Summary of the main policies in the two largest producers of ethanol.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Although the modes of therapy described are diverse, a role for disordered immune mechanisms is implicit in each of the three chapters. These include reference to sulfur springs considered to inhibit interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma [1], introductory explanations of FMS pathogenesis that invokes inflammatory dysfunction [2], and mention of inflammatory cytokine production associated with autonomic nervous system dysfunction-stimulated microglial and astrocyte cell activation [3]. The discussion in the fourth chapter about the impact of FMS on the evaluation of inflammatory diseases assumes the opposite that clinically significant inflammation is not a feature of FMS [4].
Face validity favoring a major pathogenic role for cytokine-mediated inflammation in FMS has been addressed in the past. Although initial reports of intermuscular fibrous tissue inflammation by Stockman led Gowers to name the condition “fibrositis,” [5, 6], contemporary light and magnetic resonance imaging histological reports showed no evidence for peripheral muscle inflammation [7, 8]. These data should have closed the book on inflammation as a prominent etiopathogenic mechanism in FMS. Then along came inflammatory mediators.
In some contemporary reviews of FMS pathogenesis, inflammation is referenced in passing, as it is in these three chapters [9]. Whether this is done for “completeness,” after all, FMS is often misclassified as a “connective tissue disease” (a misnomer), most of which are inflammatory in nature, or that such reference adds a sort of “scientific patina” to the discussion is unclear.
This review examines the validity of the concept that cytokine- and chemokine-driven inflammation is relevant to the pathogenesis of FMS.
At least three observations have been used to provide circumstantial or hypothesis-generating evidence to advance a role for inflammatory pathogenesis:
The symptoms and signs of “sickness behavior” observed in FMS can be experimentally induced by inflammatory cytokines [10].
Similar alteration of the hypothalamic–pituitary axis and autonomic nervous system observed in FMS has been etiopathogenically linked to elevated inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1 (IL-1), in a variety of clinical settings other than FMS [11, 12, 13, 14].
Symptoms of disordered sleep, hyperalgesia, and cognitive dysfunction much like FMS were observed when patients with renal cell carcinoma were treated with interleukin-2 lymphokine-activated killer (IL-2 LAK) cell therapy and when chronic hepatitis patients were treated with interferon alpha [15].
Previous inconsistent reports have demonstrated that C-reactive protein (CRP) can be marginally higher in FMS subjects than in parallel healthy controls [16]. In this analysis, however, serum inflammatory cytokines were not higher than in healthy controls.
Inconsistent elevation of a variety of serum cytokines has, however, been observed in some studies [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. In a meta-analysis of 25 FMS studies, 1255 FMS, and 800 healthy controls (HC), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-8 (IL-8) were the most likely inflammatory cytokines to be elevated [25].
Three integrated reviews, although acknowledging discrepancies in the literature, attempted to associate cytokine abnormalities with core FMS symptoms [26, 27, 28]. The first concluded, “There are discrepant findings related to whether pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines are elevated or reduced in persons with FMS and whether they correlate with core symptoms.” [26]. The second [27] critiqued one of the more persuasive analysis, “….. may have cytokine driven abnormalities to explain their pain…IL-1ra and IL-6 were significantly higher after stimulating PBMC of FMS patients compared to controls [29].” The results of this study were not corroborated in a second study [24].
The third review of 12 separate analyses reported increased inflammatory cytokines IL-1ra, IL-6, and IL-8, and anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 (IL-10) or low anti-inflammatory interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-10 [24]. Among the inflammatory chemokines also linked to signs and symptoms, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), eotaxin among others, were elevated.
Two potentially innovative separate controlled analyses described cytokine and chemokine concentrations in the supernatant after mitogen stimulation of cultured monocytes, using a logistical regression model to achieve statistically determined weighting for each chemokine and cytokine, and offered this score as diagnostic test for FMS [30, 31]. Of interest, the inflammatory cytokines and chemokines including IL-6 were lower in concentration compared to healthy controls or individuals with autoimmune disease. These findings suggest increased damping control of inflammation in FMS. The authors of both these studies, however, failed to determine the prevalence of depression or analyze its potential effects on cytokine concentrations.
Among the most novel analyses was a report of elevation of intrathecal IL-8 derived from glia cells supporting the hypothesis that FMS symptoms might be mediated by glial cell activation through sympathetic nervous system mechanisms [32].
