Trough of the injector inlet pressure fluctuation at different common rail pressures and injection pulse widths.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5510",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Generally the nanometer scale covers from 1 to 100 nm while discussing the nanomaterials. Nanomaterials have very high potency and emerge with large applications piercing through all the discipline of knowledge, leading to industrial and technological growth. Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary science that has its roots in fields such as colloidal science, device physics, and biomedical and supramolecular chemistry. The main objective of the book is to cover maximum areas focusing on synthesis, characterization with various microscopic techniques, and multiple applications. This book is divided into two sections with Non-carbon Compounds and Carbon Compounds. The synthesis, characterization, and applications of metal, metal oxides, and metal hydroxide nanoparticles are covered in the section Non-carbon Compounds, while the section Carbon Compounds focuses on the carbon nanotubes, graphite oxide, graphene oxide, etc.",isbn:"978-953-51-2856-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2855-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4128-0",doi:"10.5772/63186",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",numberOfPages:174,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"0258420b1096bd84e2979cf2aca4fc43",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",publishedDate:"December 28th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5510.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20700,numberOfWosCitations:75,numberOfCrossrefCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:89,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:205,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 28th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 28th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",middleName:null,surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63182/images/system/63182.png",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh is serving as an associate professor of chemistry at Forman Christian College (a chartered university), Pakistan. He has been duly awarded three gold medals for his outstanding academic performance in Chemistry and five gold medals including those from Minister HED and Governor of Punjab for his excellent performance in research and service to society. He has been awarded many international and national awards including the Representative of Pakistan award from UNESCO in Morocco, Young Chemist Award from IUPAC in Italy, Young Scientist Award from TWAS in Egypt and IAP/GYA in Germany, Young Scientist Award from IAP/World Economic Forum in China, Young Researcher Award from the Council for Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings, IUPAC-2015 Award for Chemists as an outstanding chemist from developing countries in South Korea, Research Productivity Award in categories A, B, and C, Productive Scientist of Pakistan award, ranked 11th in Pakistan in the Chemistry category, Young Scientist award in 2017 and 2018, and the SATHA Innovation Award 2018 along with the Gold Medal. He has published +110 papers in international/national reputable journals, published/edited 25 books, issued 7 US patents/applications, presented 49 papers in international/national conferences, and gave 60 plenary/invited lectures in 25 countries around the globe. He has won 2 industrial projects and 6 major Research Grants from TWAS, USM, HEC, PSF, and ORIC GCU in the area of nanotechnology. He established a Nano-Chemistry Lab, and at GC University Lahore, he has supervised 57 M.Phil./Ph.D. theses.",institutionString:"Forman Christian College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Forman Christian College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"53077",title:"Structural Characterization and Mechanical Behavior of Al 6061 Nanostructured Matrix Reinforced with TiO2 Nanoparticles for Automotive Applications",doi:"10.5772/65947",slug:"structural-characterization-and-mechanical-behavior-of-al-6061-nanostructured-matrix-reinforced-with",totalDownloads:2395,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main aims of the present chapter are to: learn synthesis procedure of AA 6061‐x wt.% TiO2 nanocomposites (x = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 wt.%) by mechanical alloying (MA); investigate structural characterization of manufactured nanocomposite powders using X‐ray line profile analysis, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM); examine consolidation method and mechanical behavior in terms of sintered density, Vickers hardness and compressive stress‐strain behavior; study the improvement of ductility in nanocomposites; and simulate the mechanical behavior using ANSYS. Here, the synthesized nanocomposites via MA were consolidated using conventional uniaxial die compaction; then, the green compacts were sintered at different temperatures. TEM microstructures of as‐milled powder samples showed the matrix crystallite sizes ranging from 45 to 75 nm, which depended on the amount of reinforcement. A remarkable decrease in matrix powder particles size with the function of reinforcement was observed due to the ceramic nano TiO2 particles acted as milling agent. The sintered nanocomposites yielded maximum strength of 1.126 GPa. The study of trimodeled composite and its mechanical behavior revealed the possibility of achieving improvements in ductility and toughness for nanocomposites. The simulated mechanical behavior results using finite element method were good agreement with experimental results.",signatures:"S. Sivasankaran and Abdulaziz S. Alaboodi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53077",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53077",authors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"},{id:"195230",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulaziz S.",surname:"Alaboodi",slug:"abdulaziz-s.-alaboodi",fullName:"Abdulaziz S. Alaboodi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53484",title:"Fungal-Derived Nanoparticles as Novel Antimicrobial and Anticancer Agents",doi:"10.5772/66922",slug:"fungal-derived-nanoparticles-as-novel-antimicrobial-and-anticancer-agents",totalDownloads:2419,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order to control microbial resistance against commonly used antibiotics, it is indispensable to develop novel and efficient antimicrobial agents. For this purpose, metallic nanoparticles (mainly inorganic) with their antimicrobial activites represent an effective solution for this global problem. However, synthesis of nanoparticles involves the use of expensive, poisonous and dangerous chemicals responsible for different biological and environmental hazards. This fact increases the necessity of developing environment-friendly procedure by means of green synthesis (using plants) and extra-biological methods (using microbes such as bacteria and fungi). More recently, metallic nanoparticles, derived from fungal sources, have demonstrated their potential not only as a new-generation antimicrobial agents but also as anticancer agents. Therefore, this chapter is aimed to explore the various nanoparticles producing fungi with ultimate objective of elucidating the possible (i) mechanism of biosynthesis of metallic NPs by various fungi and (ii) mode of action of these mycosynthesized NPs on bacterial cell. This chapter would certainly increase our knowledge about interaction of nanoparticles with bacterial cell for their use in health biotechnology.",signatures:"Muhammad Waseem and Muhammad Atif Nisar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53484",authors:[{id:"191548",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Waseem",slug:"muhammad-waseem",fullName:"Muhammad Waseem"}],corrections:null},{id:"52860",title:"Cerium Oxide Nanostructures and their Applications",doi:"10.5772/65937",slug:"cerium-oxide-nanostructures-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:5465,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:58,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to excellent physical and chemical properties, cerium oxide (ceria, CeO2) has attracted much attention in recent years. This chapter aimed at providing some basic and fundamental properties of ceria, the importance of oxygen vacancies in this material, nano‐size effects and various synthesis strategies to form diverse structural morphologies. Finally, some key applications of ceria‐based nanostructures are reviewed. We conclude this chapter by expressing personal perspective on the probable challenges and developments of the controllable synthesis of CeO2 nanomaterials for various applications.",signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52860",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52860",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}],corrections:null},{id:"52906",title:"Functionalization of Surfaces in Layered Double Hydroxides and Hydroxide Salt Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/66002",slug:"functionalization-of-surfaces-in-layered-double-hydroxides-and-hydroxide-salt-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:2820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Layered double hydroxides (LDH) and layered hydroxide salts (LHS) are widely studied as matrices to design new materials with applications in several areas of science and technology. Both LDH and LHS are composed of molecular layered units with surfaces fully covered by hydroxyl groups and positive‐charge residues within the layers; therefore, anions in the interlayer space are needed. Even though these anions are described as interlayer species without a covalent interaction with the molecular layered units, the substitution of hydroxyl groups is also possible; in other words, the functionalization of the surface could occur. This chapter reviews results previously published related to the functionalization phenomenon in LDH and LHS, which is not considered in most of the scientific reports of new materials derived from these compounds. In this text, the use of copper probes to study electron paramagnetic resonance spectra, reinforced with infrared spectroscopy to confirm functionalization, is described. The occurrence of functionalization instead of a simple anion exchange provides a change of properties in the final nanosized material.",signatures:"Gregorio Guadalupe Carbajal Arizaga, Cecilia Sánchez Jiménez,\nAlexandra Viruete and Jenny Arratia-Quijada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52906",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52906",authors:[{id:"191649",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregorio",surname:"Arizaga",slug:"gregorio-arizaga",fullName:"Gregorio Arizaga"},{id:"192468",title:"BSc.