: \tLaboratory No. 146, Dairy Technology Division, ICAR- \n\t\t\t\t\t\tNational Dairy Research Institute, Karnal \n\t\t\t(b)\tResidential: Tel. No.: +91-9255772587\n\tAddress (Permanent): 41-D, MIG DDA Flats, Shivam Enclave, Delhi-110032\n6.\t(a) Academic career and (b) professional attainments\n(a) Examination\tClass/ Percentage\tYear of Passing\tSubjects Taken\tName of University / Board\nXth \t1st/83\n(415/500)\t2003\tMathematics, Social Science, Science, English, Hindi\tK.V., Mumbai (CBSE)\nXIIth\t1st/78.2 \n(391/500)\t2005\tPhysics, Mathematics, Chemistry, Biology, English\tK.V., Delhi (CBSE)\nB.A.Sc. (Hons.)\t1st/83.43 (2044/2450)\n(3rd position)\t2008\tFood Technology\tSRCASW, University of Delhi, Delhi\nM.Sc.\t1st/8.62\n(1st position)\t2010\tFood Science & Technology\tCCS Har. Agri. Uni., Hisar, Haryana\nTitle of Research:\tDevelopment of flavoured whey-soya milk beverage\nMajor Advisor:\tDr. R. S. Dabur (Professor and Head)\nPh.D.\t1st/8.0\n(1st position)\t2014\tDairy Chemistry\tNational Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana\nTitle of Research: \tDetection of vegetable oil and animal body fat adulteration in ghee using solvent fractionation technique\nMajor Advisor:\tDr. Darshan Lal (Principal Scientist and Ex-Head)\nDistinctions during Academics\nDegree\tDistinctions\nBachelor of Applied Science (Hons.)\ti.\tY.K. Kapoor Memorial Scholarship 2006 by All India Food Processor’s Association \nii.\t3rd position in university\niii.\tReceived highest attendance award\niv.\tReceived trophy for ‘Most Disciplined Student’ for the graduation period 2005-2008\nv.\tCertificate of Honor from Honb’le Mr. Justice K.G. Balakrishnan, Chief Justice of India\nMaster of Science\ti.\t1st position in discipline and 2nd position in college\nii.\tReceived recognition for academic excellence from Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund; \niii.\tQualified GATE\niv.\t2nd in inter-college yoga competition\nv.\tParticipated in various events of All India Youth Festival organized at UAS, Bangalore.\nDoctor of Philosophy\ti.\tReceived Merit Certificate for Academic Excellence in PhD course work\nii.\tReceived Certificate of Appreciation for outstanding work in the field of Dairy Processing during PhD\niii.\tQualified ICAR’s National Eligibility Test in 2010; Qualified the ICAR’s All India Examination, ICAR-SRF (PGS_-2011-2012 for award of ICAR-SRF (PGS) with 2nd rank (both in first attempt) \niv.\tQualified Agricultural Research Service Examination-2013 conducted by Agricultural Scientist Recruitment Board against the single vacancy (for UR) in the discipline of Food Technology\nv.\tStage Management Secretary of student’s council 2010-11\nvi.\tLiterary secretary of Student’s Council 2011-12\nvii.\tCompleted certificate e-course on “Publishing a Journal Manuscript - the Groundwork” directed by Springer in 2013\nviii.\tHave successfully completed certificate e-course – “Peer Review Academy” directed by Springer in 2013\nix.\tReceived a certificate on accomplishment IRIS 4-2 Information Literacy Plagiarism Quiz (on-line) in 2013 developed by Distance Learning Council of Washington, USA \n (b) Position Held\tInstitution \tPeriod of Appointment\tNature of Appointment\nScientist (Food Technology)\tICAR- National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad\t3 months\n(1st January, 2015 till 31st March, 2015)\tPermanent\n(Received ‘A’ grade for FOCARS)\nScientist \n(Food Technology)\tICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal\t10th March, 2015 till 31st December, 2018\n(after availing 10 days of transfer period)\tPermanent\nScientist-Senior Scale\n(Food Technology)\tICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal\t1st January, 2019 till date\tPermanent\n\n7. Special attainments in Research\n(https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?hl=en&user=PRz0Tz4AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate)\nPublications\tNumbers\tRemarks \nResearch Articles\t35\n(24 Intl, 9 National, 2 others)\tTotal Impact: 72.302\n\nBook Chapters\t7\t5 APA/CRC Press; 1 InTech Open; \n1 National\nReview Articles\t2\tTotal Impact:8.327\nTechnical Articles\t7\tCompendium of trainings, seminars, etc\nInstitute publication\t1\t\nPopular Article\t12\t6 in English; 5 in hindi\nCitations \t1066\t(as per googlescholar)\nH-index/ i10-index\t15/ 17\t\n.\n.\nJournal\tNumber of publications\tImpact factor\nResearch Articles\t35\t72.302\nInternational\t24 (15 as either corresponding or first author)\t72.302\nNational\t9 (3 as first or corresponding author)\tNAAS score\nOthers\t2\t\nReview article (International)\t2\t8.327\nInternational\t2\t8.327\n.\n \n\n\n\nRESEARCH ARTICLES\nInternational Journals \n1.\tTiwari, S., Upadhyay, N.*, Singh, A. K. (2022). Stability assessment of emulsion of carotenoids extracted from carrot bio-waste in flaxseed oil and its application in food model system. Food Bioscience, 47, 101631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101631.\n2.\tPatil, A. T., Meena, G. S., Upadhyay, N., Khetra, Y., Singh, A. K., & Borad, S. G. (2021). Buffalo milk protein concentrate 60: Effect of skim milk heat treatment on its reconstitutability and functionality. Food Science & Technology – Lebensmittel -Wissenschaft & Tech, 148, 111638. \n3.\tUttamrao, H. J., Meena, G. S., Khetra, Y., Upadhyay, N., Singh, A. K., Arora, S., & Borad, S. G. (2022). Homogenization and sodium hydrogen phosphate induced effect on physical and rheological properties of ultrafilterd concentrated milk. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(3), 956-967. \n4.\tTiwari, S., Upadhyay, N.*, Malhotra, R. (2021). Three way ANOVA for emulsion of carotenoids extracted in flaxseed oil from carrot bio-waste. Waste Management, 121, 67-76. \n5.\tRanvir, S., Sharma, R., Gandhi, K., Upadhyay, N., Mann, B. (2020). Assessment of proteolysis in ultra-high temperature milk using attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. International Journal of Dairy Technology. 73(2): 366-375. doi: 10.1111/1471-0307.12683. \n6.\tPonbhagavathi, T.R., Singh, A.K., Raju, P.N., Upadhyay, N. (2020). High performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) determination of available lysine in milk protein-maize composite extrudates and its stability during storage. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society, 97(11a), 2344-2350\n7.\tTiwari, S., Upadhyay, N.*, Singh, A. K., Meena, G. S., & Arora, S. (2019). Organic solvent-free extraction of carotenoids from carrot bio-waste and its physico-chemical properties. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 1-10. 10.1007/s13197-019-03920-5\n8.\tBaria, B., Upadhyay, N.*, Singh, A. K., & Malhotra, R. K. (2019). Optimization of ‘green’extraction of carotenoids from mango pulp using split plot design and its characterization. Food Science & Technology – Lebensmittel -Wissenschaft & Tech, 104, 186-194. \n9.\tPatil, A. T., Meena, G. S., Upadhyay, N., Khetra, Y., Borad, S. G., & Singh, A. K. (2019). Effect of change in pH, heat treatment and diafiltration on properties of medium protein buffalo milk protein concentrate. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 56(3), 1462-1472. \n10.\tUttamrao, H. J., Meena, G. S., Borad, S. G., Punjaram, S. A., Khetra, Y., Upadhyay, N., & Singh, A. K. (2019). Effect of disodium phosphate and homogenization on physico-chemical and rheological properties of buffalo skim milk based ultrafiltered retentate. Journal of food science and technology, 56(5), 2426-2435. \n11.\tMeena, G.S., Dewan, A., Upadhyay, N., Barapatre, R., Kumar, N., Singh, A.K., & Rana, J.S. (2019). Fuzzy Analysis of Sensory Attributes of Gluten Free Pasta Prepared From Brown Rice, Amaranth, Flaxseed Flours and Whey Protein Concentrates. Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Research, 2(1), 022-037. DOI: 10.26502/jfsnr.2642-1100006\n12.\tPatil, A. T., Meena, G. S., Upadhyay, N.*, Khetra, Y., Borad, S., & Singh, A. K. (2018). Production and characterization of milk protein concentrates 60 (MPC60) from buffalo milk. Food Science & Technology – Lebensmittel -Wissenschaft & Tech, 91, 368-374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.01.028 \n13.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Jaiswal, P., & Jha, S. N. (2018). Application of attenuated total reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR–FTIR) in MIR range coupled with chemometrics for detection of pig body fat in pure ghee (heat clarified milk fat). Journal of Molecular Structure, 1153, 275-281. \n14.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Kumar A., Goyal A. and Lal, D. (2017). Complete liquification time test coupled with solvent fractionation technique to detect adulteration of foreign fats in ghee (heat-clarified milk fat). International Journal of Dairy Technology. 70(1): 110-118. doi: 10.1111/1471-0307.12323. \n15.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Goyal A., Kumar A. and Lal, D. (2017). Detection of adulteration of caprine body fat and mixture of caprine body fat and groundnut oil in bovine and buffalo ghee using Differential Scanning Calorimetry. International Journal of Dairy Technology. 70(2): 297-303. May 2017.doi:10.1111/1471-0307.12336. \n16.\tKumar, A., Upadhyay, N.*, Ghai, D.L., Kumar, A. Gandhi, K. and Sharma, V. (2016). Effect of preparation and storage of khoa on physico-chemical properties of milk fat. International Journal of Dairy Technology. 69(2): 294-300. doi: 10.1111/1471-0307.12266. \n17.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Jaiswal, P. & Jha, S.N. (2016). Detection of goat body fat adulteration in pure ghee using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy coupled with chemometric strategy. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 53 (10): 3752-3760. doi:10.1007/s13197-016-2353-2 ISSN 0022-1155\n18.\tRathi, M., Upadhyay, N.*, Dabur, R.S. and Goyal A. (2015). Formulation and physic-chemical analysis of whey –soymilk dahi. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 52(2): 968-975. doi 10.1007/s13197-013-1074-z. ISSN: 0022-1155. \n19.\tKanthale, P., Kumar, A. Upadhyay, N.*, Lal, D., Rathod G. and Sharma, V. (2015). Qualitative test for the detection of extraneous Thiocyanate in Milk. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 52(3): 1698-1704. DOI: 10.1007/s13197-013-1174-9. ISSN: 0022-1155.\n20.\tGoyal, A., Sharma, V., Upadhyay, N., Singh, A.K., Arora, S. and Ghai, D.L. (2015). Development of stable flaxseed oil emulsions as a potential delivery system of ω-3 fatty acids. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 52(7):4256-4265. \n21.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Kumar, A., Rathod, G., Goyal, A. and Lal, D. (2015). Development of a method employing reversed-phase thin-layer chromatography for establishing milk fat purity with respect to adulteration with vegetable oils. International Journal of Dairy Technology. 68(2): 207-217. doi. 10.1111/1471-0307.12178. \n22.\tGoyal, A., Siddiqui, S. Upadhyay, N., Soni, J. (2014). Effects of ultraviolet irradiation, pulsed electric field, hot water and ethanol vapours treatment on functional properties of mung bean sprouts. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 51(4): 708-714. doi 10.1007/s13197-011-0538-2. Publisher Springer. ISSN (electronic version): 0975-8402. \n23.\tKundu, H., Grewal, R.B., Goyal, A., Upadhyay, N.*, and Prakash S. (2014). Effect of incorporation of pumpkin (Cucurbita moshchata) powder and guar gum on the rheological properties of wheat flour. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 51(10):2600-2607. DOI: 10.1007/s13197-012-0777-x. ISSN: 0022-1155. \n24.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Kumar, A., Goyal, A. and Lal, D. (2014). A planar chromatographic method to detect adulteration of vegetable oils in ghee. JPC-Journal of Planar Chromatography-Modern TLC. 27 (6): 431-437. DOI: 10.1556/JPC.27.2014.6.5 \nNational Journals\n1.\tPonbhagavathi, T. R., Singh, A. K., Raju, P. N., Upadhyay, N. (2021). Textural and Sensory Characteristics of Milk Protein-Maize Flour-based Extrudates. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 58(2), 124-136. 10.52151/jae2021581.1740\n2.\tPonbhagavathi, T.R., Singh, A.K., Raju, P.N., Upadhyay, N. (2020). Effect of Rennet Casein and Whey Protein Concentrate on Extrusion Behavior of Maize Flour. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 39(33), 16-27, Article no.CJAST.57830.\n3.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Kumar, A., Lal, D., Kant, R., & Goyal, A. (2018). Detection of groundnut oil and goat body fat adulteration in ghee using principal component analysis on fatty acid profile. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 71(5):464-472. \n4.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Kumar, A., Gandhi, K., Goyal, A. and Lal, D. (2014). Standardization of solvent fractionation technique for detection of adulteration in ghee by enriching animal body fat and vegetable oil in different fractions. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 67 (4):323-327.\n5.\tGandhi. K., Upadhyay, N., Aghav, A.D., Sharma, V., and Lal, D. (2014). Detection of adulteration of ghee (clarified milk fat) with palmolein and sheep body fat using Reichert-Meissl (RM) value coupled with solvent fractionation technique. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 67(5): 387-393. Received Second Best Paper Award during 44th Dairy Industry Conference organized by ICAR-NDRI, Karnal and Indian Dairy Association from 18-20, February 2016.\n6.\tAghav, A.D., Gandhi, K., Upadhyay, N., Kumar, A. and Lal, D. (2014). A study on the physico-chemical changes occurring in the milk fat during preparation of Paneer. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 67 (5): 398-404.\n7.\tKumar, A., Upadhyay, N., Gandhi, K., Lal, D. and Sharma, V. (2013). Detection of soybean oil and buffalo depot fat in ghee using Normal-Phase Thin Layer Chromatography. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 66(4): 294-99. ISSN: 0019-5146.\n8.\tKumar, A., Upadhyay, N., Gandhi, K., Kumar, A., Lal, D. and Sharma, V. (2013). Reverse-Phase Thin Layer Chromatography of Unsaponifiable Matter of ghee for detecting adulteration with soybean oil and buffalo depot fat. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 66(6): 496-501. ISSN: 0019-5146.\n9.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Dabur R.S. and Rathi, M. (2011). Development and Shelf life Study of Flavoured Whey-soya milk beverage. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 64(2): 92-101. ISSN: 0019-5146.\nOther Journals\n1.\tDewan, A., Meena, G.S., Upadhyay, N., Barapatre, R. Singh, A.K., Rana, J.S. (2017). Formulation of non-Gluten Pasta from the Optimized levels of Dairy and Non-Dairy ingredients. Madridge Journal of Food Technology. 2(2): 92–98. \n2.\tGalmessa, U., Prasad, S., Kumaresan, A., Oberoi, P. S., Baithalu, R. K., Upadhyay, N., and Dang, A. K. (2015). Modulation of Milk Fatty acid profile milk yield and composition through supplementation of omega-3 fatty acid in transition cow’s diet. Journal of Science and Sustainable Development. 3(1): 25-38. ISSN: 2070-1748\nREVIEW ARTICLES\n1.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Goyal, A. Kumar, A., Lal, D. and Singh, D. (2014). Preservation of milk and milk products for analytical purposes: A review. Food Reviews International. 30(3):203-224. DOI 10.1080/87559129.2014.913292. ISSN: 1525-6103\n2.\tGoyal, A., Sharma, V., Upadhyay, N., Gill, S. and Sihag, M. (2014). Flax and flaxseed oil: an ancient medicine & modern functional food. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 51(9): 1633-1653. DOI 10.1007/s13197-013-1247-9. ISSN: 0975-8402. \nBOOK CHAPTERS\n1.\tKumari, L., Sharma, M., & Upadhyay, N. (2021). Three-Dimensional Printing of Food Products: Printing Techniques, Novel Applications, and Printable Food Materials. Handbook of Research on Food Processing and Preservation Technologies: Volume 3: Computer-Aided Food Processing and Quality Evaluation Techniques, 55. Boca Raton, CRC Press\n2.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Harshitha, C. G., Pathak, N. K., & Sharma, R. (2021). Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy with Chemometrics: Evaluation of Food Quality and Safety. Handbook of Research on Food Processing and Preservation Technologies: Volume 5: Emerging Techniques for Food Processing, Quality, and Safety Assurance, 271.\n3.\tNagarajappa, V., Upadhyay, N., Chawla, R., Mishra, S.K., & Nath, S. (2019). Functional Properties of Milk Proteins. In: Engineering Practices for milk products- Dairyceuticals, Novel Technologies, and Quality (pp 3-26). Apple Academic Press.\n4.\tUpadhyay, N., Kumar, M. C. T., Sharma, H., Borad, S., & Singh, A. K. (2019). Pulse Electric Field Processing of Milk and Milk Products. In: Non-thermal Processing of Foods (pp.129-144). Boca Raton, CRC Press\n5.\tUpadhyay, N., Nagaraj, V., & Singh, A. K. (2019). Advances in Fractionation of Milk Lipids: Analysis and Applications of fractions In: Recent Technologies in Dairy Science (pp. 325-344). Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers.\n6.\tNagaraj, V., Upadhyay, N.*, Nath, B. S., & Singh, A. K. (2018). Advances in Fractionation and Analysis of Milk Carbohydrates. In Technological Approaches for Novel Applications in Dairy Processing (pp. 127-147). IntechOpen. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76312\n7.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Veena, N., Borad, S., & Singh, A. K. (2017). Application of Natural Antioxidants in Dairy Foods. In Natural Antioxidants (pp. 281-318). London: Apple Academic Press.\nINSTITUTE PUBLICATION\n1.\tDr. T. K. Datta, Dr. Meena Malik and Dr. Neelam Upadhyay (2017). Foundation Programme for Freshers at ICAR-NDRI 2017.\nPOPULAR AND LEAD ARTICLES\n1.\tPatil, A. T., Meena, G. S., Upadhyay, N., & Singh, A.K. (2017). Milk protein concentrates- Their Applications. Indian Dairyman, 69(9), 44-48.\n2.\tUpadhyay, N.* and R.K. Malik (2015). Nutritive Value of Milk. In: In Touch, Heinz Nutrition Foundation of India. Volume 17, Number 2&3, 2-11. (Lead Article). \n3.\tGoyal, A., Sharma, V., Upadhyay, N., Sihag, M. and Kaushik, R. (2013). High Pressure Processing and its impact on milk proteins: A Review. Research and Reviews: Journal of Dairy Science and Technology. 2 (1): 1-9. ISSN: 2319-3409.\n4.\tKumar, A., Upadhyay, N., and Naagar, S. (2012). Allergenicity of Milk Proteins, and its Management. Indian Food Industry. 31 (5&6): 45-50. ISSN: 0972-2610.\n5.\tGoyal, A. and Upadhyay, N. (2012). Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Dairy Science. Indian Food Industry. 31(1): 39-45. ISSN: 0972-2610.\n6.\tUpadhyay, N.*, Goyal, A. and Rathod, G. (2011). Microwave Spectroscopy and its applications in online processing. Indian Food Industry. 30(5&6): 63-73. ISSN: 0972-2610.\n7.\tउपाध्याय, नी*. (२०१८) भारत में कुपोषण: स्थिति और इससे निपटने के लिए रणनीतियाँ. दुग्ध—गंगा (आठवाँ अंक). अप्रैल-सितम्बर. २४-२९. \n8.\tउपाध्याय, नी.*, सिंह, आ.कु., गांगुली, स., सबिखी, ल. (२०१८) खाध्य और डेयरी क्षेत्र मे महिला उद्यमिता: कारण, समस्याए एवम उपलब्ध मंच. दुग्ध—गंगा (आठवाँ अंक). अप्रैल-सितम्बर. ६४-६९.\n9.\tउपाध्याय, नी*. (२०१९) ek¡ dk nw/k % f'k'kqvksa ds ekufld] 'kkjhfjd ,oa lkekftd mRFkku gsrq ve`r. दुग्ध—गंगा (नवाँ अंक). अकटूबर –मार्च १०२-१०४.\n10.\tउपाध्याय, नी*, fç;k ;koys (२०१९) [kk| inkFkksaZ esa —f=e ds cnys çk—frd jax o.kZd ds mi;ksx dh vko';drk दुग्ध—गंगा (दसवाँ अंक). अकटूबर –मार्च १०२-१०५.\n11.\tuhye mikè;k;, fuys'k dqekj ikBd (२०१९) d`f\"k] [kk| ,oa Ms;jh m|ksx ds Hkfo\"; eas lkSj ÅtkZ dk egRo दुग्ध—गंगा (दसवाँ अंक). अकटूबर –मार्च १२६-१३०. \n12.\tवैज्ञानिक और तकनीकी विषय के मूल हिंदी लेख जोकि गेहूँ एवम् जौ स्वर्णिमा में प्रकाशित हुए: उपाध्याय, नी*, राकेश कुमार (2020) महिला उद्यमिता के माध्यम से महिला सशक्तिकरण. गेहूँ एवम् जौ स्वर्णिमा (बारहवााँ अंक), पृष्ठ सं. 55-58; भाकृअनुप- भारतीय गेहूँ एवम् जौ अनुसंधान संस्थान, करनाल- १३२००१ द्वारा प्रकाशित\n\n8. Concepts/Processes/Products/Technologies/Patents/Others\n(i)\tConcepts \nCurrently, I am working on the integrated approach of application of green technology for the development of functional foods by utilizing under-utilized/ indigenous fruits and vegetables and/ or bio-waste. In the research projects, I am also keenly working on food chemistry and instrumental food analysis and applications of technologies/ products in dairy and non-dairy products. \nBesides this, I am working on development of functional food for addressing menopausal symptoms in osteopenic mice model. \n(ii)\tProducts/ Technologies ready for commercialization- 5\n1. Production of Milk Protein Concentrate 60 (MPC60), a high protein low lactose powder from buffalo milk (Co-Inventor)\n2. Technology for omega-3 rich mixed fat table spread (Inventor)\n3. Lipid and water soluble yellow natural colouring ingredient from bio-waste (Inventor)\n4. Technology for preparation of encapsulated flaxseed oil for its applications in foods (Inventor)\n5. Production of buffalo milk based Milk Protein Concentrate 60 (MPC60) powder with improved solubility (Co-Inventor)\n(iii) Expertise on\n1.Gas Liquid Chromatography\t5.Thin Layer Chromatography\n2.Fourier Transform Infra-red Spectroscopy\t6. Spectrophotometry\n3.Differential Scanning Calorimetry\t7.Chemical analysis including titration, distillation, etc.\n4.High Pressure Liquid Chromatography\t\n\n\n9. List of completed, on-going and submitted projects\nTitle of Project\tDuration\tRole\tFunding\tStatus\tRemarks\nEffect of storage on Baudouin test, sesamin test and RP-TLC test to detect adulteration of vanaspati and vegetable oils in ghee\t2015-2017\tCo-PI\tICAR-NDRI\n\tCompleted\tTwo research articles on RP-TLC\nPreparation and Characterization of Micro/nano delivery systems for “green” carotenoids\t2016-2019\tPI\t-Do-\t\t3 research articles+ 3 products/ technologies\nTechnology Development for the Production of Milk Protein Concentrate (MPC60) From Buffalo Milk\t2016-2019\tCo-PI\t-Do-\t\t4 research articles+ 2 products/ technologies\nTechnology of Goat Milk based Functional Beverage\t2017-2020\tCo-PI\t-Do-\t\tOne oral presentation\nTechnology for Moringa oleifera enriched cheese spread\t2020-2023\tPI\t-Do-\tOn-going\tCharacterization and incorporation of M. oleifera- pods in cheese spread is complete; shelf life study and animal trial is in progress\nDevelopment of flaxseed-rich probiotic dairy foods to address menopause symptoms\t2020-2023\tCo-PI\tDST\t\tDeveloped method -estimation of phytoestrogen; validation -in progress\nNutritional and therapeutic validation of chhachh and ghee prepared from indigenous cows by traditional method\tThree years (proposed)\tPI\tSEED Division, DST\tSubmitted \n \t\nCharacterization of Moringa oleifera leaves for functional bioactives and its application in table spread as model food system\tThree years (proposed)\tPI\tSYST, DST\t\t\nOther research work: \nDetection of adulteration of goat body fat and pig body fat in ghee using ATR-FTIR coupled with chemometrics; carried out during Professional Attachment Training at ICAR-CIPHET, Ludhiana\n\n\n\n10. Awards & honours \nName of Award\tYear\tAwarding Agency\nBest Paper Award\t2022\tGSAT (Gender Advancement for Transforming Institutions Self-Assessment Team), NDRI\nBest Poster Award\t2021\tNational Conference on Moringa Food Conclave-2021\nYoung Woman Scientist Award\t2020\tAgro Environmental Development Society during International Web-conference \nSecond Best Poster Award\t2020\tIndian Dairy Association\nCommendation certificate for Institute’s Magazine in which I am co-Editor\t2020\tTown Official Language Implementation Committee, Karnal\nLetter of Appreciation to editorial board of Institute’s magazine for receiving ICAR’s Second Prize and Trophy under Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi Hindi Patrika Puraskar (2018-19)\t2020\tICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal\nAssociate Fellowship\t2019\tNational Academy of Dairy Science India\nFirst Prize in E-poster \t2018\tIndian Dairy Association\nOne Best oral Presentation\t2018\tHome Science Association of India\nBest Oral Presentation to my Master’s student\t2018\tICMR- National Institute of Nutrition\nBest Poster Award\t2016\tIndian Dairy Association\nSecond Best Paper Award\t2016\tIndian Dairy Association\nICAR-SRF (PGS) with 2nd rank\t2011-12\tICAR\nGATE (Engg Sciences: Food Tech; Thermodynamics)\t2010\tMHRD, GoI\nInstitution level awards\nThird prize in poster presentation \t2021\tICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal\nInstitute’s Rajbhasha Gaurav Certificate\t2020\t\nFirst prize in Scientific and Technical writing\t2019\t\nConsolation prize in Scientific and Technical writing \t2020, 2019 \t\nFirst prize in Poster Presentation- 2020, 2018, 2017\t\t\nThird prize in poster presentation\t2019\t\nFirst Prize in hindi extempore\t2017\t\nThird, first and second prize in hindi essay writing in consecutive years – 2020, 2019, 2018\t\t\n\n\n11. Teaching Assignments \n(a) Teaching: Actively involved either as course in-charge or associate \nClass\tB.Tech (DT)\tMSc/ MTech\n(FT) (till 2021)\tM.Tech (DT)\tPhD (DT/ DC/ FSQA)\nNo. of courses\t1-2\t2-3\t0-1\t2-3\nDT- Dairy Technology, DC- Dairy Chemistry, FT- Food Technology, FSQA- Food Safety Quality Assurance\n(b) Student’s guided\nDegree\tMajor Advisor \tCo-Advisory\tStatus/ Remarks\nM. Tech (DT)\t8\t2\tCompleted\n\t1\t0\tOn going\nM. Tech/ M Sc (FT/ FSN)\t2\t1\tCompleted\nM. Tech (DC)\t0\t3\tCompleted\nM. Tech (DM)\t0\t1\tCompleted\nPhD (DT)\t2 \t0\tOngoing \n\t0\t2\tCompleted\nPhD (DC)\t0\t1 \tCompleted\n\t\t1\tOn going\ni.\tThree students under my guidance as major advisor and one student as co-advisory member nominated for Best thesis award; \nii.\tOne represented NDRI at zonal-level student research convention ANVESHAN-2018\n\n12. Lectures/ member/convener of committees: \ni.\tLectures: \na.\tEntrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP) (conducted by SINED-TBI/BPD unit, ICAR-NDRI) and Online Training of Master Trainers on Fat and Oilseed processing conducted by SINED-TBI/BPD unit (ICAR-CIPHET); \nb.\tStudent’s Counselling session at SRCASW, University of Delhi, \nc.\tWorkshop conducted at DAV college, Karnal, etc\nd.\tDelivered talks at various villages on the importance of mother’s milk, nutrition in first 1000 days of an infant’s life, nutri-thali, etc\nii.\tTraining Organized: \na.\tTwenty one days Training at Centre for Advanced Faculty Training (DT Division) on ‘R & D strategies and interventions for effective agribusiness and entrepreneurship development in dairy and food sector’; \nb.\tone/two months or shorter duration trainings for students and others under BPD unit and KVK, NDRI, Karnal\nc.\tFive days training on the aspects of dairy processing to the farmers of Karnal district. \niii.\tGeneral Secretary, Staff Club, NDRI, Karnal\niv.\tMember: Student Empowerment Unit, Conferences organized from 2015 till 2018, convocation, credit seminar evaluation committees; Mera Gaon Mera Gaurav program, Farmer’s First Door programme, Swatchh Bharat Abhiyan, coordinator and mentor of different groups for organizing Foundation Program-2017, 2018, Nodal officer of Poshan Maah-2020 etc\nv.\tConvener/ Rapporteur of sessions: Conference, Dr. K. K. Iya Memorial oration; International conference of Proteomics Society of India\nvi.\tOther responsibilities: Management Representative of QMS-IS/ISO 9001:2008 and HACCP- IS 15000:2013 of Experimental Dairy (essential part of institute) until Jan 2019; one of the editors of Institute hindi magazine Dudgh Ganga which also received coveted award from ICAR (until 2019).\nvii.\tResource Generation on account of consultancy provided in field of dairy processing and by conducting sponsored trainings \nMore than ₹ 2 50 000/- (Two lakhs fifty thousand only)\nviii.\tBesides research, teaching and extension activities, I am also involved in promotion of Hindi language and have won several prizes during competitions (like extempore, essay, e-mail writing) organized by Official Language Units.\nix.\tLifetime Member of three scientific bodies: Indian Dairy Association- RE/NZ/LM/10852/HR; Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (INDIA)- AFST/LM/9-2018/KRN/2444; Lifetime member of Home Science Association of India; Membership number: HSAI-2017-HR-127-LF\nx.\tReviewed research papers of Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (Elsevier), LWT, International Journal of Food Properties, Indian Journal of Dairy Science, Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources, United Scientific Group, etc. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDated: 12-04-2022\t \nNeelam Upadhyay",institutionString:"National Dairy Research Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444312",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Tikel",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444312/images/20015_n.jpg",email:"sara.t@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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The structural and functional diversity of animal toxins are interesting tools for therapeutic drug design. This diversity is also of great interest in the search for natural or synthetic inhibitors against these animal toxins.