In summary, in individuals with FMS, peripheral blood IL-6, IL-1ra, and IL-8 concentrations may be a bit higher and IL-4 and IL-10 lower, and IL-8 may be relatively higher in the cerebral spinal fluid than in healthy controls. Inflammatory chemokines may also be higher than in healthy control patients.
Depression and FMS are very often comorbid and show a bidirectional association [19, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. The prevalence of depression in FMS has been estimated to range from 20 to 80% in a detailed review [39]. Furthermore, the severity of comorbid depression correlates with FMS severity measures [40, 41, 42]. We have reported that depression, with a 73% prevalence, correlated better with core FMS symptoms than did any other variable in a cohort of 305 FMS patients [43].
As in FMS, similar mild elevation of CRP and inflammatory cytokines and chemokines have been demonstrated in depressed individuals in controlled analyses [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. Many primary analyses of FMS inflammation [15, 30, 31, 54, 55, 56] and reviews [23, 28], however, failed to control for depression. This is an unfortunate omission.
Maes and colleagues evaluated the serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokines in relationship to depression among 21 FMS patients compared to 33 healthy controls [57].
Serum soluble gp130, an important inflammatory cytokine signal transducer, and a soluble interleukin-6 receptor, Il-1 ra, were significantly higher in FMS patients with a Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score >16 than in FMS patients with scores of 16 or lower or in healthy controls. In the opinion of the Menzies’ integrated review, which included the Maes analysis, higher inflammatory cytokines in FMS, including IL6, were related to the degree of depression, although inconsistencies were common [26].
Of interest, higher body mass index partially explained cytokine differences as has been shown in depression [18, 52]. Therefore, inflammation in FMS, measured as higher serum concentrations of cytokines and chemokines, is multifactorial and not necessarily due solely to FMS pathophysiology.
Serum inflammatory cytokine concentrations correlate with the degree of depression and fall with effective treatment of depression [58]. Not surprisingly, inflammatory cytokine concentrations have also been shown to correlate with pain symptoms in primary depression alone [59].
This phenomenon even occurs when the treatment is nonpharmacological, suggesting an intrinsic etiopathophysiologic relationship of inflammatory cytokines with depression [46]. This analysis also demonstrated that despite a significant fall of cytokine concentration from baseline, the CRP was not significantly lower.
In summary, these two analyses demonstrate a pain symptom signature integral to depression and that cytokines, while slightly higher in depression than in healthy controls, are in fact trivial with respect to overall inflammation measured as CRP.
In rheumatoid arthritis (RA) comorbid FMS is associated with disproportionately higher values for the subjective components, patient global assessment (PtGA), and tender joint count (TJC), which in turn inflate the disease activity score (DAS). This phenomenon is largely mediated by higher patient assessed pain, fatigue, and especially poor mood, and variables that define the criterion, distress, and the etiopathogenesis of FMS [60, 61, 62, 63, 64]. As a potential explanation, depression alone can disproportionately increase pain sensitivity, the tender joint count (TJC), and a patient’s sense of wellbeing, such as PtGA in RA [19, 65]. Higher subjective signs and symptoms then inflate the DAS. It is important to note that concomitant FMS and depression in RA are not associated with obvious, clinically significant increases of CRP or erythrocyte sedimentation rate [42, 62, 65].
Differential response to the treatment of the so-called subjective versus objective variables is a hallmark of comorbid FMS and/or depression in RA. In a prospective analysis of 668 RA patients, 18% with comorbid FMS had higher DAS and Health Assessment Disability Index at baseline compared to patients without FMS [66]. The TJC and PtGA were significantly higher, but the objective factors, ESR, and swollen joint count (SJC) were significantly lower in patients with FMS compared to patients with RA alone. Achievement of low disease activity and remission were significantly less likely in the comorbid FMS cohort. Others have confirmed these observations [67].
A very instructive, early, placebo-controlled trial showed that the pain of FMS did not respond to the treatment with prednisone 15 mg/day [68]. So too, unlike dose-related reduction of objective signs in RA such as the swollen joint count (SJC) and CRP, FMS-related inflated subjective signs and symptoms are resistant to aggressive anti-immune, anti-inflammatory RA treatment [69, 70, 71]. In fact, a treatment response resulting in remission in RA comorbid with FMS should not be expected because the higher, poorly responsive PtGA and TJC are not due to RA biological disease activity, but in fact to poorly responsive noninflammatory FMS central pain mechanisms [69].