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Sánchez Jiménez",slug:"cecilia-sanchez-jimenez",fullName:"Cecilia Sánchez Jiménez"},{id:"192470",title:"BSc.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"Viruete",slug:"alexandra-viruete",fullName:"Alexandra Viruete"},{id:"195166",title:"Dr.",name:"Jenny",surname:"Arratia-Quijada",slug:"jenny-arratia-quijada",fullName:"Jenny Arratia-Quijada"}],corrections:null},{id:"52971",title:"Intercalation of C60-Fullerol into Graphite Oxide",doi:"10.5772/65999",slug:"intercalation-of-c60-fullerol-into-graphite-oxide",totalDownloads:1693,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Herein, we report on the intercalation of C60-fullerol into graphite oxide. This was achievable due to the solubility of the guest species in water and the exfoliation/reconstruction properties of the layered host. The resulting nanocomposite materials were characterized using a wide variety of techniques, including infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, and electron microscopy.",signatures:"Raymond Arsenault and Rabin Bissessur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52971",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52971",authors:[{id:"30882",title:"Prof.",name:"Rabin",surname:"Bissessur",slug:"rabin-bissessur",fullName:"Rabin Bissessur"}],corrections:null},{id:"53181",title:"Covalently Functionalized Nano-Graphene Oxide for Fine Chemical Synthesis",doi:"10.5772/65941",slug:"covalently-functionalized-nano-graphene-oxide-for-fine-chemical-synthesis",totalDownloads:2121,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nano‐graphene, which is entirely composed of aromatic carbon atoms is relatively a new material, with two dimensional periodic structures and possess amazingly interesting chemical and mechanical properties. Graphene and graphene oxide (GO) materials have been explored widely as supports due to their tunable electrical properties and high surface area as well as different functional groups. The covalent modification of surface oxygen of carbon based materials, like graphene oxide and nano graphene oxide (NGO) with organo amine and other functional groups is very opt for various applications. Covalent immobilization of various organic functional moieties and metal modified organo functionalized species on nano‐graphene oxide surface enables a robust immobilization of the reactive catalytic sites through strong binding on the support surfaces. Such materials prevent the leaching of active metals and improve their recyclability, when used as catalysts in solution phase. As the stability of metal depends also on the functionalization of the NGO support, metal modified/ covalently functionalized nano‐graphene oxide materials are widely used in fine chemical synthesis. The functional group of NGO also prevents the aggregation of the catalytically active metal species during the reaction time. Both amine functionalized and metal (Pd) modified amine functionalized nano graphene oxide exhibit excellent activity towards fine chemical synthesis, such as with multicomponent reactions, oxidation reactions and C‐C coupling reactions.",signatures:"Surjyakanta Rana and Sreekantha B. Jonnalagadda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53181",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53181",authors:[{id:"191852",title:"Dr.",name:"Surjyakanta",surname:"Rana",slug:"surjyakanta-rana",fullName:"Surjyakanta Rana"}],corrections:null},{id:"52773",title:"Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites Based on Thermoplastic Polyesters",doi:"10.5772/66121",slug:"multifunctional-polymer-nanocomposites-based-on-thermoplastic-polyesters",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polymer nanocomposites containing carbon nanoparticles have exhibited remarkable thermal, mechanical and electrical properties. This review is concerned with a narrow sector of polymer nanocomposites, namely those based on engineering polyesters, which are of great industrial interest. The various functionalization methods of modifying carbon nanotubes and graphene derivative forms to allow interacting with polymer matrices will be summarized. Moreover, the review on the processing techniques of obtaining polymer nanocomposites with the emphasis of their effect on the final properties of the obtained material will be highlighted. The light will be also shed on the nanofiller dispersion in the polymer matrix. Finally, the opportunities and challenges in the high‐performance polymer nanocomposites will be presented.",signatures:"Sandra Paszkiewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52773",authors:[{id:"191061",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Paszkiewicz",slug:"sandra-paszkiewicz",fullName:"Sandra Paszkiewicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"53505",title:"Nanocomposites of Carbon Nanotubes and Semiconductor Nanocrystals as Advanced Functional Material with Novel Optoelectronic Properties",doi:"10.5772/66218",slug:"nanocomposites-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-semiconductor-nanocrystals-as-advanced-functional-material-wi",totalDownloads:1927,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Semiconductor nanoparticles of very small size, or quantum dots, exhibit fascinating physical properties, completely different from their bulk varieties, mostly because of the quantum confinement effect. Due to their modified band structure, they particularly show attractive optoelectronic characteristics. Carbon nanotubes are a class of nanomaterials, which also possess wonderful optoelectronic properties and can revolutionize modern semiconductor technology to a great extent. Carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFETs) can replace standard MOSFETs in an array of devices and can function in a more effective way. When these two optoelectronic components combine together in nanocomposites, one may get advanced optoelectronic devices for widespread application in sensors, solar cells, energy storage devices, light-emitting diodes, electrocatalysts, etc.",signatures:"Rima Paul and Apurba Krishna Mitra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53505",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53505",authors:[{id:"30639",title:"Dr.",name:"AK",surname:"Mitra",slug:"ak-mitra",fullName:"AK Mitra"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2397",title:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bcc83fcd6b4bbfdaa677b37d94bdbdb6",slug:"advanced-aspects-of-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad 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They play a fundamental role in energy and carbon storage at the bases of food pyramids. In addition, they act as protection and reproduction refuges for many organisms, and its submerged parts allow the development of periphyton communities [1].
Unfortunately, as beneficial as they are, aquatic plants can easily overpopulate and become a nuisance to the landowner. Plants can also harm the fishing potential of the water body. An excess of decaying plants can lower the amount of oxygen in the water that can be harmful for the aquatic species. In some waters, abundance of plants overprotects fish and other prey species allowing them to overpopulate.
Controlling and eliminating aquatic vegetation from ponds are often confusing and frustrating tasks. The selection of a vegetation control program depends on local conditions of the pond. For this aim, there are three approaches including mechanical, chemical and biological control. First one is the mechanical control which involves physical removal of the vegetation and is often more difficult in water than on land. Second, chemical vegetation control is often unsuccessful, and retreatment may be needed. Also, chemical vegetation control can become expensive, and the selection of a chemical depends on the plant species involved. In addition, chemical vegetation control is short lived due to most of aquatic herbicides that do not persist more than a few months.
For these reasons, the ideal aquatic plant management tool should provide cost effective control with long‐term impact, a high level of selectivity and if possible have minimal or no negative side effects. Another alternative control method to mechanical or chemical vegetation control is biological control which involves using of fishes to control the aquatic vegetation. Biological control has many advantages over the other vegetation control means. For instance, it takes much less human work effort than most of mechanical control means and does not require using expensive and hazardous aquatic herbicides. In addition, using fish species provides longer term control than other control mechanisms due to fishes that usually have a life‐span of several years.