\n\t\t\tComputational techniques are highly important in drug design. They are used in the search for candidate ligands binding to a receptor.
\n\t\t\tDrug design based on structure has become a highly developed technology and is used in large pharmaceutical companies. Firstly, the structure of the protein of interest must be known. Therefore, molecular modelling plays an important role in the discovery of new drugs.
\n\t\t\tIf the structure of the receptor is known, then the application is essentially a problem of structure-based drug design. These methods have specific goals, such as attempting to identify the location of the active site of the ligand and the geometry of the ligand in the active site. Another goal is to select a number of related binders in terms of affinity or evaluation of the binding free energy.
\n\t\t\tThe strategy of virtual screening has been used to contribute to the increase in hit rate in the selection of new drug candidates.
\n\t\t\tVirtual screening (VS) is a modern methodology that has been used in the identification of new bioactive substances. It is an
The strategy of VS can be divided into
Virtual screening can be divided into ligand-based virtual screening (LBVS) and structure-based virtual screening (SBVS).
Molecular docking is used to determine the best orientation and conformation of a ligand in its receptor site. The aim is to generate a range of conformations of the protein-ligand complex and sort them according to their scores, which are based on their stabilities. In order to do this, the protein structure and a database of ligands (potential candidates) are used as inputs to the docking software. Thus, large collections of virtual compounds are subjected to docking into a protein-binding site and sorted according to their affinities for the macromolecular target, as suggested by the score function.
\n\t\t\tThe focus of this chapter is to present the strategy of SBVS and the basic concepts of the methodologies involved. Examples of these approaches that have been applied to the identification of animal venom inhibitors have been presented at the end of the chapter.
\n\t\tSBVS involves the evaluation of databases based on the simulation of interactions between the ligands (small molecules) and receptors (target protein). The various steps in the process of SBVS are briefly shown in Figure 2. After obtaining the structure of the receptor and ligand, the next step in the process is molecular docking, which involves the coupling of the ligands with the receptor. At this stage, various conformations and orientations are generated and classified according to the score function. The target protein can be obtained from a database or by modelling.
\n\t\t\tStages of SBVS. The receptor (the target protein) can be obtained from a database or by modelling. Molecular docking completes the structure-based virtual screening.
Knowledge of the target protein structure is essential for structure-based drug design. The determination of the 3-dimensional structure of the protein may be achieved experimentally by diffraction of X-rays or by magnetic resonance. If the structure of the target protein has already been solved, it can easily be found deposited in public databases such as PDB [37] which contains more than 80,000 experimentally solved structures.
\n\t\t\t\tHowever, sometimes the structure of the target is not known, and this poses a problem in the drug design process. This situation can be resolved by making use of computational methods for predicting protein structure.
\n\t\t\t\tSuch methods are divided into 2 groups: those based on templates and those that are template-free. The first group includes comparative or homology modelling and threading. The second group includes methods that do not depend on templates to build the model, such as
Modelling methods can be classified into template-based methods (homology/comparative modelling) and template-free methods (
Homology modelling is based on the use of proteins that share an ancestral relationship with the target protein, that is, that they are evolutionarily related and tend to have similar structures. Thus, this method basically involves knowledge of the primary chain of the target protein and a search among databases for homologous proteins that have solved structures. These proteins are used as templates.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThreading modelling is based on the principle that proteins may have similar structures without sharing the same ancestral relationship because the structure tends to be more conserved than the primary sequence. In this case, these methods evaluate the primary chain of the target protein in relation to proteins that have solved structures.
\n\t\t\t\t\tComparative or homology modelling constructs a model structure of the target protein using its primary chain and the information obtained from homologous proteins that have solved structures. Therefore, this method depends on the availability of proteins that have structures similar to those of the target and can be used as templates. The whole process requires not only the construction of the model, but also the refinement and evaluation of the obtained model. The process can be divided into stages as follows: selection of the templates, which involves the identification of homologous sequences in a database of proteins that will be used as templates in the modelling process; sequence alignment between the target and the templates; refinement of the alignment; construction of the model, adding loops and side chains; and evaluation of the model (Figure 4).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tSteps in the comparative modelling process.
The construction of the model depends on the availability of templates. For this purpose, alignment of target and template sequences is widely used and is very efficient. Sequence alignments are typically generated by searching for the result that presents the largest region of identity and similarity. Generally, an identity percentage of at least 25% is considered significant.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThere are several tools available for sequence alignment. They differ in the methods used, which can be exhaustive or heuristic, as well as the number of sequences involved in the alignment (multiple or pairwise comparisons). Among these tools, BLAST/PSIBLAST [1; 2] is a tool that performs local alignments based on the profiles between the target sequence and each sequence belonging to a known database.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThe results of the alignment can be evaluated using the E-value. The E-value shows an inverse relationship with the identity/similarity between the sequences. Because it is a heuristic method, the results reported by BLAST are generally suboptimal.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tIf more than 1 template with similar scores is achieved, the best one can be selected as the template with the higher resolution.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tOther methods such as HHpred [34] and Pyre [18] use Markov profiles (Hidden Markov models [HMMs]) combined with structural features.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tWhen more than one template is selected, and taking into account that the results are usually suboptimal, there is a need for an alignment between the target protein and the selected templates. In this case, multiple alignments are indicated. There are several tools that perform multiple alignments, such as ClustalW [21]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAfter obtaining the alignments between the target and templates, the process of obtaining the model of the target protein begins. There are several software tools available, which differ with respect to the method applied. Prominent among these are MODELLER [9, 33] and SWISS-MODEL [3] The software that has shown the best performance is MODELLER. The program models the backbone using a homology-derived restraint method, which is based on the multiple alignment between the target and templates to differentiate between highly conserved and less conserved residues. The model is optimised by energy minimisation and molecular dynamics methods (Figure 5).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThe template 3D structures are aligned with the target sequence to be modelled. Spatial features are transferred from the templates to the target and a number of spatial restraints on its structure are obtained. The 3D model is obtained by satisfying all the restraints as thoroughly as possible [
The regions of the target that are not aligned with the protein template generally represent loop regions. There are usually some regions caused by insertions and deletions producing gaps in the alignment. Closing these gaps requires modelling of the loops. The loops and the side chains are shaped during the refinement of the model. For this, methods that do not rely on templates can be applied. These include the use of physics parameters and knowledge-based data.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThe loops are usually modelled using a database of fragments or by
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The side chains can be modelled by programs that make use of libraries of rotamers, such as the software SCRWL4 [20]. The use of rotamer libraries reduces computational time because it reduces the number of favourable torsion angles being examined.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAfter obtaining the model, its quality must be evaluated. This should be done to make sure that the model has structural features consistent with the physical and chemical rules. Several errors in modelling can occur due to poor choice of template, bad alignment between the target and template, and incorrect determination of loops and side chains.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tIn the evaluation stage of the model, the structural characteristics as well as the stereochemistry accuracy of the model must be examined.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThere are tools available for analysing stereochemical properties, such as PROCHECK [23]. PROCHECK checks the general physicochemical parameters such as phi-psi angles (Ramachandran plot) and chirality. The parameters of the model are compared with those already compiled.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTo validate the model for chemical correctness, it is possible to use the software WHAT IF [39]. WHAT IF is a server that checks planarity and bond angles, among other parameters. It also displays the Ramachandran plot.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tVerify3D [4, 26] can be used for the analysis of the pseudo-energy profile of the model. It has a database containing environmental profiles based on secondary structures, and the solvent exposure of solved structures at high resolution. It should be noted that the results may be different when different programs are used for verification.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTo distinguish correct from incorrect regions, the ERRAT program [6] can be used; this is based on analysis of the characteristics of atomic interactions compared to the highly refined structures.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tPROtein Volume Evaluation (PROVE; [30]) calculates the volume of the atoms in the macromolecules using an algorithm that treats the atoms as spheres, analysing the model in relation to the highly resolved and refined structures stored in the PDB.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThese software tools are available on servers such as ModFold [27], ProQ (see Section 6 - Table 2), and SAVes (see Section 6 - Table 2).