Mean CRP values, although reported elevated in some FMS populations compared to control populations, are still within the range of normal CRP [72]. Given this observation, it is both instructive and necessary to consider whether cytokines follow this same pattern.
In RA, serum concentrations of IL-6 measured by enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) [73] in >900 patients demonstrated mean ~ 43 pg/ml, for all, and ~54–84 pg/ml for those with active disease [55]. In another population of 66 RA patients, using a similar assay, IL-6 levels declined to 22.5 pg/ml in low disease activity [74].
Contrast these serum levels with serum levels in depression and FMS. Using a different more sensitive ELISA assay, Grosse reported mean IL-6 serum concentration of 1.17 ± 2.59 for 214 patients with major depression disorder (MDD) and 0.66 ± 1.94 for healthy controls (HC) [50]. In another analysis of 64 MDD patients and 80 healthy controls, IL-6 levels were reported statistically higher in depression than in controls, 1.39 ± 0.35 versus 0.45 ± 0.28 pg/ml using yet another ELISA [47].
These same comparatively low serum levels were reported in FMS, with IL-6 in the range of 16 pg/ml in FMS and 1 pg/ml in healthy controls using yet another ELISA assay [75]. Although higher than HCs, the levels are very low when compared to those in RA.
This discussion apparently shows that inflammatory cytokines, even when relatively elevated in FMS, are much lower than in mildly active RA. If this is true, then the elevations in FMS may not be sufficiently high to initiate clinical signs or symptoms. Unfortunately, as can be seen, diverse assays that produce diverse serum and cellular concentrations and the lack of control for diurnal variation make precise comparisons between diseases difficult.
Fortunately, two papers do allow comparison. The authors of both studies used very similar ELISA methods. In 16 RA patients with varying disease activity, overnight IL-6 values ranged from a mean of ~40 pg/ml at 11 PM to a peak of ~60 at 8 AM with large individual variations [76].
In FMS, although the mean values for IL-6 were statistically significantly higher in FMS patients than in healthy controls at night (2.94 versus 2.14 pg/ml), these serum concentrations were at least 10 times lower in FMS than in RA [56]. Are these meager elevations of IL-6, ~0.80 pg/ml in FMS compared to HCs, sufficiently high enough to explain clinical differences?
Let us postulate that mildly elevated cytokines in the CNS such as IL-6 and IL-8 [32] produced by microglial and/or astrocyte cells are sufficient to interfere with processing and produce centrally mediated pain. We are still left with the lack of clinical response to moderate daily prednisone and even more aggressive antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory treatments which have been shown to reduce inflammation due to cytokines [67, 68, 71, 77].
There is little question that FMS does associate with mild cytokine change, such as reduced diurnal variation of IL-6 compared to healthy individuals [56]. Forensic objectivity, however, would seem to indicate that the described modest changes in inflammatory mediators, whether primary or secondary, do not seem sufficient to be responsible for clinically relevant FMS symptoms. Furthermore, in some very legitimate contemporary hypotheses of FMS etiopathogenesis, there is no role for chronic cytokine-mediated processes [78, 79].
The key points from this discussion are:
Although a minority of studies found CRP elevated in FMS compared to healthy controls, the mean high value was still within the normal range.
Depression, which is very often comorbid with FMS, was not well controlled in many cytokine/chemokine analyses. When it was, it was shown to significantly contribute to higher cytokine values.
Fibromyalgia symptoms, whether as the primary diagnosis or as comorbid in RA, do not respond to anti-inflammatory, anti-immune therapy.
Both stimulated and unstimulated cytokine and chemokine studies have employed a variety of methods of measurements that make cytokine levels difficult to analyze between diseases. A few comparisons have shown relatively trivial values in FMS compared to proven inflammatory disease such as RA.
At present the countries, mainly developed, are focused on energy and food security, this phenomenon has emerged in parallel with the reduction in fossil fuels. The continuous increase in the demand for fuels and food has motivated the research to new sources. The production of biofuels and bioenergy using crops or lignocellulosic material as feedstock is an emerging tendency. Bioethanol is the most critical biofuel in the current economy contributing with 65% to global biofuel production, it can play an essential role in the energy and economic security of developed and developing nations if it is produced from native biomass [1, 2].