Fish used for aquatic vegetation control include several species of tilapia (
From this point of view, controlling aquatic vegetation with grass carp is one of the available options for pond owners with aquatic plant problems. In many situations, using grass carp is an economical, long‐lasting and effective option.
Grass carp (
Grass carp is native to southeastern Russia and northwestern China. This herbivorous species has been deliberately introduced into many countries for vegetation control purposes. In addition, the grass carp is an integral part of fish culture and forms an important source of protein for human consumption.
Grass carp is a sub‐tropical‐to‐temperate species and is native to large rivers and lakes in eastern Asia. Its native range extends from southern Russia southward to northern Vietnam and in large rivers like the Amur (border of China and Russia), Yang Tze (northern China), Yellow River (central China), and the Min River (crosses the border from Vietnam into China) [5].
In addition, grass carp have been introduced to many countries around the world including Taiwan, Israel, Japan, the Philippines, the United States, Mexico, India, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Czechia, Slovakia, Denmark, Sweden, Romania, Poland, Italy, West Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Argentina, Venezuela, Fiji, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa [5].
Grass carp are considered uncommon in their Amur basin native range, relative to other species of Asian carps. There is a broad range of climatic conditions within the native range of the grass carp. The mean annual air temperatures range from 25°C (in the southernmost part of the hemisphere) to −60°C (in the northernmost part of the hemisphere) [5].
Grass carp is characterized with a wide and scale‐less head, sub‐terminal or terminal mouth with simple lips which do not include barbels, protracted upper jaw and a very short snout [7–9].
The body is slender and rather compressed with a rounded belly and slightly decurved lateral line [9]. Dorsal fin origin is above or just in front of the pelvic fin origin and the dorsal and anal fins do not have spines [5, 10]. Cycloid scales are dark‐edged with a black spot at the base, and the gill rakers are short, lanceolate and widely set [7, 9]. Pharyngeal teeth are bi‐serial and are 2.5–4.2, 2.4–4.2, 2.4–5.2 or 1.4–5.2 [5]. Diploid chromosome number is n = 48 and biochemical analysis of five tissues revealed an estimated 49 loci [9]. The colour of adult grass carp is dark grey on the dorsal surface with lighter sides (white to yellow) that have a slightly golden shine. Fins are clear to grey‐brown colour [7].
Mature grass carp require approximately 1500 to 2000 days within a year for gonadal development and maturation [11]. Maturity occurs at earlier ages and smaller sizes in tropical climates [5] which is between the ages of 1 to 8 years in the introduced and cultured grass carp populations. Grass carp males generally mature 1 year earlier than females at 50–86 cm in length [5].
In grass carp, the external sexual dimorphism appears in adults at the onset of maturity with the appearance of tubercles on the dorsal and medial surfaces of the pectoral fins in males. Temporary tubercles may develop in females, but they are not as highly developed as in the males. Females exhibit soft, bulging abdomens and swollen, pinkish vents at onset of maturity [5].
On the other hand in some temperate regions, in spite of grass carp maturing at the same time as in their native distribution, their gonads do not mature. This is possibly related to a lack of nutritional, photoperiod and water temperature requirements for grass carp [12]. A well‐marked and limited spawning season occurs in temperate latitudes. On the other hand, in tropical areas, the breeding season expands and becomes less distinct, and as a result of this, multiple spawning can occur in a year [5].
In their native areas, grass carp begin migration to spawning areas when water temperatures reach 15–17°C [6]. Water temperature and its level play key roles for inducing spawning, and it varies with latitude. Water temperature required for the stimulation of sexual maturation and spawning ranges between 20 and 30°C. Optimum spawning temperature is generally thought to be between 20 and 22°C. In addition, increases in water level exceeding 122 cm within a 12‐hour period are required for spawning [6]. If water levels do not rise during the spawning season, females with small reserves of body fat will either release no eggs or release only a portion. Non‐released eggs are subsequently absorbed in the body [13].
Grass carp spawn in the rivers and canals during high water. Spawning usually takes place in spring and summer in the upper part of the water column over rapids or sand bars [5]. Preferred spawning habitat is found in turbulent water of the junction of rivers or below dams [14, 15]. Grass carp prefer to spawn in water currents ranging from 0.6 and 1.5 m/sec, but spawns generally occur in currents as low as 0.2 m/sec or even in ponds where the current is absent [15].
Fecundity is directly proportional to length, weight and age of the females and ranges from 0.001‐ to 2‐million eggs but generally averages to 0.5 million for a 5‐kg broodstock [5, 6]. Grass carp eggs are 2.0–2.5 mm in diameter when released but quickly swell to a diameter of 5–6 mm as water is absorbed [6]. The eggs are semi‐buoyant and nonadhesive, requiring well‐oxygenated water and a current to keep them suspended until hatching [6, 15, 16]. Eggs may travel along the downstream, that’s about 50–180 km [14].
Grass carp feed almost exclusively on aquatic plants. They can eat 2–3 times their weight each day and may gain 2–4 kg in a single year. The larger they get, the more plant material they consume. Cultured grass carp may reach up to 1 kg in the first year and grow approximately 2–3 kg/year in temperate areas and 4.5 kg/year in tropical areas [5].
Grass carp prefer soft and low fibre aquatic vegetation such as duckweed and various underwater plants. If the more desired plant species aren’t available, they feed on plants above of the water surface. Grass carp even have been observed to feed on terrestrial plants that are hanging over the water. Triploid and diploid grass carp seem to consume similar quantities of aquatic plants and to have similar feeding habits and prefer succulent young plants. Because of its strong preference for aquatic vegetation, the grass carp is being widely used to control aquatic vegetation in lakes and ponds [7].
The five most‐preferred species in order of preference are hydrilla, musk grass, pondweeds (
While active feeding begins at 7–8°C, intensive feeding occurs only when water temperature is at least 20°C [16]. Three or four days after hatching, larval grass carp begin feeding on rotifers and protozoans, moving up to larger cladocerans at 11–15 days after hatch [9, 14]. By 2 weeks after hatching, grass carp feed on larger prey such as daphnia and insect larvae [9, 14]. After 3 weeks, the occurrence of plants in the diet increases with the appearance of filamentous algae and macrophytes. Macrophyte feeding begins from 1 to 1.5 months after hatching [9]. However, juveniles consume other items including chironomids, cladocerans, copepods, insects and their aquatic larvae, crustaceans and small fishes [6].
Studies indicate that grass carp lose weight when kept in unvegetated ponds with sufficient animal food sources [19]. When the supply of macrophytes is low, adult grass carps are able to utilize other food sources including benthos, zooplankton, water beetles and crayfishes [16]. Lopinot [20] indicated that grass carp feeds on almost anything when vegetated food is scarce including small fishes, worms and insects, but in pond culture, they seem to prefer pelleted food to vegetation.
Intensive use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture and also human and industrial pollution causes eutrophication. This situation causes growing of plants quickly and as a result of this, plant control cannot be solved mechanically or chemically. The most obvious solution in these cases is the introduction of grass carp to these waters covered with plants.
Some several thousand hectares of large ponds covered with overgrown macrophytic vegetation can be cleaned by introducing of grass carp. Grass carp is one of the optimal species for controlling of aquatic plants in water reservoirs. At this point, several parameters such as stocking density of grass carp, plant and plankton composition, water quality, and also the structure of the benthos should be noted.
The grass carp number required to control aquatic plants varies depending on the degree of plant infestations, plant types, pond sizes and the size of fishes stocked. A number of different methodologies have been used to determine the suitable number of grass carp to stock. The most precise method is to determine the weight of aquatic vegetation in the pond and knowing the consumption rates of the fish.