\n\t\t\t\t\tThreading modelling is generally used when the template and target sequences share less than 30% identity. Thus, structures that do not share an evolutionary relationship with the target protein can be used as templates. However, the target protein has to adopt a fold similar to that of the protein that has had its structure solved. The method can be classified as a pairwise energy-based method.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tUsing the sequence of the target protein as input, a search is conducted on a database of structures in order to find the best structural match using the criterion of energy calculation. The process is accomplished through a search for solved structures that are most appropriate for the target protein. The comparison highlights secondary structures because they are evolutionarily conserved.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tA model is constructed by placing aligned residues between the structure of the template and the target residues. In the next step, the energy of this model is calculated. This is done on various structures in the database. In the end, the models obtained are ranked based on the energy. The model presenting the lowest energy constitutes the most compatible folding model (Figure 6).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tSteps in the threading modelling process.
Many programs such as THREADER [15, 28] and RAPTOR ([41, 42]) can be used to carry out this process.
\n\t\t\t\t\tOne of the biggest problems in comparative modelling is the lack of templates. Template-free methods generate models based on the physicochemical properties and thermodynamic chain of the primary protein target. The processes are iterative. The conformation of the structure is altered until a configuration of lower potential energy is found.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSome methods use force fields based on knowledge as a scoring function. These methods are not strictly free of templates since they employ structures of small fragments of proteins such as, for example, ASTRO-FOLD [19, 35]. Others use energy functions based on first principles of energy and movement of atoms. Generally, these methods involve the calculation of energies of the structures, which has a high computational cost. They are therefore limited to small molecules (approximately 100 residues), as in the case of the software ROSETTA [32].
\n\t\t\t\t\tFirstly, ROSETTA breaks the sequence of the target protein into several short fragments and predicts the secondary structures of the fragments using HMMs. These fragments are then arranged (assembled) into a tertiary setting. Random combinations of these fragments generate a large number of models, which have their energies calculated. The conformation that presents the lowest global energy value is chosen as the best model (Figure 7).
\n\t\t\t\t\tSteps in the ROSETTA process.
One application of molecular docking is virtual screening, in which a library of compounds is compared to one or more targets, thereby providing an analysis of compounds ranked by potential.
\n\t\t\tVirtual screening computational techniques are applied to the selection of compounds that can be active in a target protein.
\n\t\t\tIn molecular docking, a ligand is usually placed in the binding site of a predetermined structure of a receptor (Figure 8). In other words, this is a method based on structure. The receptor is typically a protein and the ligand is a small molecule or a peptide. The optimal position and orientation of the ligand are determined using a search algorithm and a scoring function that ranks the solutions.
\n\t\t\tDiagram illustrating the docking of a ligand to a receptor to produce a complex.
The first step of the process of molecular docking is to determine the binding sites of the protein. This can be done by software programs such as Q-Sitefinder [24].
\n\t\t\tThe metaPocket method [13] predicts binding sites using 4 methods: LIGSITEcs [12], PASS [5], Q-Sitefinder, and SURFnet [23] – which in combination increase the success rate of prediction. The methods LIGSITEcs, PASS, and SURFnet use only the geometrical characteristics of the protein structure, detecting regions that have the potential to be binding sites. Such methods do not require prior knowledge of the ligands.
\n\t\t\tIn Q-Sitefinder, the surface of the protein is covered with a layer of methyl probes for the calculation of Van der Waals interactions between the protein and the probe. Probes with favourable interaction energies are retained, and are classified into groups based on the number of probes per group. The largest and most energetically favourable group is ranked first and considered the best potential binding site.
\n\t\t\tAnother step is to define the position of the ligand in the pocket. This can be predicted by molecular docking algorithms.
\n\t\t\tSeveral methods have developed different scoring functions and different search methodologies.
\n\t\t\tThe search algorithms have to be able to present different configurations and orientations of the ligand in a short time. Search algorithms, such as those used in molecular dynamics, Monte Carlo simulations, and genetic algorithms, among others, are all suitable for molecular docking.
\n\t\t\tScoring functions must be able to discriminate between different ligand-receptor interactions. These can be grouped into field-force, empirical, and knowledge-based methods.
\n\t\t\tThe algorithms can be classified into rigid body docking and flexible docking algorithms. In rigid-body docking, both the ligand and receptor are rigid. These methods are faster, but do not allow ligand and receptor to adapt to the binding. In flexible methods, the computational cost is higher compared to rigid methods. However, in these cases, the flexibility of the ligand and/or receptor is considered.
\n\t\t\tAnother important factor to be considered in ligand-receptor interactions is the presence of water. Some methods allow water molecules to be positioned. In cases where this is not possible, the position of water molecules can be predicted using a software program such as GRID [17].
\n\t\t\tGRID calculates the interactions between chemical groups and small molecules with known 3-dimensional structures. The energies are calculated using Lennard-Jones interactions, electrostatic and hydrogen bonding between the compounds, and 3-dimensional structures, using a position-dependent dielectric function.
\n\t\t\tExamples of tools available for docking proteins include AUTODOCK4.2 [29], GOLD [16], and GLIDE [10].
\n\t\t\tGOLD uses a genetic algorithm that seeks solutions through docking that propagates multiple copies of flexible models of the ligand in the active site of the receptor and recombining segments of copies at random until a converged set of structures is generated.
\n\t\t\tThe process of searching the databases can be time consuming; a way to reduce the search space is filtering databases by performing a search with the fastest algorithms, selecting the best candidates ranked. Subsequently, within this selection, a search algorithm slowly generates a new ranking of the ligands. Another way to reduce the number of ligands being studied in the database is to perform a search for ligands that offer the greatest possibility of being used in drug design. In this case, it is possible to filter the database by using the ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity) filter.
\n\t\t\tLipinski´s rule of 5 [25] can be used. The rule of 5 is a set of properties that characterise compounds that exhibit good oral bioavailability. It states that, in general, an orally active drug has no more than 1 violation of the rules (Table 1):
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Lipinski’s Rule of Five
Analysis of the metabolic fate and chemical toxicity of the compounds can be accomplished using the software programs DEREK and METEOR [11]. DEREK predicts whether a given chemical is toxic to humans, mammals, and bacteria. METEOR uses the knowledge of metabolism rules to predict the metabolic fate of chemicals, assisting in the choice of more efficient molecules.
\n\t\tOther methods can also be used for screening databases of compounds, such as those based on ligands (LBSV). In this case, a similarity search can be made between known bioactive compounds and molecules contained in databases. LBVS techniques include methods based on the pharmacophore and quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) modelling.
\n\t\t\tIn pharmacophore-based virtual screening, a hypothetical pharmacophore is taken as a template. The goal of screening is to identify molecules that show chemical similarities to the template [40].
\n\t\t\tQSAR is based on the similarity between structures. It is a quantitative relationship between a biological activity and the molecular descriptors that are used to predict the activity. QSAR searches for similarities between known ligands and each structure in a database, investigating how the biological activity of the ligands can be correlated to their structural features [8].
\n\t\t[38] performed a virtual screening against α-Cobratoxin. The neurotoxin α-Cobratoxin (Cbtx), isolated from the venom of the Thai cobra
[14] investigated the effects of protease inhibitors, including phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), benzamidine (BMD), and their derivatives on the activity of recombinant gloshedobin, a snake venom thrombin-like enzyme (SVTLE), from the snake
[36] evaluated the inhibitory effect of 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-1-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-oxo-1,3-dihydroisobenzofuran-5-carbonitrile (DFD) on viper venom-induced haemorrhagic and PLA2 activities. Molecular docking studies of DFD and snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs) were performed to understand the mechanism of inhibition by DFD, since SVMPs constitute one of the protein groups responsible for venom-induced haemorrhage. The docking results showed that DFD binds to a hydrophobic pocket in SVMPs with the K
\n\t\t\t\t
Computational methods used in the search for inhibitors play an essential role in the process of discovering new drugs.
\n\t\t\tThe application of protein modelling methods has contributed significantly in cases where the structure of the target protein has not been solved, allowing the SBVS process be completed.
\n\t\t\tGood results obtained by virtual screening depend on the quality of structures, databases to be scanned, the search algorithms, and scoring functions. Therefore, there must be a good interaction and exchange of information between
\n\t\t\t\tTable 2 presents a list of software tools and server web sites.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.rcsb.org/pdb/home/home.do | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://toolkit.tuebingen.mpg.de/hhpred | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/msa/clustalw2/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://swissmodel.expasy.org/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://salilab.org/modeller/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://dunbrack.fccc.edu/scwrl4/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.ebi.ac.uk/thornton-srv/software/PROCHECK/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://swift.cmbi.ru.nl/whatif/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://nihserver.mbi.ucla.edu/Verify_3D/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://nihserver.mbi.ucla.edu/ERRATv2/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.doe-mbi.ucla.edu/Software/PROVE.html | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttps://www.reading.ac.uk/bioinf/ModFOLD/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.sbc.su.se/~bjornw/ProQ/ProQ.html | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.rosettacommons.org/home | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.modelling.leeds.ac.uk/qsitefinder/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://nihserver.mbi.ucla.edu/SAVES/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://bioinf.cs.ucl.ac.uk/software_downloads/threader/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://projects.biotec.tu-dresden.de/metapocket/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.ccl.net/cca/software/UNIX/pass/overview.shtml | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.ebi.ac.uk/thornton-srv/software/SURFNET/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://autodock.scripps.edu/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk/products/life_sciences/gold/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.schrodinger.com/products/14/5/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttps://www.lhasalimited.org/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://raptorx.uchicago.edu/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.bioinformaticssolutions.com/raptor/downloadpricing/freetrial.html | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.sbg.bio.ic.ac.uk/~phyre/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://zhanglab.ccmb.med.umich.edu/MUSTER/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\thttp://zhanglab.ccmb.med.umich.edu/I-TASSER/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Software tools and server web sites.
The author would like to thank CAPES-PROEX and CNPq for financial support.
\n\t\tStroke is an insult to the brain tissue caused by a sudden interruption to the blood supply to the brain [1]. Sacco et al. gave an elaborate definition of stroke as a neurological deficit attributed to an acute focal injury of the central nervous system (CNS) by a vascular cause, including cerebral infarction, intra-cerebral haemorrhage (ICH), and subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) [2]. Stroke is highly prevalent and a second major cause of death and disability worldwide [2, 3, 4]. Stroke is a leading cause of dementia and depression. It can be classified on the basis of its aetiology as either ischaemic (87%) or haemorrhagic (13%) [5]. Ischaemic stroke results from occlusion of a cerebral artery which can be thrombotic or atherosclerotic (50%), embolic (25%) and micro-artery occlusion (lacunar stroke or infarcts) (25%) [5]. Haemorrhagic stroke is caused mainly by spontaneous rupture of blood vessels or aneurysms or secondary to trauma [5]. Early definitions of stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA) focused on the duration of symptoms and signs. However, Sacco et al. [2], noted that use of clinical observations and modern brain imaging showed that the duration and reversibility of brain ischemia is variable. Brain tissue that is deprived of needed nutrients can, in some patients, survive without permanent injury for a considerable period of time, that is, several hours or even, rarely, days, while in most other individuals, irreversible damage (infarction) occurs quickly [2].
There has been a rise in the prevalence of stroke related disability in many countries [6]. A rise in the incidence of stroke in Zimbabwe from 31/100,000 to 57/100,000 in a decade was reported with fatality rates ranging from 22 to 58% at one month following stroke reported in Zimbabwe and other African studies [7].