United States of America and Brazil leads the global ethanol production, together they produce a little more than 80% of the alcohol that is used and commercialized in the world. Figure 1 shows the main ethanol producers in the world in millions of gallons: The United States of America, Brazil, followed by the European Union (EU), China, and Canada. In the United States ethanol is made primarily from corn, while in Brazil is produced from sugarcane. Ethanol production in the EU is exciting because even though the EU is composed of countries with high levels of technological development, the production is less than the United States and Brazil, it is probably because of the lack of standardization of feedstock. In 2014, according to the European Renewable Ethanol Report, the most widely used feedstocks to produce ethanol in Europe were corn, wheat, and sugar beet, which represent about 42, 33, and 18%, respectively [4, 5].
Worldwide production of ethanol. Data source:
The production of ethanol coming from lignocellulosic material, its mean, any solid waste obtained from agro-industry, is still under study and it is subject to controversy, mainly from the technical and economic view. However, the uses of solid residues have proven to be an alternative for reducing competition for land and water available between crops for energy and food purposes [6].
This chapter has presented the status and tendencies of ethanol production using crops and lignocellulosic material, addressing environmental and economic aspects of the process, as well as future scenarios.
Ethanol is a relatively small chemical molecule, composed of two atoms of carbon, six hydrogens, and one oxygen, its chemical structure is C2H6O or C2H5OH to highlight the presence of the OH group. The presence of OH groups makes the ethanol a polar molecule. Moreover, the reactivity of the hydroxyl group permits its ready conversion into industrially significant products and intermediates via dehydration, dehydrogenation, condensation, etherification, and/or oxidation reactions [7].
The synthesis of ethanol can be performed both by chemical and microbiological processes. In the chemical process ethanol is produced by ethylene hydration, while the microbiological route is produced by fermentation using yeast
Currently, the world ethanol production is carried out mainly by the biological pathway, referred to as alcoholic or ethanolic fermentation. During this process, sugars are converted into ethanol and CO2 as secondary metabolites, cellular biomass, and energy. The feedstock employed is diverse, The United States of America produces ethanol from corn, Brazil bases its production process on sugar cane, the European Union from sugar beet, maize, wheat, barley, and rye. China is the fourth ethanol producer in the world, their production process is based on corn, wheat, rice, and sorghum. However, independent of the biomass, the fermentation process using hexose sugars (C6) to produce ethanol is developed according to the equation (2).
The production of ethanol from sugar cane is one of the most important processes in South America, especially in Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador. During this process, the sugar cane is submitted to juice extraction, with the aim to obtain a syrup rich in sugars, after which it must be sterilized to inoculate yeast, specifically
Ethanol production using corn as feedstock requires more steps, mainly because the starch present in corn, is not metabolized directly by the yeast, therefore, is necessary to break down the starch into monomers of glucose, this is commonly carried out using enzymes such as alpha-amylase [9]. After monosaccharides solubilization, the fermentation process and downstream operation are like those carried out by sugarcane.
In all cases, it is mean indifferent of the feedstock used, the biomass must be pretreated with the aim to solubilize the sugar in the monomeric glucose form, for subsequent fermentation, from the fermentation broth, the water, nutrients, and salts contained in the mixture must be removed to obtain ethanol at the azeotropic point or hydrated ethanol. This operation is commonly developed by a sequence of distillation operation units.
From an economic point of view, the industry of ethanol is extremely attractive because it is used as a blending agent with gasoline and chemical building blocks. Figure 2 shows the increased participation of ethanol in the blending with gasoline.
Percentage of blended ethanol with gasoline in the largest producers of alcohol in the world.
As is presented in Figure 2, the percentage of ethanol blended with gasoline has been increasing since 2006 in the main producers of alcohol in the world, except China. Brazil is the republic with the largest ratio of blending ethanol and gasoline near to 30%, regarding that in this country, the automotive industry manufactures cars with a flex engine, that is, the user can charge their vehicle with gasoline, alcohol, or a mixture of the two and the car will function normally.
Ethanol represents 90% of the total biofuels used, however, it is used as the chemical building block, different authors performed different studies about ethanol as a building block. From these studies are concluded that exist almost 12 final derivatives with high potential to be produced using ethanol as feedstock [10, 11, 12].
The production of biofuels is particularly important for the reduction of the Global Warming effect and its direct consequence on climate change. However, ethanol production using different raw materials is subject to different analyses mainly by the food and fuel competition, added to different environmental, economic, and technical aspects. This section has presented an overview of the policies for ethanol production in the largest producers, their regulations, their financial aids, and production data.