In spite of investigation of different stocking rates, there is no guideline that will fit all situations for grass carp. Each aquatic reservoir is different because of its own combination of fertility, water clarity, shallow water and chemical makeup. So, each of these variables affects the number of grass carp required to achieve the plant level to the desired control. Stocking rates may vary as low as one to as many as 20 grass carp per acre, depending on the amount and types of vegetation.
Stocking rates need to be increased as temperature decreases (as indicated by daily temperature units (DTU) decrease) because grass carp plant consumption and growth decrease. Stocking densities need to be based on the standing crop (biomass) of aquatic vegetation. This is estimated by multiplying plant distribution by average plant density; therefore, the higher the vegetation biomass, the higher the required stocking rate.
It should be well known that “overstocking” is followed by complete removal of all vegetation, while “understocking” of a water body causes either selective reduction of vegetation [21] or it can also result in no vegetation [22]. Low stocking densities can maintain intermediate plant control. On the other hand, plants rejected by the grass carp are left and may grow vigorously [23].
The amount of aquatic plants consumed by grass carp and its selectivity depends on many factors such as stocking density, age, temperature conditions, the length of time the fish have been in the pond and the quality and quantity of food present.
Initial plant density is an important indicator for the biological control. Biocontrol is effective if grass carp is stocked prior to the beginning of the rapid vegetation growth. Water level fluctuation should be estimated and taken into consideration. A dramatic decrease of water level could cause overstocking of the grass carp, and it is extremely difficult to remove fish from lakes. For this reason, stocking density of grass carp should be calculated for the lowest water level.
In addition to these, grass carp age and size are also important due to the possible predation on them, which can markedly reduce their initial stocking density. Grass carp should be larger than 30 cm when stocked; otherwise, they are very vulnerable to predators. In some areas, the otter can capture grass carp of about 2.7 kg (length of 60 cm), causing serious problems for fishpond management [24].
Grass carp can continuously control preferred aquatic plant species. Their impacts have been observed for 15–20 years at higher stocking rates. It is assumed that elimination of aquatic plant species preferred by the grass carp results in reduction of the diversity of the aquatic macrophyte community [25].
The stocking density and controlled plant area affect the extension of phytoplankton production in the ponds or lakes. In case of slow controlling of plants by grass carp, the indirect consequences of grass carp stocking on phytoplankton are negligible. It was determined that changes in the concentration of chlorophyll‐a in the water were non‐significant at low stocking density (30 kg ha−1) [26]. Cassani et al. [27] also determined that in case of suppression of macrophytes, annual mean chlorophyll‐a concentration remained stable in the ponds.
Primary production of the water reservoirs depends on light and nutrient availability. These two factors affect unstable equilibrium between macrophytes and phytoplankton. For this reason, the speed and extent of macrophyte removal by the grass carp affect the phytoplankton production.
Zooplankton consumption is necessary for juvenile and adult grass carp, but the consumed amounts are negligible in case the stocking density is not extremely high [28]. In lakes stocked with herbivorous fish, the growth of zooplankton and zoobenthos is enhanced through consumption of macrophytes by the fish and subsequently increased nutrient remineralization rates. The overall result can be also demonstrated through an increase of fish production [29]. Finally, the zooplankton communities shifted from copepod and copepod‐cladoceran‐dominated communities to rotifer and small cladocerans. Changes in zooplankton abundance and community structure were due to an increase in phytoplankton and shifts in planktivore predation on zooplankton by fish after macrophyte removal [30].
The effects of grass carp on plants and water quality are highly variable and often inconclusive due to the lack of proper control sites. The proportion and rate of plant removal by the grass carp is crucial. Changes in water quality as a result of plant removal by the grass carp mostly occur in small, non‐flowing water bodies and least occur when only a small proportion of plants is removed from large, relatively deep, flowing reservoirs. In this concept, decreases can be observed in oxygen concentration of water following grass carp stocking, depending on the disappearance of macrophytes [31]. Primary producers such as phytoplankton and aquatic macrophytes not only release oxygen but also consume CO2 during photosynthesis, which results in an increase in water pH. Changes in oxygen concentrations following grass carp stocking were positively correlated with the changes in pH [32].
Higher stocking densities of grass carp or their longer impact can increase concentrations of nutrients in the water, but these increases are mainly dependent on the water‐body characteristics. These changes result from sediment resuspension during feeding and faecal matter deposition by carp as well as collapse of mechanisms responsible for maintenance of the vegetated state due to removal of macrophytes. Changes in benthos corresponded closely to changes in aquatic vegetation which stabilize sediments and provide additional substrate in the form of root masses and decaying material. Zoobenthos also responded to changes in water quality following removal of aquatic macrophytes [33].
The rate of aquatic plants elimination determines the magnitude of impact [30, 34]. These changes in water quality are often followed by algal blooms [35] which in most lakes signal a shift to an alternative stable state [36]. Increasing rates of nutrient cycling following resuspension of sediments lead to decreases in ecosystem stability [37].
In conclusion, grass carp can be effective in controlling of aquatic plants, but its potential adverse effects to aquatic ecosystems may be severe. In this concept, changes in plant abundance and community composition occur due to foraging activities, alteration of water transparency, disturbance of the sediment and deposition of faecal matter by grass carp. In addition, grass carp introductions may lead to unsuitable changes in the plant community. For this reason, risks and benefits of grass carp use should be considered, and necessary measures should be taken to control aquatic vegetation before stocking of grass carp to the aquatic environment.
As the most advanced fuel system, the high-pressure common rail fuel injection system can realize the flexible, accurate and stable control of fuel injection pressure, fuel injection timing and cycle fuel injection volume, which can not only make the diesel engine power performance and economy best but also meet the increasingly strict requirements of emission regulations [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The existence of common rail separates the fuel supply process and fuel injection process of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. The high pressure fuel pump only provides high pressure fuel to the common rail according to the working condition of the system. The electrical control unit (ECU) drives the high speed solenoid valve to control the injector to inject high pressure fuel into the cylinder. The two parts work independently. This is the main characteristic of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system different from traditional fuel injection systems [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. The flow characteristics of high pressure fuel in high-pressure common rail fuel injection systems have an important effect on cycle fuel injection volume. The fuel injector is the main executing part of the fuel injection system. Due to the fuel inertia, fuel in the control chamber and nozzle volume does not immediately stop flowing when the control valve and needle of the injector are suddenly closed. The fuel kinetic energy near the control valve and needle is converted into local pressure gain, then this conversion propagates at the speed of sound to the control chamber and nozzle volume. Finally, the fuel compression wave or expansion wave is reflected back. Because of the energy imbalance, the dynamic pressure wave propagates and oscillates repeatedly in the system until the system reaches a stable state again due to the dissipative effect [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
The pressure fluctuation has a significant effect on fuel injection rate, which affects the cycle fuel injection volume of the high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. Reference [19] proposed a simplified physical model to predict the fluctuation of fuel injection pressure. Reference [20] designed a fuel acceleration pipeline at the nozzle and two sets of control systems were added to control the fuel flow state in the pipeline. A numerical model was established to predict the fluctuation of fuel injection pressure in theory. To explore the relationship between pressure fluctuation frequency and system structure during fuel injection, Ref. [21] established an LC zero-dimensional equivalent model of common rail, high pressure fuel pipeline and injector. Aiming at the influence of pressure fluctuation of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system on cycle fuel injection volume characteristics, Ref. [22] studied the interrelationship between geometrical dimensions of high pressure fuel pipeline between common rail and injector and pressure fluctuation characteristics and cycle fuel injection volume. The research results show that the size change of high pressure pipeline has a significant impact on the characteristics of single injection cycle fuel injection volume. Reference [23] analyzed the characteristics of cycle fuel injection volume of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system under two working conditions. The research results show that the fuel pressure fluctuation in the injector internal pipeline has a more significant effect on the change of cycle fuel injection volume compared with the pressure fluctuation in the common rail. Reference [24] established a simulation model of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. The simulation analysis shows that the pressure fluctuation in the fuel chamber during fuel injection is the main reason for the high frequency characteristics of fuel injection rate variation. However, the low frequency characteristics of fuel injection rate variation are determined by the fluctuation of fuel injection pressure.