The risk factors for stroke are generally similar to those for coronary heart diseases and other vascular diseases [4]. High blood pressure is one of the leading primary and secondary modifiable risk factors [5]. The other risk factors for stroke include smoking, low physical activity levels, unhealthy diet, abdominal obesity, diabetes and excessive consumption of alcohol [4]. Effective prevention strategies should include targeting the key modifiable risk factors such as hypertension, elevated lipids and diabetes.
Clinical manifestations of each stroke differ based on the part and side of the brain affected, extent of the lesion and the person’s general health. Some of the effects of stroke include numbness, weakness or paralysis on one side of the body opposite the side of the brain affected, slurred speech, difficulty thinking of words or understanding other people, confusion, sudden blurred vision or sight loss, being unsteady on your feet and severe headache [8]. Concerning the stroke warning signs, numbness on one side was surprisingly identified as the commonest warning (44%) while unspecified pain was the least cited (11%) in one of the studies [9]. Stroke can also result in psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, feeling helpless and thoughts of death or suicide, trouble sleeping and feelings of worthlessness [10]. In general, a right cerebrovascular accident may result in left hemiplegia or hemiparesis, difficulties with visuo-spatial memory, neglect of the left side of the body, poor judgement, and impulsivity, while a left cerebrovascular accident may cause right hemiplegia or hemiparesis, apraxia, and aphasia due to the location of the Broccas’ and Wernicke’s areas [11].
Stroke was associated with 43.7 million disability-adjusted life years annually around the world [5]. It is one of the most common neurological diseases in the black African and the leading cause of adult neurological admissions in West African sub-region, constituting up to 65% of such admissions [9]. Globally, 70% of strokes and 87% of both stroke-related deaths and disability-adjusted life years occur in low- and middle-income countries [4]. Approximately 60% of stroke patients acquire permanent disabilities and experience limitations in terms of mobility, vision, voice, speech, swallowing (dysphagia) and sexual function globally [4]. Stroke can cause multiple impairments which might need a variety of rehabilitation interventions [12]. Motor impairment is the most common deficit after stroke and the motor deficits increase fall risks and fall-related injuries. This in turn significantly affects the patients’ mobility, participation in their activities of daily living, social events and other occupational performance areas [13].
Stroke is a leading cause of functional impairments; with 20% of survivors requiring institutional care after three months and 15–30% being permanently disabled [14]. Many stroke patients experience activity limitation, restricted social participation, and psychological issues such as anxiety and depression some years after having stroke [15]. Approximately 65% of stroke patients are dependent on others to help them with everyday activities and the quality of life 2–5 years after stroke has been reported by many stroke survivors as poor [15].
Several researchers have studied the stroke survivor’s physical, social, psychological and emotional needs [16, 17, 18, 19]. Although most stroke patients receive rehabilitation, the lifelong need for care of stroke patients with disabilities has not been fully explored [17]. Despite calls for comprehensive stroke services to address long-term needs of patients, there had been little investigation of the perceived needs of stroke survivors in the long term or what determines such needs [20]. This area lacked a systematic approach to problem identification, had a poor evidence base, and was not underpinned by sound theoretical concepts hence there was need for further research in the area [15]. Similarly, needs of caregivers for stroke patients need further exploration.
Stroke Rehabilitation is a progressive, dynamic and goal-orientated process aimed at enabling a person with impairment as a result of stroke to reach their optimal physical, cognitive, emotional, communicative, social and functional activity level [21]. Stroke rehabilitation begins in the acute care hospital after the person’s overall condition has been stabilised, often within 24–48 hours after the stroke [22]. Stroke rehabilitation plays a vital role in lessening the effects of impairments and activity limitations, and in facilitating the return to active participation in community life and economic self-sufficiency after the stroke [12]. Internationally recognised best practice in the early management and rehabilitation of individuals following stroke includes collaborative and multidisciplinary assessment and treatment by a coordinated team of health care professionals [23]. A collaborative approach improves quality of life in stroke patients [12].
In the first weeks and months of recovery, the goals of rehabilitation are to help survivors become as independent as possible and to attain the best possible quality of life [21]. Although rehabilitation may not reverse the brain damage, it can substantially help people achieve the best possible long-term outcomes [22] through various ways that include facilitation of neuroplasticity of the brain. Rehabilitation is especially crucial during the early stages of recovery to regain independence when patients have little or no control over their affected muscles [22].
As part of stroke rehabilitation, occupational therapy (OT) involves the use of activities or training to improve or maintain the ability to live independently and cope with daily life for people with stroke [16]. The philosophy of occupational therapy is based on the concept that all humans have a need to become engaged in occupations [24], and that need is present even after stroke. Therefore, the role of the occupational therapist is to facilitate the patient’s continued participation in meaningful and purposeful daily activities and adaptation to the patient’s changed status. These occupations (all goal-directed engagement in self-care, work or leisure activities) can be termed as activities and participation areas in the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) terminology [25]. According to the ICF framework, stroke results in activity limitation and participation restriction [26]. The ICF is a globally agreed framework and classification to define the spectrum of problems in the functioning of patients [27]. The ICF was also shown to be an essential tool for identifying and measuring efficacy and effectiveness of rehabilitation services [28]. Using the ICF takes a biopsychosocial approach which addresses the quality of life gap which is often left in favour of quantity of life.
Occupational Therapy in general, focuses on the assessment and treatment of individuals who are limited by physical injury or illness, psychosocial dysfunction, developmental or learning disabilities, or the ageing process through the use of purposeful activity and adaptive equipment and technology in order to maximise independence, prevent disability and maintain health [29]. Occupational therapists play a crucial role in the rehabilitation of stroke patients as they are experts at training patients to relearn complex bodily movements and avoid complications that could derail their progress later [30]. Occupational therapy is concerned with promoting health and wellbeing through participation in activities of everyday life and this is done by modifying the occupations and the environment in a therapeutic way to better support participation [23]. Occupational therapists also employ neurophysiologically based handling techniques meant to facilitate neuroplasticity of the brain. In some instances, occupational therapists can teach compensatory strategies when the old ways of functioning are no longer possible [30]. Therefore, occupational therapy for stroke includes interventions for physical, social, psychological and cognitive impairments [30]. The role of occupational therapists in stroke rehabilitation is particularly important because they focus on functional outcomes and getting clients back to doing everyday activities [11] which is usually unique to the profession. It is important that the interventions suit a patient’s needs [30].
The period of receiving services in stroke rehabilitation depends on the severity of disability and specific needs of the stroke survivor, although it has been proved that a great deal of stroke recovery occur within the first six months to a year following the onset of the stroke [31]. Occupational therapists work collaboratively with the patient to establish the impact of stroke on their performance of daily tasks, including personal care, domestic tasks, work and leisure activities; and in formulating a goal-focused program to develop the required skills for participation in daily life [23]. Given the variability in stroke complications, occupational therapists need to have a wide repertoire of techniques to help each client [11]. The treatment techniques in occupational therapy may include using occupational tasks to help improve cognitive abilities, teaching adaptations to meaningful activities to keep the client involved, and using task-specific movement to help with range of motion and motor control [11]. The occupational therapist can provide a patient with an assistive device or adjustments and adaptations in the environment, for example, in a patient’s home. This enables the patient to perform his/her ADLs independently and also dealing with other emotional or social issues that may result from stroke [30].
The occupational therapy process for stroke patients begins with an assessment of the patient’s roles, tasks and activities that are important for the patient [30]. An assessment is conducted to understand the impact of changes in motor function, sensation, coordination, visual perception, and cognition on the stroke patients and on the capacity to manage daily life tasks [23]. Assessment is also used to identify areas of individual and environmental difficulties and to enable patient-centred goal setting with the participation of both the patient and the caregiver [23]. The occupational therapist will then assess the ability to perform the roles, tasks and activities and if a limitation or restriction in some area is found, the occupational therapist will identify the performance components and craft the solution or intervention meant to restore, improve or maintain patient’s maximum level of performance [30]. Some of the performance components may include neuromuscular, cognitive and perceptual, language and psychosocial problems.
The occupational therapy interventions should therefore be able to address the patient’s needs and be provided in both the acute and rehabilitation phases [30]. For some stroke survivors, rehabilitation will be an on-going process to maintain and refine skills and could involve working with occupational therapists and other specialists in that field for months or even years after the stroke [22].
In order to adequately address challenges stroke patients face, there is need to identify the activities and areas of participation they consider important. This section is therefore based on a study done in Zimbabwe which sought to find out the activities and areas of participation considered important by stroke patients, the level of difficulty experienced in carrying out these activities and the reasons for attaching importance to these areas [32]. The study was cross sectional descriptive in nature and was done with 40 stroke patients consecutively selected as they came for their reviews at an outpatient stroke clinic at a central hospital in Zimbabwe [33] . An interview questionnaire adapted from the ICF checklist version 2.1a clinician form was administered by the researchers with consent after ethical approval (JREC….). Excluded were patients with significant cognitive and language impairments as it would have been difficult to communicate with them. In the study, 25 were female and 15 were male. Participants’ ages ranged from 34 to 81 years with the 50–59 years age group being the mode. These demographic characteristics are consistent with a study done by Mlambo et al. [34], which was done in South Africa and the participants’ ages ranged from 32 to 81 with a mean age of 52 years. The activities and areas of participation assessed during the study were obtained from the domains in the ICF checklist as alluded to earlier.
Half of the patients reported severe difficulty in lifting and carrying objects, while 43 and 38% of participants experienced complete and severe difficulties in fine hand use respectively [32]. About 20% had flexion contractures of the elbow and wrist joints of the affected side. These difficulties were due to the condition (stroke) which causes disturbances in muscle tone and loss of selective and isolated movements in the hand and arm [35] and this hinders execution of functional movements [36]. Thirty three percent of the participants had moderate difficulty in walking and used mobility aids while 20% had complete difficulty [32]. Half of the participants reported experiencing complete difficulty in using transportation like cars or buses. On driving, only 18 participants were drivers and 78% of them reported complete difficulty in the area [32].
On importance attached to these domains, all participants considered fine hand use and walking important, while 98% considered being able to use transportation important [32]. However, it was noted that none of the participants who were drivers had driving addressed by their therapist. Driving rehabilitation is an area that has not been fully explored by OTs in Zimbabwe. Driving is an important ADL and many stroke patients who were driving prior to their stroke wished to resume driving as noted by Kneebone and Lincoln [37]. A study by Duncan et al. [38] found that hand function and mobility were some of the key areas considered important by stroke patients.
Half of the participants in the study reported severe difficulties in dressing, 33% had moderate to severe difficulties in grooming while 65% had severe difficulty in bathing themselves [32]. About 73% had no difficulty in feeding and this can be explained by the exclusion of patients with speech and cognitive problems in the study. Speech and cognitive problems are often associated with feeding problems. Thirty three percent did not experience any difficulties in toileting while the remainder had mild to severe difficulties and used sanitary wear or were catheterised [32].
All aspects of self-care were considered as very important by all participants as they viewed these activities crucial for human survival [32]. This was also noted in a study by Aberg et al. [39] where the participants valued their independence in self-care activities.
In Chimusoro’s study [32], 78 and 75% of participants had complete difficulties in acquisition of goods and services, and preparing meals respectively. About half of the participants considered being able to prepare meals important, while 32% consisting mainly of male participants and elderly female participants did not view it as important since they had their meals prepared for them by caregivers. On doing housework, all male participants considered it as not applicable to them. This is common in the Zimbabwean and most African cultures where most if not all men, do not consider household chores as part of their ADLs. Therefore it would be irrelevant to engage a male patient in therapy sessions focusing on retraining household chores unless found necessary during the assessment process. The same notion applied to the elderly female patients who had long stopped doing those chores before suffering a stroke. These duties were done for them by children, grandchildren and/or caregivers [32]. This is where the aspect of interdependence is seen in the African culture. The elderly in Africa usually end up living with their children and grandchildren as compared to the Western culture where the elderly can be living alone and independence in home maintenance tasks becomes an important aspect of their lives.
All the participants did not have any difficulties in basic interpersonal interactions, formal and informal interactions [32]. Participants considered these areas important. However, 10 and 4% had mild and moderate difficulties in intimate relationships respectively. They attributed their problems in sexual function to their condition and felt it hindered maximum enjoyment of intimate relationships. They viewed their intimate relationships as important but were reluctant to share this with their therapist since they were not aware that the issue could be addressed in occupational therapy. Resumption of sexual activity for stroke patients is very important as cited by Edmans, although they may fail to articulate this to the therapist [40].
In this domain remunerative employment was not applicable to half of the participants as some were retired and some did not work prior to suffering the stroke. For the remaining half they reported complete difficulty and had not yet returned to their previous jobs. This is consistent with the findings by D’Alisa et al. [41] in which 40% had severe restrictions in employment issues. About 95% of patients to whom employment was applicable considered it as very important [41].