First-generation ethanol (1GE) is the main liquid biofuel produced worldwide, with a global production of more than 25x103 MGln. As was presented in Figure 1, the main producers are the United States of America and Brazil. In both countries, especially in Brazil, policies were launched and the government programs were created to promote the production and market of ethanol, mainly because of the energy crisis of the 1970s and the subsequent reduction of the dependence on imported fossil fuels.
In the United States of Amerca, 1GE is produced from corn, in this process, sugar must be produced from the starch present in corn, therefore more steps are involved during the ethanol manufacturing. To overcome this, the U.S. federal government, develop four main policies from 2002 to 2012, highlighting that alcohol production greatly expanded after the adoption of the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard in 2005. The production increases 300 percent, passing from 4 Billion gallons in 2005 to 16 billion gallons in 2017, and is planned to reach 22 billion gallons in 2022 [13]. The policy developed by the government are listed below: (
In Brazil, two types of ethanol are used as fuel for transportation: hydrous and anhydrous alcohol. To support the ethanol industry, three main regulations were developed: (
Then a summary of policies established in the United States and Brazil are presented in Table 1.
Concept | U.S. | Brazil |
---|---|---|
Program Objective | Reducing the nation\'s dependence on imported fossil fuels | Reducing the nation\'s dependence on imported fossil fuels |
Characteristics | 1. Subsidies on feedstock used in the production of ethanol | 1. A mandatory blending of anhydrous ethanol in gasoline |
2. Tax credit for blended ethanol | 2. A lower tax rate for hydrous ethanol than for gasoline | |
3. A law establishing a minimum percentage of Ethanol that must be blended with conventional fuels | 3. Control over the price of gasoline | |
4. Tariffs and other charges on imported ethanol. | ||
Value of the tax exemption/credit | US$0.54 per gallon (1990 to 20104) | R$0.28 per liter (2002-2007) |
US$0.51 per gallon (2005 to 2009) | R$0.18 per liter (2008) | |
US$0.45 per gallon (2009 to 2011) | R$0.23 per liter (2009-2010) | |
R$0.15 per liter (2011) | ||
Charge of importation | US$0.54 per gallon of ethanol | R$0.0 for 187.5 million liters of imported ethanol |
2.5% of the import value |
Summary of the main policies in the two largest producers of ethanol.
As is broadly summarized in Table 1, if the ethanol industry has not subsidies, the commercial price is difficult to be competitive against gasoline. This is one of the reasons because ethanol production currently generates controversy.
Moreover, 1GE production is the subject to study, mainly about the present and future competition between energy production and food consumption, which may lead to an increase in the prices of agricultural commodities, consequently causing famine in countries [16, 17]. Although this discussion is not new in the international agenda of bioenergy, this still highly controversial and generates a lot of discord. The issue of “turning food for the poor into fuel for the rich” [18].
Figure 3 shows the increase in the price of sugar and corn, in parallel with the production cost of ethanol in the United States and Brazil. Besides, according to the data presented in Figure 3, it is well established that the price of sugar and corn has been increasing parallel to the increase in biofuels production.
Increase in the prices of corn and sugar according to the price of the gasoline equivalent (LGE).
To improve the environmental impact and avoid land and water competition between food and fuels, lignocellulosic material (LC) has been proposed as a viable alternative to produce liquid biofuels. LC is mainly composed of the three largest biomolecules, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, their composition is a strong function of the type of biomass, harvesting time, final disposal of residues, and characterization method.
The most abundant residues are sugarcane bagasse (SCB), Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches (OPEFB), wheat straw, rice straw, corn straw, and soybean bagasse, are a great source of organic carbon, which would be converted to chemicals and biofuels. The LC is usually composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The plant matrix is organized in such a way that a microbial attack is avoided, allowing the transport of water and nutrients. This characteristic makes this type of biomass very recalcitrant, therefore, are necessary one or more steps to remove lignin, hemicelluloses to obtain fiber-rich cellulose, these steps are commonly called pretreatment of biomass, which can be chemical, thermochemical, or biological [19, 20, 21].
Currently, to improve the chain value of LC transformation is recommended the valorization of all fractions obtained during pretreatment, its mean, fractionated lignin in the form of black liquor, pentoses, mainly constituted by xylose and arabinose coming from hemicelluloses, and the glucose obtained by the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic pulp. The lignin is commonly concentrated and used as an energy source to recover part of the energy expended in the process. Hemicelluloses traditionally, alternatives such as ethanol, xylitol, and furfural production were discarded. However, alternatives such as the production of ethanol, xylitol, for biological or chemical routes have been gaining attention from research centers and universities. The cellulose transformation to ethanol or some organic acids, such as citric, is probably the most extended and broadly studied and well established almost at a laboratory scale [22, 23, 24].