Multiple injections is one of the main technical means for diesel engines to meet increasingly strict emission regulations. Many scholars have studied the influence of pressure fluctuation on multiple injection cycle fuel injection volume characteristics of high-pressure common rail fuel injection systems. Reference [25] studied the characteristics of cycle fuel injection volume under different injection modes of high-pressure common rail fuel injection systems. The research results show that the fuel pressure fluctuation has an important influence on cycle fuel injection volume because it affects the injection timing of pilot injection, main injection and post-injection. Pressure fluctuation generated after the main injection will cause the needle to be difficult to open during post-injection, which results in post-injection volume fluctuations. Reference [26] changed the injection interval between pilot injection and main injection of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. It is found that the pulse width of the main injection fluctuates periodically with the increase of the injection interval between pilot injection and main injection when the actual pilot injection cycle fuel injection volume and the actual main injection cycle fuel injection volume are fixed. The pulse width fluctuation frequency only depends on the structural parameters and is independent of diesel engine speed, cycle fuel injection volume, fuel injection pulse width and fuel injection pressure. Reference [27] simulated and analyzed the influence of different fuel properties on the pressure wave and cycle fuel injection volume in high pressure fuel pipeline during three injection processes of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. The results show that the post-injection fuel volume is affected by the pressure fluctuation caused by the main injection. The change of fuel properties leads to the different phases of pressure fluctuation, which affects the opening of the needle. Thus, the cycle fuel injection volume decreases with the increase of the bulk modulus of elasticity of the fuel. Reference [28] studied the influence of pilot injection timing and pilot injection fuel volume on soot, NOx, combustion noise and fuel consumption rate of diesel engines. The results show that the pressure wave caused by specific pilot injection timing in common rail and high pressure fuel pipeline leads to the dramatic change of main injection cycle fuel injection volume, especially when the injection interval between pilot injection and main injection changes. It has important influence on soot and NOx. In order to reduce the repeated reflection and propagation of fuel pressure fluctuation in high pressure fuel circuits, Ref. [29, 30, 31] designed a pressure storage chamber at the outlet end of high pressure fuel pump and developed a new type of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. By studying the cycle fuel injection volume of the system and the conventional high-pressure common rail fuel injection system under different common rail pressures, it was found that the different arrangement of the two fuel injection systems leads to the difference in fuel pressure wave propagation and reflection, which leads to the variation of fuel pressure fluctuation characteristics and causes the cycle fuel injection volume to be different.
In this chapter, the pressure fluctuation of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system will be investigated theoretically. The dynamic pressure wave fluctuation mechanism of the system will be analyzed through the experiments. On this basis, the influence of different parameters on dynamic pressure wave during fuel injection will be studied. The results will provide the support for revealing the cycle fuel injection volume fluctuation and its generation mechanism of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system.
High-pressure common rail fuel injection system is mainly composed of the low pressure fuel supply part, including tank, low pressure pump, the high pressure fuel injection part, including high pressure pump, common rail, electrical control injector, the fuel return circuit, which transfers excess fuel from each part back to the tank, the electrical control part, including ECU and various sensors, as shown in Figure 1. During the work process of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system, the plunger of high pressure pump moves downward with the rotation of the camshaft under the action of spring. Fuel is sucked into the high pressure pump plunger chamber from the tank by the low pressure pump through the fuel filter to complete the fuel absorption process. The plunger of the high pressure pump moves upward with the rotation of the camshaft driven by the cam. Fuel in the plunger chamber is compressed and the pressure increases. The pressurized fuel is pumped to the common rail through the high pressure pipeline to complete the process of fuel pressurization and fuel supply. The high pressure fuel in the common rail is distributed to the injector of each cylinder by the high pressure pipeline. Fuel is injected into the cylinder through the nozzle when the solenoid valve coil of the injector is energized. The needle closes the nozzle hole to finish fuel injection when the coil is de-energized, which completes a fuel injection process. The fuel metering valve on high pressure pump connects the plunger chamber of the low pressure pump and high pressure pump, which is opened a triangle fuel metering hole. The ECU controls fuel supply volume by adjusting the opening of the fuel metering hole through outputs pulse width modulation signal, thus realizing the adjustment of common rail pressure. Through the feedback signals of various sensors, ECU outputs corresponding control signals according to the working state of the diesel engine and drives the high speed solenoid valve on the injector to realize the control of injection timing, injection duration and injection times, to complete the real-time control of the fuel injection system.
Schematic diagram of the high-pressure common rail fuel injection system.
The fluctuation characteristics of fuel pressure in the pipeline of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system can be represented as one-dimensional partial differential equations of unstable compressible flow, as shown in Eq. (1).
where
The above-mentioned partial differential equations can be converted into ordinary differential equations as follows.
where (d
While the left–traveling wave is represented by d
The pressure wave in the pipeline of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system is divided into left-traveling wave and right-traveling wave according to the direction of propagation and divided into compression wave and expansion wave according to the change of fuel pressure caused by propagation. Therefore, pressure waves in the pipeline can be divided into the following four types.
Right-traveling compression wave
This kind of fuel pressure wave propagates along the positive direction of
Right-traveling expansion wave
This kind of fuel pressure wave propagates along the positive direction of the
Left-traveling compression wave
This kind of fuel pressure wave propagates backward along the
Left-traveling expansion wave
This kind of fuel pressure wave propagates backward along the
Supposing the right-traveling wave arriving at
where d
When the pressure wave propagates to the boundary surface, another returned pressure wave can be obtained based on the pressure wave and the boundary condition at the moment, which is the reflected wave. Assuming that the right end of the high-pressure common rail fuel injection system is closed, the boundary condition is
There are three boundary conditions for pressure wave propagation and reflection in the pipeline of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. The boundary type at common rail and high pressure fuel pipeline is outlet isobaric end (outlet opening end). The boundary type is the closed-end when the nozzle needle valve is closed. The boundary type is the orifice flow ends when the needle opening nozzle and injector injection.
Outlet isobaric end
There are the following equations when the right-traveling wave d
Thus, d
It can be seen that the signs of the incident pressure wave and reflected pressure wave are opposite when the pressure wave propagates to the common rail. However, the absolute value of the amplitude of the pressure wave is the same and the wave velocity is the same. The changing of the pressure at the pipeline end is zero and the changing of the velocity is twice that of the incident pressure wave. The reflection with the property of incident wave and reflected wave is opposite (an expansion wave, the other is compression wave) and the absolute value of the amplitude of the pressure wave is the same is called complete negative reflection. Therefore, the pressure wave reflection at common rail and high pressure fuel pipelines is a complete negative reflection.