About 33% had moderate difficulties in economic self-sufficiency as they had financial problems due to their unemployment status. All the participants considered being self-sufficient important. In D’Alisa et al. [41], 15% had moderate to severe restrictions in economic self-sufficiency. This difference may be due to lack of a national social security system that cushions persons with disabilities in Zimbabwe as compared to more developed countries.
All participants considered it important to be reintegrated into the community. About 85% did not report any difficulty in participating in religious and spiritual activities and 95% considered them very important [32].
Fifty eight percent considered recreational activities as important. These recreational activities were mainly visiting friends and relatives, watching television, reading or listening to the radio [32]. There is a stark contrast in the type of recreational activities cited by the Zimbabwean sample as compared to other studies where participants reported restrictions in activities like golf, bowling, tennis and attending social clubs. The differences in the recreational activities can be explained by the differences in the socio-economic statuses of the samples. The culture of participating in recreational activities for leisure purposes need to be reinforced and further explored especially in low income groups where people mostly engage in productive activities whether paid or unpaid than they do in recreational activities.
Out of the 40 participants, 53% wanted to return to their work. They considered it very important because some were breadwinners and wanted to be able to look after their families [32]. In a study in Singapore by Kong and Yang [42], 14 out of 54 participants continued to be gainfully employed [42]. Of these 14, 11 were able to go back to previous jobs while 3 had to change jobs due to their physical limitations [42].
Thirty four percent wanted to be able to do their instrumental ADLs again [32]. These were mainly female participants who valued being able to look after their children and homes. Only 10% did not wish to return to any activity in particular and these were mainly elderly patients who had not been engaging in any activities that they considered important enough to return to [32]. In such cases, it would be necessary for the therapist to try to look for areas of interest for the patient so as to build a passion for doing activities that are meaningful to them and can also be used during therapy.
In summary, these findings give insight into the areas stroke patients consider important in the Zimbabwean context. They are consistent with other studies, for example, one study by Sumathipala [20], where stroke patients considered ADLs, social participation, mobility aids, home adaptations, housing and financial support as important [20].
The ICF is an important framework in guiding management of stroke patients as it can be used to assess and address all aspects of a person’s life without just focusing on his/her diagnosis [43]. Occupational therapy has an important role of facilitating a patient’s optimal functioning and independence through participation in meaningful and purposeful daily activities. The strength of occupational therapy lies in the ability to analyse activities/occupations. The occupations in which a person engages and the amount of time one spends doing the occupations is very specific to the circumstances and the culture in which a person lives [44]. Therefore, the effectiveness of occupational therapy and the quality of care can improve when culturally relevant occupations are selected and interventions are important to a person with stroke.
This section is based on a cross sectional pilot study done in Harare, Zimbabwe in 2020 with 35 stroke patients attending rehabilitation [45]. Mean age of participants was 58 years (S.D 8.8) and the greater proportion were female (
About 49% were employed [45], consistent with another study done on stroke survivors in Zimbabwe where less than half were working and the rest had no source of income [46]. Left cerebral Vascular Accidents accounted for 74.3% of the strokes. Study participants had a median duration with stroke diagnosis of 104 days (inter-quartile range 44–270). This is mainly the situation in Zimbabwe where most of the patients who come for rehabilitation have stroke duration of less than two years. Those who had stroke for more than two years will have inadequate funds to continue treatment, hence will not come for rehabilitation services.
The needs of participants were grouped into physical, instrumental, social, informational and emotional needs. Highlighted in Table 1 are the needs according to the groupings and it consists of 28 statements to which participants were expected to answer “yes” or “no” on whether they consider it a need.
Item | Need | Considered as a need by stroke patients | |
---|---|---|---|
Yes | No | ||
1 | To ease my pain, since nothing seems to ease it. | 35 (100%) | 0 |
2 | Help on walking and general moving | 35 (100%) | 0 |
3 | Help on how to get job done in my home (ADLs) such as cleaning, cooking, ironing and laundry | 35 (100%) | 0 |
4 | Help on how to do things like cutting my toenails, washing myself | 35 (100%) | 0 |
5 | Help on how to deal with fatigue | 35 (100%) | 0 |
6 | Learning about exercise | 35 (100%) | 0 |
7 | Help on how to bath independently | 35 (100%) | 0 |
8 | Help on dealing with bladder/ bowel problems (accidents, constipation, diarrhoea) | 32 (91.43%) | 3 (8.57%) |
9 | Help on how to prevent pressure sores | 30 (85.71) | 5 (14.29%) |
10 | Help on sight problems. | 29 (82.86%) | 6 (17.14%) |
11 | Help on getting back to driving | 19 (54.29%) | 16 (45.71%) |
12 | Help on swallowing problems. | 14 (40%) | 21 (60%) |
13 | Help on speech and communication problems | 12 (34.29%) | 23 (65.71%) |
14 | Help on hearing problems. | 4 (11.43%) | 31 (88.57%) |
15 | Additional aids or adaptations (kitchen appliances, stair lift, grab rails) if other please specify | 35 (100%) | 0 |
16 | Adaptations outside the home (e.g., ramps, rail) if other please specify | 33 (94.29%) | 2 (5.71%) |
17 | Help on how to occupy my day better (e.g., social outings, hobbies, leisure activities) | 35 (100%) | 0 |
18 | Help and advocacy in accessing social services | 34 (97.14%) | 1 (2.86%) |
19 | Help on how to travel using public transport such as buses and commuter omnibuses | 32 (91.43%) | 3 (8.57%) |
20 | More information about my stroke (e.g., what is stroke, why has it happened to me, how to avoid having another one) | 35 (100%) | 0 |
21 | Advice on how to improve my diet | 35 (100%) | 0 |
22 | Advice on how to manage my money better. | 33 (94.29%) | (5.71%) |
23 | Help on how to do shopping. | 32 (91.43%) | 3 (8.57%) |
24 | Advice on employment after stroke | 25 (71.43%) | 10 (28.57%) |
25 | Help and information on how to manage my physical relationship with my partner | 13 (37.14%) | 22 (62.86%) |
26 | Help on improving self-esteem, anger issues and other emotional issues If other please specify | 35 (100%) | 0 |
27 | Help on improving my memory and concentration. | 33 (94.29%) | 2 (5.71%) |
28 | Help on how to deal with emotional and behavioural changes | 34 (97.06%) | 1 (2.94%) |
Distribution of participants according to need (
Fourteen statements related to physical needs. All the participants in the study considered pain management, walking and general mobility, performing basic and instrumental activities of daily living (ADLs), engaging in recreational activities, dealing with fatigue and exercising as their physical needs post stroke [45]. Specific self-care needs cited were independent bathing and cutting toenails. Only 40% and about 11% cited swallowing and hearing problems respectively. Thus physical needs were the most common needs of stroke patients. This is because stroke mainly affects the physical components resulting in pain, reduced mobility, poor muscle strength, reduced speech and communication, problems with swallowing and incontinence and many other deficits which might results in decreased functioning and inability to cope [12]. In a similar study done in Australia, patients mostly over the age of 65 years needed assistance with performing ADLs, such as self-care [15], and this shows that this is a major need among all stroke patients regardless of location.
Sight problems, prevention of pressure sores and dealing with bladder and bowel problems were cited by more than 80% of participants as needs indicating that they are also common needs in this group.
These two aspects had a combined five needs (Table 1). There were two items on instrumental needs, and all participants indicated the need for additional aids or adaptations in the house while 94% cited need for adaptations outside the home. Under social needs, there were three items and about 97 and 91% respectively indicated the need for help and advocacy in accessing social services and using public transport. All participants needed help on how to engage in social outings, hobbies and leisure activities. Stroke survivors in this study faced societal barriers that can affect engagement in activities of daily living namely problems in using public transportation, lack of adaptations inside and outside the home environment as well as lack of aids and appliances to facilitate independence. Due to the economic situation in Zimbabwe, most places are not specifically adapted for people with disabilities to engage fully in social and daily activities, for example, inadequate provision of rails and ramps in public buildings for those who have problems with mobility [47]. Assistive devices like wheelchairs and modifications to the home environment are not available to the survivor soon after discharge to promote maximum participation [48], hence participants citing them as needs they require occupational therapists to meet. In Zimbabwe, wheelchair service provision and services are fragmented and poorly integrated [49]. The use of mobility devices such as wheelchairs, crutches and canes improves mobility, health and quality of life, and it enables those with mobility issues to mobilise without any restrictions [48]. Another study showed that stroke survivors had more participation restrictions as a result of environmental barriers [50]. Physical/structural and services/assistance were considered the dominant barriers to participation in activities of daily life for stroke survivors in China, hence there were considered to be among the most common needs presented by stroke survivors [51]. In another study on “Identification of rehabilitation needs after a stroke”, some of the most expressed needs of the participants were needs relating to adapted means of transportation and home visits from healthcare personnel [52]. Home visits might also help in noting any home adaptations that need to be done [53]. Social support should be provided to stroke survivors, including barrier-free facilities and occupational therapists should advocate for those services in the community.
Six items related to informational needs. All the participants needed information on their condition (stroke) and advice on diet. Over 90% needed advice on or help on better money management and shopping. Twenty-five participants needed advice on employment after stroke. The least cited as informational need had to do with managing physical relationships with partner/spouse (about 37%) (Table 1). The need to give more information about the condition is consistent with findings by Williams et al., where only 38% professed to know stroke warning signs and only 25% correctly interpreted their symptoms [54]. Similarly, Mckevitt, et al., reported more than half of their participants wanting more information about their stroke (cause, prevention of recurrence) [55]. This shows that this is a major concern among most stroke patients regardless of the part of the world they live, hence the need for occupational therapy intervention. Knowledge about the condition will also help them to adhere to the home programs they will be given and to seek for early treatment before any complications or permanent disability arises. With more knowledge about stroke, they could identify the disease immediately, resulting in a decrease in the time from symptom onset to hospital arrival, and a subsequent increase in the number of patients who may receive appropriate interventions [56]. It might also help them to know how to prevent any future recurrence of the condition and the services that might be beneficial to them in order to minimise any complications that may arise as a result of the condition.
Three items related to emotional needs. All items were cited as needs by more than 94% (improving memory and concentration (94.29%), self-esteem, anger and other emotional issues (100%) plus dealing with the emotional and behavioural changes (97.06%) (Table 1). This high proportion of more than 90% of the participants having emotional needs after stroke is probably because stroke affects the person’s ability to engage in daily living activities, communicate well with others and that can lead to increased dependence, feelings of low self-worth, (e.g., if the patient is incontinent) resulting in many psychological and emotional issues like depression [57]. The findings in this Zimbabwean study are consistent with a study on “Self-Reported Long-Term Needs After Stroke” where over one third of respondents reported experiencing emotional problems (including depression, crying) after the stroke [55]. Since emotional and psychological needs are liable to be neglected, post-stroke depression is a common complication which seriously impairs quality of life [18]. Therefore, psychological expertise and psychological support is needed by stoke survivors [18].
The majority of the participants in the Zimbabwean study perceived most of the needs in all categories as important and requiring intervention [45]. Physical needs rated as very important in this study were independent mobility and dealing with bladder and bowel incontinence. These aspects enable participants to be independent and to perform daily activities without restrictions. Participants also perceived informational needs as important [45]. Information on dietary issues is important among stroke patients as this might enhance recovery and help in minimising the intake of unhealthy foods such as saturated fats and too much sodium chloride which might even increase the risk of having a recurrent stroke [58]. Knowledge about one’s condition will conscientise them on the importance of receiving rehabilitation and adhering to one’s treatment and medications. The knowledge can also minimise complications and prevent future recurrence of the condition, hence this information is important among stroke patients [59]. Furthermore, knowledge and information about the condition is important since there is often confusion and a lack of information about surviving after a stroke, prevention of subsequent strokes, treatment, services, benefits and adaptions to property [60, 61]. Stroke survivors had to adapt to changes in their bodies as a result of stroke and adjust their expectations, including roles within the home and community [60]. This was particularly so for those of working age and hence the importance of knowledge on the condition.
In one study, stroke survivors experienced a lack of information about what had happened to them and did not realise they had had a stroke [62]. Relevant information is required at different times after a stroke, for example, information about benefits and services most needed after discharge from hospital [61]. Some survivors and carers are unsure which profession offers which service, and there can be role confusion related to an Occupational Therapist, a Physiotherapist, a Home Carer and a social worker, hence this information is also important among stroke patients who should know which services can address their specific needs [60].