One of the bottlenecks of LC transformation into chemicals of high value-added and ethanol is the pretreatment, because from the economic point of view, at least 30% of the total capital investment (TCI), is required to build the pretreatment unit. From the technical view, homogeneous catalysis using acid and/or alkaline agents has proved to be the most suitable path, however, the generation of degradation products unidentified, then, commonly called humus, the formation of inhibitory compounds for biological transformation such as furfural, 5-HMF, acetic acid, mainly, and finally the low yields, almost 30% of the initial biomass is lost, makes this process a challenge for engineers and academics.
Several studies have been reported different strategies to optimize pretreatments, using steam explosion, sequential acid/alkaline, biological transformation, Ionic liquids, etc. However, in all cases, except for the biological one, biomass losses are considerable, the use of water and catalysts abundant, which makes these processes, from the environmental and economic point of view, subject to controversy [21, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
Added to the problems described below, in the case of ethanol production, two important aspects must be considered before developing a productive process. First, is the low yield obtained per kg of biomass treated, approximately by 1kg of biomass processed, are produced 100 g of ethanol would be produced. At this point is important to highlight other problem; the water present during the enzymatic saccharification and fermentation, makes the downstream process expensive and energy-intensive, therefore to develop a sustainable biorefining process, the ethanol production must be coupled with the production of high value-added molecules such as xylitol, furfural, organic acids, 5-HMF, and lignin valorization as reported by different authors [27, 34, 35, 36, 37].
The discussion presented below had the intention of presenting the reader with an overview of the production of first and second-generation ethanol, its advantages, and associated problems, for the reader to generate their own conclusions.
The 1GE production presents the two largest aspect subjects to controversy. First is the competition of land and water for crops intended for human consumption or fuel production. To overcome this problem, it has been suggested that ethanol production be carried out from lignocellulosic material from the processing of cereals, wood, oilseeds, and in general any type of biomass that is not suitable for human consumption. This section is discussed the general aspect of the economic and environmental impact of the production of both, 1GE and 2GE.
The 1GE production, especially in Brazil and the United States, has been focused on promoting rural development, with small farmers as the main beneficiaries. Based on the governmental policies and subsidies promoting ethanol production, the 1GE industry is well established and represents a market size estimated at USD 86.04 billion in 2020 (Before the sanitary emergency occasioned by SARS Covid-19). And is expected annual growth of 4.8% from 2020 to 2027 [10]. In a 1GE industry, moreover, than ethanol, exist the distilled grains, rich in carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, which can be used as byproduct to improve the economical profit [38].
On the other hand, it is 2GE, despite a promising alternative to reduce the greenhouse effect, this feedstock is not food competitive, currently is not a well-established industry with the largest production volume. Brazil is probably the country with the most advanced technology for the transformation of lignocellulosic material into bioethanol, using as feedstock the sugarcane bagasse and trash obtained from the processing of sugarcane for ethanol or refined sugar production [39].
The 2GE production using different feedstocks is broadly studied and numerous scientific reports are presented every year. From these reports, is clear that monumental efforts using various strategies have been envisioned to discover the best pretreatment method for converting biomass into fermentable sugars [40].
With the aim to develop a feasible process from the economic and energetic perspective, the two largest strategies have been reported. First is the combination of different pretreatment techniques, such as acid/alkaline pretreatment, steam explosion, CO2 explosion, ammonia fiber explosion, hydrogen peroxide treatment, Ionic liquids, ultrasonic, microwaves, and biological treatments have been studied, with two purposes mainly; first obtained the highest yields of sugar and second, the cost reduction. Parallel to these, the valorization of each fraction obtained during pretreatment, its mean, pentoses, lignin, and hexoses, for the production of molecules of high value-added, such as xylitol, furfural, 5-HMF, levulinic acid, succinic acid, fractionated lignin, to name few examples. The second strategy under study is the discovery (by isolation from nature or genetic manipulation) of robust strains that have excellent abilities to ferment hydrolyzed sugars with high yields and the largest tolerance to ethanol concentration. This strategy also seeks strains capable of fermenting pentoses for ethanol production with the objective of increasing the overall yield of alcohol production [41, 42].