Closed-end
There are the following equations when the right-traveling wave d
Thus, d
It can be seen that the amplitude of the incident pressure wave and reflected pressure wave is the same after the pressure wave propagates to the nozzle when the needle is closed. However, the velocity disturbance value is the opposite. The velocity change at the nozzle is zero and the pressure variation is twice the amplitude of the incident pressure wave. The reflection with the property of incident wave and reflected wave is the same, that is, an expansion wave or a compression wave at the same time, and the amplitude of pressure disturbance is the same is called complete positive reflection. Therefore, the pressure wave reflection when the needle valve is closed is a complete positive reflection.
Orifice flow end
As shown in Figure 2, the fuel flow from the C-C boundary surface of the pipeline with section
Schematic of the orifice flow end.
where
Thus,
where,
The above equation is the boundary condition equation of the orifice outflow of the high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. It can be seen from the above equation that when
The test bench mainly includes the high pressure common rail injection system test stand, the operation stand and the water-cooling unit. It can measure the dynamic injection characteristics of a six-cylinder engine, such as the fuel injection rate, the fuel injection volume and the fuel injection duration for each cycle at most. The main functions of the high-pressure common rail fuel injection system test bench are to drive high pressure fuel pump, supply fuel to high pressure fuel pump at specified temperature and pressure, drive fuel injection system and real-time measure the dynamic injection characteristics of the system. The operation stand includes monitoring system, electronic control device for single injection instrument, driving equipment of fuel injector, programmable synchronous timing pulse generator, common rail pressure regulator, torque analyzer and DC power supply, etc. It can realize the real-time control and monitor of the experimental process. All of the experimental data results and the environmental parameters of each injector can be recorded after the experiment.
The high-pressure common rail fuel injection system test bench is shown in Figure 3. It consists of a driving motor, high pressure fuel pump, common rail, common rail pressure sensor, oscilloscope, single injection instrument, mechanical part of injection flow and rate (IFR), injector, pressure sensor, high pressure pipeline, electronic part of IFR, ECU, computer terminal and tank. The high pressure fuel pump is driven by the driving motor, which can provide a stable speed input for the system. The common rail pressure sensor installed on the common rail measures the common rail pressure in real-time and feeds the common rail pressure signal back to the ECU. The ECU adjusts the fuel flow into the common rail by adjusting the flow control valve on the high pressure fuel pump to stabilize the common rail pressure. In order to measure the dynamic pressure fluctuation at the injector inlet, a piezoresistive high pressure sensor is installed near the injector end on the high pressure pipeline between the common rail and the injector. The oscilloscope receives the pressure signal at the injector inlet measured by the pressure sensor and the common rail pressure signal measured by the common rail pressure sensor and stores the signal data. The ECU provides control current to the injector according to experiment conditions to complete fuel injection under different conditions.
Schematic diagram of the high-pressure common rail fuel injection system test bench. 1. Drive motor 2. High pressure fuel pump 3. Common rail 4. Common rail pressure sensor 5. Oscilloscope 6. Mechanical part of IFR 7. Injector 8. Pressure sensor 9. High pressure pipeline 10. Electronic part of IFR 11. ECU 12. Computer terminal 13. Tank.
The fuel pressure wave reciprocating propagates within high-pressure common rail fuel injection system during fuel injection. The cycle fuel injection volume is affected by the fuel injection pressure. Therefore, it has important theoretical and practical significance on system optimization design and taking effective method to reduce the adverse impact of pressure fluctuations on cycle fuel injection volume characteristics by thorough analysis on the fluctuation mechanism and influence rule of dynamic pressure wave for high-pressure common rail fuel injection system. Theoretically, the fuel injection pressure refers to the fuel pressure near the nozzle hole. However, due to the fuel pressure in the nozzle is high and the size of the fuel cavity in the nozzle is small, it is difficult to install the pressure sensor near the nozzle hole. More importantly, the installation of a pressure sensor close to the nozzle hole will cause the change of flow field distribution in the nozzle, thus affecting the dynamic pressure fluctuation characteristics of the system. Since the fuel pressure wave propagation in the system with a limited speed, the fuel pressure of the injector inlet only slightly lags behind the nozzle volume pressure at time sequence (fuel injection pressure). It is easily measured and can actually represent the dynamic pressure fluctuation characteristics of the system. In this chapter, the fuel pressure of the injector inlet is used instead of injection pressure to analyze the dynamic pressure wave of the system [32].
Figure 4 shows the characteristics of solenoid valve drive current, fuel injection rate and injector inlet pressure before and after fuel injection of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system when the cycle fuel injection volume is 30 mm3. As shown in the figure, there is a delay characteristic between solenoid valve energized and fuel injection due to the hydraulic delay of the system. In addition, the fuel injection duration is longer than the solenoid valve energized time. The opening of the solenoid valve and needle causes the pressure drop at the injector inlet. The fuel injection duration is consistent with the opening time of the needle due to the dynamic response characteristics of the needle.
Drive current of the solenoid valve, injection rate and inlet pressure of the injector at a fuel injection volume of 30 mm3.
According to the various characteristics of driving current of the solenoid valve, fuel injection rate and injector inlet pressure at different moments, as shown in Figure 4, the curves can be divided into five different stages as follows.
1–2 stages. The solenoid valve coil of the injector is energized, the current gradually increases and the electromagnetic force increases. But the electromagnetic force of the solenoid valve is less than the pretightening force of the control valve reset spring. The control valve is pressed against the control seat and the outlet orifice is not open. The control chamber is filled with high pressure fuel. The resultant of fuel hydraulic pressure on the upper end surface of the needle and pretightening force of reset spring of the needle is larger than the fuel hydraulic pressure on the lower end surface of the needle. The needle is pressed against the needle seat and the injector does not injection fuel. Thus, the injector inlet pressure remains unchanged at 80 MPa.
2–3 stages. The injector inlet pressure drops. The reason is analyzed as follows. The control valve overcomes the pretightening force of the control valve reset spring and moves upward under the action of electromagnetic force of the solenoid valve, and the outlet orifice is opened. The high pressure fuel in the control chamber is discharged to the tank through the low pressure return fuel circuit. The fuel pressure in the control chamber drops rapidly. However, the resultant of fuel hydraulic pressure on the upper end surface of the needle and pretightening force of reset spring of the needle is still larger than the fuel hydraulic pressure on the lower end surface of the needle. The needle is still pressed against the needle seat. The nozzle hole is closed and the injector does not inject fuel. The control valve opens the outlet orifice suddenly arousing an instantaneous expansion wave, which starts between the control valve and the control valve seat.
3–4 stages. The injector inlet pressure continues to drop, but the pressure drop gradient increases. The reason is that the resultant of fuel hydraulic pressure on the upper end surface of the needle and pretightening force of reset spring of the needle is less than the fuel hydraulic pressure on the lower end surface of the needle as the decreasing of the control chamber fuel pressure. The needle moves upward and opens the nozzle hole. The injector starts fuel injection and the fuel injection rate appears. The sudden opening of the needle also arouses an instantaneous expansion wave, which starts between the needle and the needle seat and propagates upward. Due to the existence of the needle channel orifice on the injector body, the pressure drop at the injector inlet is not significant, however, the pressure drop gradient is larger than that when the control valve is opened alone.