The majority of the patients in the Zimbabwean study indicated that adaptations in the home environment were important [45]. Without these, stroke survivors are restricted in performing their daily activities and social roles resulting in increased dependency [63]. Without assistive technology, stroke survivors and other people with disabilities are often excluded, isolated and locked into poverty, resulting in increased burden of morbidity and disability [63]. This is similar to a study done to identify the long-term needs of stroke survivors using the ICF where the participants reported that home adaptations (such as stair or grab rails) provided after discharge from hospital enabled them to adapt to their physical disabilities by facilitating independence in walking, climbing stairs and ADLs [20]. Stroke patients saw this as important since these factors might create a significant barrier to their physical functioning and independence.
Pfavai [45] also revealed that emotional issues such as dealing with depression and behavioural changes were rated as important by more than 80% of the participants. Most of these are not easily seen unlike physical needs hence their importance might be overlooked by occupational therapists. These issues might affect recovery and engagement in daily occupations hence they were perceived as important by the participants. Emotional problems such as depression might also be fatal, in worst cases leading to suicide and general increased mortality, hence their importance must not be overlooked [64]. A sudden attack and poor prognosis had an appreciable effect on the psychological and emotional wellbeing of stroke survivors [18], hence they are important and should be addressed. Interventions usually focus on treating the disease, rather than the emotional needs of the patients. These emotional and psychological needs are liable to be neglected and post-stroke depression is a common complication which seriously impairs quality of life [18; 63].
Participants in Zimbabwe also perceived the need to engage in recreational pursuits as important in their lives [45]. This is one of the areas which are mostly neglected during intervention by occupational therapists. However, engaging in leisure and recreational activities is of importance since it improves physical health, enhances mental wellness, social interaction with others and it enables the stroke survivors to engage in activities which are meaningful in their lives [65]. In a study done on coping with the challenges of recovering from stroke, participants reported the importance of recreational activities and the great distress which was associated with the loss of hobbies and activities that had previously been a source of pleasure and achievement [62]. This is also in line with Rhoda et al., [66] where the participants highlighted the importance of engaging in recreational activities. Participants experienced social isolation, restriction to their homes which they felt could result in sadness and depression due to inability to engage in those activities which were normally found interesting before [66]. However, these activities should be client centred so that their benefits to each individual can be realised.
Access to public transport which is conducive and specifically adapted for people with disabilities was perceived as important by participants in Pfavai study [45]. This is important since lack of suitable transport results in participation restriction in activities such as religious activities, shopping and other social gatherings participants might want to engage in [47]. In a study done in China, physical/structural and services/assistance which include inaccessible public transport for those with disabilities were considered the dominant barriers to participation in activities of daily life for stroke survivors in China hence these needs are important and should be addressed [18]. Social support should be provided to stroke survivors, including barrier-free facilities [47]. Furthermore, the social security system for stroke survivors and other disabling conditions needs to be improved in low-income and middle-income countries.
Findings from Pfavai study [45] indicated that most of the needs of stroke patients were not being fully met including those needs participants rated as very important. Perceived unmet needs may reflect expectations and knowledge but may also indicate where service provision should be developed [55]. The needs which were mostly being fulfilled were physical needs such as pain management, exercises to facilitate walking and mobility in general, and self-care including independent bathing [45]. This is because these needs can be easily identified and their physical limitations can be easily noted compared to other needs such as emotional, informational and societal. The later ones are therefore less likely to be addressed. These findings are consistent with McKevitt
The emotional needs highlighted included how to deal with depression, anger issues, low self-esteem and behavioural changes as a result of stroke [45]. Emotional needs might be overlooked during the assessment process especially if the patient does not mention any emotional issues they might be experiencing. This is in line with a study done on the unmet needs of stroke patients where cognitive and emotional health needs such as concentration, memory, cognition, fatigue, and emotions were less likely to be fully met than physical needs despite physical needs being more common [15]. This affirms the requirement to implement strategies to help stroke survivors address the range of emotional problems they may experience [55]. Stroke rehabilitation usually focuses on physical impairments and assisting stroke survivors to develop functional independence. This may mean that services aimed at addressing the cognitive and emotional needs of stroke survivors are not adequately resourced [15]. This supports the results obtained in Pfavai [45] study where emotional needs were not being fully met compared to most of the physical needs [45]. Therapists need to be intentional in ensuring that emotional problems experienced by stroke survivors are adequately addressed.
Instrumental needs which were perceived as being unmet by more than 70% of the participants included adaptations outside the home environment and aids and adaptions inside the home environment [45]. Without these aids, stroke survivors are less able to perform their daily activities without restrictions [49]. However, due to the economic situation in Zimbabwe there is lack of resources in hospitals and assistive devices are scarce for those with performance limitations [45, 47]. There is also lack of transport and financial resources for the occupational therapists to do home adaptations for the patients soon after discharge [53]. This need might also be more than the 70% which was obtained in Pfavai study [45] since the study was partly done at a rehabilitation centre where the patients are given assistive devices such as wheelchairs for them to use before discharge and at a nominal fee after discharge. Stroke survivors have also reported that health systems are not responsive to their changing needs and that there is a lack of long-term re-assessment of their needs, [15]; hence some of the needs which might arise later during intervention may not be met.
Training on getting back to driving and information on how to do shopping were rated by more than 90% of participants as unmet [45]. These are some of the needs which are over looked during intervention. This might be due to lack of expertise among the concerned occupational therapists on driving rehabilitation. At the time of writing this chapter, there was no comprehensive module on driving in the University of Zimbabwe curriculum on occupational therapy undergraduate training. This might result in lack of expertise and confidence in addressing that need. This is also in line with a study done on coping with the challenges of recovering from stroke where loss of ability to drive a car was seen as a major challenge which required intervention and the ability to resume driving was spoken with deep emotion [62]. Driving was seen as representative of independence, a way to regain self-esteem, a means to access social support and to facilitate participation in valued activities [62]. This aspect however needs special training to avoid causing harm to patient and society.
Skills on shopping independently were also perceived as unmet in Pfavai study [45], and this might be due to lack of resources to simulate the shopping environment or lack of funds to teach the patients in the actual environment. In a study that looked at the combined perceptions of people with stroke and their carers regarding rehabilitation needs one year after stroke [67], patients reported having to give up a task in advance and had limitations in more physically demanding activities such as going to buy groceries among other tasks, supporting the need to address shopping needs among stroke patients [67]. The importance of this need might be overlooked during interventions. Information and knowledge needs of stroke survivors should not be underestimated and should be considered when developing strategies to meet the rehabilitation needs of stroke survivors [68].
Another unmet need in the Zimbabwean study [45] was financial/money management after a stroke. Most stroke survivors lose their jobs after the incident of stroke, and cognitive components might also be affected resulting in inability to adequately manage their money. However, this need seemed to have been overlooked. Li et al. also noted that few studies have looked at the financial impact of stroke on the survivors and their families, indicating that this area’s importance might be underrated [18].
Early discharge of patients due to unavailability of beds might also result in some of the stroke patients’ needs not being adequately met. Although many individuals still have rehabilitation needs one year after stroke, rehabilitation is often concluded within the first three months, and follow up is not usually done hence some of the needs might not be adequately fulfilled [67].
The occupational therapist is the health professional who specifically addresses patients’ involvement in daily life situations, and as such, she/he should be well conversant with that particular aspect of patients’ lives. This in turn addresses one’s quality of life which is often neglected. Stroke patients’ perceived needs highlighted above provide patients’ perspectives which is critical in the development of patient-centred services by service providers. The commonly used functional outcome measures (e.g., the Barthel Index) may underestimate dependence leading to rehabilitation professionals and patients prioritising different needs. Not using meaningful occupations in treatment; lack of discharge planning, using interventions not perceived as driven by patient’s occupational goals, and use of interventions chosen by therapists without considering what the patient needs thereby placing the patient in a passive role were noted as major challenges [69]. The stroke patients’ perceptions help the therapists to tailor interventions to meet patients’ specific needs.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Adsorption kinetics is one of the main factors that must be understood before the applicability of any adsorbent. In every adsorption process, linear or non-linear analysis of the kinetics is applied. The goodness of fit index (coefficient of correlation or sum of squares) is applied to access the best model. The usage of linear or non-linear from of the adsorption kinetics has an impact on the distribution of error function. Almost in every adsorption study, linear forms have been used to conclude the best kinetic model that influence the adsorption mechanism—which might be an error. Therefore, this review highlights the mistakes in the usage of linear and non-linear models. The applicability of the adsorption kinetics in wastewater treatment is also illuminated.",book:{id:"7486",slug:"advanced-sorption-process-applications",title:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications"},signatures:"George William Kajjumba, Serkan Emik, Atakan Öngen, H. Kurtulus Özcan\nand Serdar Aydın",authors:[{id:"26340",title:"Dr.",name:"Kurtulus",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"kurtulus-ozcan",fullName:"Kurtulus Ozcan"},{id:"250972",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"serdar-aydin",fullName:"Serdar Aydin"},{id:"251149",title:"Dr.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Emik",slug:"serkan-emik",fullName:"Serkan Emik"},{id:"251150",title:"Dr.",name:"Atakan",middleName:null,surname:"Öngen",slug:"atakan-ongen",fullName:"Atakan Öngen"},{id:"251152",title:"Mr.",name:"George William",middleName:null,surname:"Kajjumba",slug:"george-william-kajjumba",fullName:"George William Kajjumba"}]},{id:"62303",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79374",title:"Modified Titanium Dioxide for Photocatalytic Applications",slug:"modified-titanium-dioxide-for-photocatalytic-applications",totalDownloads:3966,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:73,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been widely used as a photocatalyst in many environmental and energy applications due to its efficient photoactivity, high stability, low cost, and safety to the environment and humans. However, its large band gap energy, ca. 3.2 eV limits its absorption of solar radiation to the UV light range which accounts for only about 5% of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is also limited by the rapid recombination of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs. When used in water treatment applications, TiO2 has a poor affinity toward organic pollutants, especially hydrophobic organic pollutants. Several strategies have been employed to reduce its band gap energy, its electron-hole recombination rates as well as enhance its absorption of organic pollutants. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent works that have employed the doping, decoration, and structural modification of TiO2 particles for applications in photocatalysis. Additionally, we discuss the effectiveness of these dopants and/or modifiers in enhancing TiO2 photoactivity as well as some perspective on the future of TiO2 photocatalysis.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"John Moma and Jeffrey Baloyi",authors:[{id:"250026",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"250963",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Baloyi",slug:"jeffrey-baloyi",fullName:"Jeffrey Baloyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68496",title:"Moisture Sorption Isotherms and Isotherm Model Performance Evaluation for Food and Agricultural Products",slug:"moisture-sorption-isotherms-and-isotherm-model-performance-evaluation-for-food-and-agricultural-prod",totalDownloads:1952,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Moisture sorption characteristics of agricultural and food products play important roles in such technological processes as drying, handling, packaging, storage, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life, glass transition and estimation of drying time and texture and prevention of deteriorative reactions. They are useful in the computation of thermodynamic energies of moisture in the products. An understanding of moisture sorption phenomena in products, moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) determination techniques and moisture sorption isotherm model evaluation procedures would be useful in the development or selection, modeling and controlling as well as optimization of appropriate processes to make for enhanced efficiency. The phenomena addressed in this chapter are equilibrium moisture content (EMC)-water activity (aw) relationships and MSI types, temperature influence on isotherms and occurrence of moisture sorption hysteresis. MSI measurement techniques highlighted are the gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric (VPM), hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic and the use of AquaLab equipment. Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models (BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Halsey, modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost and modified Oswin) were selected, and their evaluation procedures using moisture sorption data were outlined. Static gravimetric technique involving the use of saturated salt solution appears to be the most widely used and recommended method of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products. Most of the MSI models can be fitted to moisture sorption data thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation, while others can be solved using such expression as second-order polynomial. Model goodness of fit can be determined using standard (SE) error of estimate, coefficient of determination (R2), mean relative percentage deviation (P) and fraction explained variation (FEV). The acceptance of a model depends on the nature of its residual plots. A model is considered acceptable if the residual plots show uniform scatter around the horizontal value of zero showing no systemic tendency towards a clear pattern. A model is better than another model if it has lower SE, lower P, higher R2 and higher FEV. Although it appears as if a generalized MSI model is yet to exist, it is recommended that the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema (NBA) model should be given thorough going and extensive testing on the MSI of different categories of food as it could prove true to its generalized model posture due to the fundamental nature of its derivation.",book:{id:"8012",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",title:"Sorption in 2020s",fullTitle:"Sorption in 2020s"},signatures:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",authors:[{id:"303694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ndubisi",middleName:null,surname:"Aviara",slug:"ndubisi-aviara",fullName:"Ndubisi Aviara"}]},{id:"63788",title:"Disinfection Methods",slug:"disinfection-methods",totalDownloads:3195,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Water must be made safe to drink, and an important step in ensuring water safety is disinfection. Disinfectants are added to water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. Ground water sources can be disinfected by “The Water Treatment Rule,” which requires public water systems for disinfection. Chlorination, ozone, ultraviolet light, and chloramines are primary methods for disinfection. However, potassium permanganate, photocatalytic disinfection, nanofiltration, and chlorine dioxide can also be used. Organic material is naturally present in water. Certain forms of chlorine can react with these organic materials and result in the formation of harmful by-products; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has anticipated maximum levels for these contaminants.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq, Zobia Afsheen, Amjad Khan and Amjad\nKhan",authors:[{id:"228353",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-saqib-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq"},{id:"246559",title:"Dr.",name:"Zobia",middleName:null,surname:"Afsheen",slug:"zobia-afsheen",fullName:"Zobia Afsheen"},{id:"246561",title:"Mr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"},{id:"271289",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"}]},{id:"41887",title:"Microbial Techniques for Hydrocarbon Exploration",slug:"microbial-techniques-for-hydrocarbon-exploration",totalDownloads:6490,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"M.A. Rasheed, D.J. Patil and A.M. Dayal",authors:[{id:"143475",title:"Dr",name:"Mohammed Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Rasheed",slug:"mohammed-abdul-rasheed",fullName:"Mohammed Abdul Rasheed"},{id:"144630",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayal",middleName:null,surname:"Anurodh",slug:"dayal-anurodh",fullName:"Dayal Anurodh"}]},{id:"58999",title:"The DFT+U: Approaches, Accuracy, and Applications",slug:"the-dft-u-approaches-accuracy-and-applications",totalDownloads:4422,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter introduces the Hubbard model and its applicability as a corrective tool for accurate modeling of the electronic properties of various classes of systems. The attainment of a correct description of electronic structure is critical for predicting further electronic-related properties, including intermolecular interactions and formation energies. The chapter begins with an introduction to the formulation of density functional theory (DFT) functionals, while addressing the origin of bandgap problem with correlated materials. Then, the corrective approaches proposed to solve the DFT bandgap problem are reviewed, while comparing them in terms of accuracy and computational cost. The Hubbard model will then offer a simple approach to correctly describe the behavior of highly correlated materials, known as the Mott insulators. Based on Hubbard model, DFT+U scheme is built, which is computationally convenient for accurate calculations of electronic structures. Later in this chapter, the computational and semiempirical methods of optimizing the value of the Coulomb interaction potential (U) are discussed, while evaluating the conditions under which it can be most predictive. The chapter focuses on highlighting the use of U to correct the description of the physical properties, by reviewing the results of case studies presented in literature for various classes of materials.",book:{id:"6193",slug:"density-functional-calculations-recent-progresses-of-theory-and-application",title:"Density Functional Calculations",fullTitle:"Density Functional Calculations - Recent Progresses of Theory and Application"},signatures:"Sarah A. Tolba, Kareem M. Gameel, Basant A. Ali, Hossam A.\nAlmossalami and Nageh K. Allam",authors:[{id:"175824",title:"Dr.",name:"Nageh",middleName:"K.",surname:"Allam",slug:"nageh-allam",fullName:"Nageh Allam"},{id:"398157",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah A.",middleName:null,surname:"Tolba",slug:"sarah-a.-tolba",fullName:"Sarah A. Tolba"},{id:"398158",title:"Dr.",name:"Kareem M.",middleName:null,surname:"Gameel",slug:"kareem-m.-gameel",fullName:"Kareem M. Gameel"},{id:"398162",title:"Dr.",name:"Basant A.",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"basant-a.-ali",fullName:"Basant A. Ali"},{id:"398163",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossam A.",middleName:null,surname:"Almossalami",slug:"hossam-a.-almossalami",fullName:"Hossam A. Almossalami"}]},{id:"40233",title:"Ammonia as a Hydrogen Source for Fuel Cells: A Review",slug:"ammonia-as-a-hydrogen-source-for-fuel-cells-a-review",totalDownloads:9249,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"2795",slug:"hydrogen-energy-challenges-and-perspectives",title:"Hydrogen Energy",fullTitle:"Hydrogen Energy - Challenges and Perspectives"},signatures:"Denver Cheddie",authors:[{id:"141157",title:"Dr.",name:"Denver",middleName:null,surname:"Cheddie",slug:"denver-cheddie",fullName:"Denver Cheddie"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"86",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81502",title:"Investigation of Synthesis Methods for Improved Platinum-Ruthenium Nanoparticles Supported on Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Electrocatalysts for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells",slug:"investigation-of-synthesis-methods-for-improved-platinum-ruthenium-nanoparticles-supported-on-multi-",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104541",abstract:"This book chapter reports on various catalyst synthesis methods (impregnation, polyol, modified polyol, and microwave-assisted modified polyol methods) to determine which method would result in the most electrochemically active platinum-ruthenium (PtRu) electrocatalyst supported on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for methanol oxidation reaction in an acidic medium. Different techniques were used to characterize the synthesized catalysts, including the high-resolution transmission electron microscope used for morphology and calculating particle sizes, and X-ray diffraction for determining crystalline sizes. The electroactive catalyst surface area, ECSA of the electrocatalysts was determined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), while the electroactivity, electron kinetics, and stability of the electrocatalysts towards methanol oxidation were evaluated using CV, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and chronoamperometry, respectively. The microwave-assisted modified polyol method produced the PtRu/MWCNT electrocatalyst with the most enhanced electrocatalytic activity compared to other PtRu/MWCNT catalysts produced by the impregnation, polyol, and modified polyol methods.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Adebare Nurudeen Adewunmi, Sabejeje Akindeji Jerome, Su Huaneng and Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng"},{id:"79547",title:"Nickel Foam Electrode with Low Catalyst Loading and High Performance for Alkaline Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells",slug:"nickel-foam-electrode-with-low-catalyst-loading-and-high-performance-for-alkaline-direct-alcohol-fue",totalDownloads:148,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100287",abstract:"Nickel foam has a unique three-dimensional (3-D) network structure that helps to effectively utilize catalysts and is often used as an electrode support material for alkaline direct alcohol fuel cells. In this chapter, first, the effect of nickel foam thickness on cell performance is explored. The results show that the thickness affects both mass transfer and electron conduction, and there is an optimal thickness. The thinner the nickel foam is, the better the conductivity is. However, the corresponding three-dimensional space becomes narrower, which results in a partial agglomeration of the catalyst and the hindrance of mass transfer. The cell performance of 0.6 mm nickel foam electrode is better than that of 0.3 and 1.0 mm. Secondly, to fully exert the catalytic function of the catalyst even at a lower loading, a mixed acid-etched nickel foam electrode with lower Pd loading (0.35 mg cm−2) is prepared then by a spontaneous deposition method. The maximum power density of the single alkaline direct ethanol fuel cell (ADEFC) can reach 30 mW cm−2, which is twice the performance of the hydrochloric acid treated nickel foam electrode. The performance improvement is attributed to the micro-holes produced by mixed acids etching, which enhances the roughness of the skeleton and improves the catalyst electrochemical active surface area.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Qian Xu, Jiajia Zhang and Chunzhen Yang"},{id:"77862",title:"Characterization, Photoelectric Properties, Electrochemical Performances and Photocatalytic Activity of the Fe2O3/TiO2 Heteronanostructure",slug:"characterization-photoelectric-properties-electrochemical-performances-and-photocatalytic-activity-o",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98759",abstract:"The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite was synthesized on FTO subtract via hydrothermal method. The crystal structure, morphology, band structure of the heterojunction, behaviors of charge carriers and the redox ability were characterized by XRD, HR-TEM, absorption spectra, PL, cyclic voltammetry and transient photocurrent spectra. The as-prepared Fe2O3/TiO2 photocatalysts with distinctive structure and great stability was characterized and investigated for the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye in aqueous solution. The ability of the photocatalyst for generating reactive oxygen species, including O2− and.OH was investigated. It was revealed that the combination of the two oxides (Fe2O3 and TiO2) nano-heterojunction could enhance the visible response and separate photogenerated charge carriers effectively. Therefore, the remarkable photocatalytic activity of Fe2O3/TiO2 nanostructures for MB degradation was ascribed to the enhanced visible light absorption and efficient interfacial transfer of photogenerated electrons from to Fe2O3 to TiO2 due to the lower energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 hybrid heterojunctions as evidenced by the UV–Vis and photoluminescence studies. The decrease of the energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 resulted in the inhibition of electron–hole pair recombination for effective spatial charge separation, thus enhancing the photocatalytic reactions. Based on the obtained results, a possible mechanism for the improved photocatalytic performance associated with Fe2O3/TiO2 was proposed. The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite has a specific capacity of 82 F.g−1 and shows a higher capacitance than Fe2O3.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Salah Kouass, Hassouna Dhaouadi, Abdelhak Othmani and Fathi Touati"},{id:"76150",title:"Heterogeneous Electrocatalysts for CO2 Reduction to Value Added Products",slug:"heterogeneous-electrocatalysts-for-co2-reduction-to-value-added-products",totalDownloads:220,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97274",abstract:"The CO2 that comes from the use of fossil fuels accounts for about 65% of the global greenhouse gas emission, and it plays a critical role in global climate changes. Among the different strategies that have been considered to address the storage and reutilization of CO2, the transformation of CO2 into chemicals and fuels with a high added-value has been considered a winning approach. This transformation is able to reduce the carbon emission and induce a “fuel switching” that exploits renewable energy sources. The aim of this chapter is to categorize different heterogeneous electrocatalysts which are being used for CO2 reduction, based on the desired products of the above mentioned reactions: from formic acid and carbon monoxide to methanol and ethanol and other possible by products. Moreover, a brief description of the kinetic and mechanism of the CO2 reduction reaction) and pathways toward different products have been discussed.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"M. Amin Farkhondehfal and Juqin Zeng"},{id:"74671",title:"C-H Activation/Functionalization via Metalla-Electrocatalysis",slug:"c-h-activation-functionalization-via-metalla-electrocatalysis",totalDownloads:220,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95517",abstract:"In conventional methods, C−H activations are largely involved in the use of stoichiometric amounts of toxic and expensive metal & chemical oxidants, conceding the overall sustainable nature. Meanwhile, undesired byproducts are generated, that is problematic in the scale up process. However, electrochemical C−H activation via catalyst control strategy using metals as mediators (instead electrochemical substrate control strategy) has been identified as a more efficient strategy toward selective functionalizations. Thus, indirect electrolysis makes the potential range more pleasant, and less side reactions can occur. Herein, we summarize the metalla-electrocatalysis process for activations of inert C−H bonds and functionalization. These Metalla-electrocatalyzed C−H bond functionalizations are presented in term of C−C and C−X (X = O, N, P and halogens) bonds formation. The electrooxidative C−H transformations in the presence of metal catalysts are described by better chemoselectivities with broad tolerance of sensitive functionalities. Moreover, in the future to enhance sustainability and green chemistry concerns, integration of metalla-electrocatalysis with flow and photochemistry will enable safe and efficient scale-up and may even improve reaction times, kinetics and yields.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Guilherme M. Martins, Najoua Sbei, Geórgia C. Zimmer and Nisar Ahmed"},{id:"74780",title:"Recent Trends in Development of Metal Nitride Nanocatalysts for Water Electrolysis Application",slug:"recent-trends-in-development-of-metal-nitride-nanocatalysts-for-water-electrolysis-application",totalDownloads:251,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95748",abstract:"Nanocatalysts for sustainable water electrolysis is strongly desirable to promote the commercialization of H2 as the alternate clean energy source for the future. The goal is cheaper hydrogen production from sea and low grade water by minimizing the energy consumption and using low cost cell components & non-noble metal catalysts. The conductivity of metal nitrides and their ability to carry out Hydrogen Evolution Reaction and Oxygen Evolution Reaction at relatively low overpotential render these one of the frontline candidates to be potentially utilized as the catalyst for low cost H2 production via electrolysis. In this chapter, the potential of metal nitride catalyst towards fulfilling the above objective is discussed. The synthesis of various metal nitride catalysts, their efficiency towards electrode half reactions and the effectiveness of these class of nanocatalyst for electrolysis of sea water is elaborated. A review of recent literature with special reference to the catalyst systems based on non-noble metals will be provided to assess the likelihood of these nanocatalyst to serve as a commercial grade electrode material for sea water electrolysis.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Akhoury Sudhir Kumar Sinha and Umaprasana Ojha"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/115693",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"115693"},fullPath:"/profiles/115693",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()