From the economic evaluation of ethanol production reported in the literature [27, 43, 44, 45, 46] is well established the following conclusions:
The installation of a biorefinery process stand-alone using as feedstock lignocellulosic biomass is not feasible.
The production of ethanol without valorization of the other fractions obtained during pretreatment stages is not recommended from the economic perspective.
The Net Energy Value would be negative for the 2GE production, this means that more energy is used in the process than can be delivered through the sale of alcohol.
From the literature review and research did, we have established that the pretreatment unit is the most intensive process in economic and energetic terms, which makes the ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass not feasible. However, the valorization of all fractions obtained during pretreatment, it would improve the economic profit and make the biorefinery process feasible from the economic point of view.
The development of new genetically modified strains will be one of the main advances in ethanol production. The traditional strains of
The advanced strains of
There is a great economic and environmental trend in the reuse of processing waste, such as lignocellulosic biomass. The productive chain of the sugar-alcohol industry can be considered the closest to a biorefinery concept. Since many wastes and by-products are no longer seen as disposable, but rather as new raw materials, impacting the price of sugar and ethanol. For example, in factories that use sugarcane, sugarcane bagasse is used to generate steam and energy by burning the residue, molasses, the by-product of the crystallization of raw sugar, in the generation of ethanol, and many investigations are carried out for the reuse of vinasse, a residue from the distillation of fermented juice, such as fertirrigation. Thus, a modern factory should contain, besides the production of sugar, the generation of bioenergy, biogas (biohydrogen and biomethane), biomolecules (organic acids, enzymes, and lipids), fertilizers, and microalgae [51].
The ethanol as biofuel is a reality, the 1GE production present a well stablished process and broadly used around the world, however, this may pose a threat to food safety. To overcome this problem, the production of ethanol using lignocellulosic material has been proposed, this appear as the most prominent alternative in terms of technological maturity. Nevertheless, the bottleneck is in the pretreatment stages, which are necessary to make fermentable sugars, therefore, standalone biorefinery process, using lignocellulosic biomass are not feasible for ethanol production. In this way, different techniques have been proposed to improve economic benefit, such as the production of value-added molecules or coupling 2GE to 1GE ethanol unit process. From the social, is well stablished that the incentives for harvesting different crops such as corn, sugarcane, wheat, rye, etc., are necessary to stimulate and benefit small producers, also, to obtain the ethanol price competitive with petroleum. Probably the environmental impact of 2GE is the most crucial, it is subject to criticism and analysis, because is not well stablished de real effect of their production, according with parameters such as CO2 liberation, water consumption, land deterioration.
The first author of this work is grateful for the financial support granted by the ceiba foundation for the postdoctoral stay in Colombia. To the Cooperative University of Colombia (Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia), campus Pasto, for being the host university.
The authors declare that there is not conflict of interest
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
\\n\\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\\n\\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\\n\\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\\n\\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\\n\\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\\n\\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\\n\\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\\n\\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
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\\n\\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\\n\\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\\n\\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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It binds to two structurally related but functionally distinct receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2. Unlike TNFR1 that is ubiquitously expressed, TNFR2 expression is more limited to myeloid and lymphoid cell lineages including a fraction of regulatory T cells (Treg). In general, TNFR1 is responsible for TNF-mediated cell apoptosis and death, and mostly induces proinflammatory reactions. However, TNFR2 mainly leads to functions related to cell survival and immune suppression. Treg play an indispensable role in maintaining immunological self-tolerance and restraining excessive immune reactions deleterious to the host. Impaired Treg-mediated immune regulation has been observed in various autoimmune diseases as well as in cancers. Therefore, Treg might provide an ideal therapeutic target for diseases where the immune balance is impaired and could benefit from the regulation of Treg properties. TNFR2 is highly expressed on Treg in mice and in humans, and TNFR2+ Treg reveal the most potent suppressive capacity. TNF-TNFR2 ligation benefits Treg proliferation, although the effect on Treg suppressive function remains controversial. 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At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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She specializes in the subject of brands, brand equity, and brand management in production, service, and trade enterprises. She combines this subject with marketing and marketing management in both theoretical and practical aspects. Prof. Hanna Górska-Warsewicz also analyzes brands in the context of trademarks, legal regulations and the protection of intangible. She is an author or co-author of over 200 publications in this field, including 8 books. 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