4–5 stages. Complete fuel injection process. The expansion wave aroused by the moving parts working processes of the system propagates upward along the fuel circuit in the injector. When it propagates to the common rail, reflecting back a compression wave. This compression wave attempts to recover the fuel pressure in the fuel circuit to the initial value. When it propagates to the injector inlet causes the inlet pressure increasing, as shown in Figure 4. In fact, there is no expansion wave generated between the needle and the needle seat when the needle reaches its maximum lift, and the size of the nozzle hole becomes the main factor limiting fuel injection.
Stage after 5. The nozzle hole is closed by the needle and fuel injection is stopped. The closing of the needle will cause a water hammer effect in the system, a compression wave in the nozzle aroused and propagates upward along the fuel circuit in the injector. The inlet pressure increases when it propagates to the injector inlet, as shown in Figure 4. Since then, the needle and control valve shut down completely. The pressure wave propagates repeatedly in the system. Because the hydraulic shear resistance restrains the pressure wave oscillation, the amplitude of the fuel pressure wave decreases gradually, and the pressure at the injector inlet shows an attenuation oscillation characteristic.
It can be seen from the above analysis that the pressure fluctuation characteristic of the injector inlet before the opening of the needle is independent of the energized time of the solenoid valve coil or the fuel injection duration since this phenomenon will be caused whenever the control valve or the needle starts to move. The pressure fluctuation characteristic of the injector inlet caused by the water hammer effect is obviously dependent on the energized time of the solenoid valve coil since it is generated after the needle valve is closed. Therefore, when the energized time of the solenoid valve coil is shorter, the time interval between the two pressure peaks in Figure 4 is small, the third pressure peak and the subsequent pressure oscillation peak depend on the energized time of the solenoid valve coil due to the pressure wave interaction. As shown in Figure 5, the pressure fluctuation amplitude of the injector inlet is significant when the cycle fuel injection volume of the system is 3 mm3. The fusion of the two pressure peaks is called hydraulic resonance as shown in Figure 4.
Drive current of the solenoid valve, injection rate and inlet pressure of the injector at a fuel injection volume of 3 mm3.
According to the wave mechanism of dynamic pressure wave for high-pressure common rail fuel injection system, the fuel injection rate and fuel injection duration are different with different fuel injection pulse widths, which results in different cycle fuel injection volumes. The change of injection pulse width has a different influence on pressure fluctuation characteristics in the system when the fuel is injected. In addition, the cycle fuel injection volume is different even if the injection pulse width is the same when the high-pressure common rail fuel injection system is under different common rail pressures. Therefore, this section mainly analyzes the influence rule of two key control parameters of the system, namely injection pulse width, and common rail pressure, on the dynamic pressure wave in the system, which provides support for the study of the fluctuation characteristics of cycle fuel injection volume of the system.
Figure 6 shows the pressure fluctuation characteristics of injector inlet during fuel injection of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system with injection pulse width of 400, 600, 800 and 1000 μs, respectively. It can be seen from the figure that under the same high pressure pipeline size and common rail pressure, the injector inlet pressure with different injection pulse widths shows attenuation fluctuation characteristics. The smaller the injection pulse width, the larger the pressure fluctuation amplitude during the injection duration. With the increase of injection pulse width from 400 μs to 1000 μs, the change rate of pressure fluctuation amplitude at injector inlet decreases, and the average injector inlet pressure increases after injection. This is because the system circulates less fuel injection with small pulse width under the same common rail pressure. After the needle is seated and the nozzle is closed, the high pressure fuel in common rail immediately flows through the high pressure pipeline to replenish that injected in the injector. The larger the injection pulse width, the more fuel needed to replenish and the longer the time required. In addition, with the increase of injection pulse width, the needle gradually reaches its maximum lift. At this time, the injection pulse width only affects the moment when the needle closes the nozzle but has no influence on the needle from opening to reaching its maximum lift. Therefore, as shown in the figure, there is no significant difference between the injector inlet pressure from the first trough to the first crest when the injection pulse width is 800 μs and 1000 μs.
Inlet pressure of the injector at different injection pulse widths.
Figure 7 shows the pressure fluctuation characteristics of injector inlet during fuel injection of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system with rail pressures of 40, 80, 120 and 160 MPa, respectively. Each point in the figure is the difference between the injector inlet pressure at specific common rail pressure and the set common rail pressure when the injection pulse width is 800 μs, which reflects the pressure fluctuation characteristics of the system under different common rail pressures more intuitively. As shown in the figure, the inlet pressure of the injector decreases to a certain extent under different common rail pressures when the size of the high pressure pipeline and injection pulse width is constant. The inlet pressure fluctuation of the injector under the common rail pressure of 40 MPa is obviously different from that under the other three common rail pressures. The average pressure fluctuation of the injector inlet under this common rail pressure is higher than that under the other three common rail pressures. The inlet pressure fluctuation rules are consistent when the common rail pressure increases from 80 MPa to 160 MPa. The higher the common rail pressure, the larger the inlet pressure drop amplitude and the lower the average value of pressure fluctuation. When the size of the high pressure pipeline and injection pulse width is the same, the injection pressure increases with the increase of common rail pressure, and the injection pulse width required by the needle to reach the maximum lift decreases. When the common rail pressure is 40 MPa, due to the low common rail pressure, the moment when the control valve fully opens outlet orifice lags behind, and the moment when the control valve closes outlet orifice is advanced. The fuel pressure relief time in the control chamber is shortened and the needle does not reach its maximum lift. The nozzle is closed again before it is fully opened. At this time, the maximum fuel injection rate and the fuel injection duration of the system are small. Therefore, the average value of pressure fluctuation at the injector inlet is high. With the increase of common rail pressure, the difference of control valve opening outlet orifice decreases. But the pressure difference between the control chamber and low pressure fuel circuit and nozzle volume and cylinder is larger when the common rail pressure is high. The fuel discharge rate of the control chamber and the fuel injection rate of the nozzle hole are accelerated, which results in the system pressure drop gradient increases. In addition, the higher the common rail pressure, the longer the needle is maintained at the maximum lift position. This is the main reason why the higher the common rail pressure, the larger the injector inlet pressure drop amplitude, the lower the average pressure fluctuation.
Inlet pressure fluctuation of the injector at different common rail pressures. (a) Common rail pressure at 40 MPa. (b) Common rail pressure at 80 MPa. (c) Common rail pressure at 120 MPa. (d) Common rail pressure at 160 MPa.
It can be seen from the above analysis that the dynamic pressure wave of the system shows different fluctuation characteristics under different injection pulse widths and common rail pressures when the size of the high pressure pipeline is constant. Therefore, the dynamic pressure fluctuation frequency and amplitude of the system are further analyzed with the injection pulse width of 400, 600, 800 and 1000 μs and common rail pressure of 40, 80, 120 and 160 MPa, respectively, to reveal the dynamic pressure wave variation rule of the system under different injection pulse width and common rail pressure.
The area enclosed below the power spectrum density curve represents the amount of energy generated by the fluctuation in the frequency range [33]. Figure 8 shows the power spectrum density obtained by the fast Fourier transform of injector inlet pressure fluctuation under different injector pulse widths and common rail pressures. As shown in Figure 8(a), when the common rail pressure is 40 MPa and the injection pulse width is 400, 600 and 1000 μs, the dynamic pressure wave energy of the system is mainly in the frequency band of 799 Hz–1199 Hz, and the crest characteristics of power spectrum density are significant, and all reach the main crest at the frequency of 999 Hz. At this time, the dynamic pressure wave in the system shows obvious periodic fluctuation characteristics, which mainly fluctuates in the frequency of the main crest. When the fuel injection pulse width is 800 μs, the crest characteristics of the dynamic pressure wave power spectrum density are not obvious, and the fuel pressure fluctuation does not show significant periodic fluctuation characteristics. The pressure wave mainly fluctuates at the frequency of 799, 1199 and 1998 Hz. This may be because the pressure wave frequency aroused by the control valve and needle movement in the system reaches the resonance frequency under this injection pulse width, and all kinds of pressure waves propagate repeatedly and superimpose in the system, which changes the pressure wave frequency characteristics. At this time, the fluctuation characteristic of the system is the most complex, and the influence on the dynamic injection characteristic of the system is the most serious.
Power spectrum density of the injector inlet pressure at different common rail pressures and injection pulse widths.
The injector inlet pressure power spectrum density differs greatly under the four injector pulse widths when the common rail pressure is 80 MPa. The dynamic pressure wave energy of the system is between the frequency band of 599 Hz to 1398 Hz and 799 Hz to 1398 Hz, respectively when the injection pulse width is 400 μs and 800 μs. The power spectrum densities of pressure waves at the injector inlet under the two injection pulse widths have significant crest characteristics, both of which show obvious periodic fluctuation characteristics at the main crest frequency of 1199 Hz. The dynamic pressure wave of the system does not show periodic fluctuation when the injection pulse width is 600 μs and 1000 μs, which shows multi-frequency characteristics. As shown in Figure 8(b), the pressure wave at the injector inlet mainly fluctuates at the frequency of 799 Hz and 1199 Hz when the injection pulse width is 600 μs. The dynamic pressure wave mainly fluctuates at the frequency of 199 Hz and 999 Hz when the injection pulse width is 1000 μs.
As shown in Figure 8(c), the power spectrum density of pressure wave at the injector inlet shows obvious crest characteristics when the common rail pressure is 120 MPa and the injection pulse width is 400, 600 and 800 μs, respectively. The main crest frequency of the pressure wave power spectrum density is 1199 Hz under three injection pulse widths. However, the energy frequency bands are different. The dynamic pressure wave energy is mainly between the frequency band of 799 Hz–1398 Hz when the injection pulse width is 400 μs and 800 μs. The main frequency band of the dynamic pressure wave becomes wider when the injection pulse width is 600 μs, ranges from 799 Hz to 1798 Hz. At the same time, the dynamic pressure wave of the system shows the characteristics of multi-frequency fluctuation when the injection pulse width is 1000 μs, which mainly fluctuates at the frequency of 199 Hz and 1398 Hz.
As shown in Figure 8(d), the variation rule of pressure wave power spectrum density at the injector inlet is similar to that of common rail pressure is 120 MPa when the common rail pressure is 160 MPa and the injection pulse width is 400, 600 and 800 μs, respectively. The dynamic pressure wave mainly fluctuates periodically at the main crest frequency of 1199 Hz. But the energy bands of dynamic pressure wave are different under three injection pulse widths, and the energy band of dynamic pressure wave becomes smaller with the increase of injection pulse width. The main energy bands of the dynamic pressure wave are 599 Hz–1598 Hz, 999 Hz–1798 Hz and 999 Hz–1398 Hz, respectively when the injection pulse width increases from 400 μs to 800 μs. The dynamic pressure wave of the system also shows the multi-frequency fluctuation characteristics when the injection pulse width is 1000 μs, which mainly fluctuates at the frequency of 199 Hz and 1598 Hz.
The fuel density increases with the increase of pressure, which results in the acceleration of pressure wave propagation in the system. Comparing the pressure wave power spectrum density of injector inlet at different common rail pressures under the same injection pulse width in Figure 8, it can be seen that the crest characteristics of pressure wave power spectrum density at injector inlet under different common rail pressures are significant, except for the pressure wave multi-frequency fluctuation operating points. The main crest frequency of the injector inlet pressure wave power spectrum density is the lowest when the common rail pressure is 40 MPa, that is, the pressure wave frequency in the system is low when the common rail pressure is low.
To sum up, the dynamic pressure wave of the system has different frequency characteristics under different injection pulse widths and common rail pressure when the size of the high pressure pipeline is constant. It either fluctuates at the main crest frequency or shows the characteristics of multi-frequency fluctuation. While the dynamic pressure wave of the system shows low frequency fluctuation under a low common rail pressure at the same injection pulse width.
As shown in Figures 6 and 7, the average injector inlet pressure varies with different common rail pressure and injection pulse width. The difference between average injector inlet pressure and setted common rail pressure not only reflects the decreased amplitude of injection pressure in the fuel injection process but also reflects the average amplitude of pressure fluctuation in the system after fuel injection. Therefore, the average pressure drop is defined in this chapter as the difference between the setted common rail pressure and the average injector inlet pressure which locating the moment of injector solenoid valve energized time coordinates from 0 to 10 ms. Figure 9 shows the average pressure drop with common rail pressure under different injection pulse widths. As shown in the figure, the average pressure drop increases linearly with the increase of common rail pressure from 40 MPa to 160 MPa when the size of the high pressure fuel pipeline and injection pulse width is constant. The larger the injection pulse width, the faster the average pressure drop increase rate. In addition, the average pressure drop increases with the increase of injection pulse width from 400 μs to 1000 μs when the size of high pressure fuel pipeline and common rail pressure are constant, and the average pressure drop amplitude increases with the increase of common rail pressure at the two same injection pulse widths. It can be seen that the higher the common rail pressure and the injection pulse width, the larger the average pressure drop.
Variation characteristics of the average pressure drop caused by common rail pressure at different injection pulse widths.
The first trough of the pressure wave at the injector inlet is the minimum pressure of the system after the fuel injection when the nozzle hole is opened, which reflects the maximum pressure drop after stable fuel injection. The first crest of injector inlet pressure is the maximum compression wave returned in the system when the injection pulse width is large. It reflects the pressure fluctuation amplitude of hydraulic resonance when the injection pulse width is small. Therefore, the first trough and the first crest of the injector inlet pressure are the characteristic parameters reflecting the dynamic pressure wave characteristics of the system. Tables 1 and 2 show the trough and crest values of injector inlet pressure fluctuation when the common rail pressure is 40, 80, 120 and 160 MPa and the injection pulse width is 400, 600, 800 and 1000 μs, respectively. For comparative analysis, all values in Table 1 are the difference between the setted common rail pressure and the injector inlet pressure wave trough, and all values in Table 2 are the difference between injector inlet pressure wave crest and setted common rail pressure.
Common rail pressure/MPa | Injection pulse width/μs | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
400 | 600 | 800 | 1000 | |
40 | 2.91 | 2.89 | 2.91 | 2.84 |
80 | 5.17 | 5.15 | 5.14 | 5.15 |
120 | 6.77 | 6.74 | 6.75 | 6.79 |
160 | 7.98 | 8.14 | 8.13 | 8.05 |
Trough of the injector inlet pressure fluctuation at different common rail pressures and injection pulse widths.
Common rail pressure/MPa | Injection pulse width/μs | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
400 | 600 | 800 | 1000 | |
40 | 5.34 | 2.32 | 0.98 | 0.10 |
80 | 7.82 | 3.06 | 0.96 | 1.04 |
120 | 6.12 | 3.77 | 1.83 | 1.87 |
160 | 6.75 | 3.84 | 2.46 | 2.50 |
Crest of the injector inlet pressure fluctuation at different common rail pressures and injection pulse widths.
As shown in Table 1, the troughs of injector inlet pressure fluctuation increase approximately linearly with the increase of common rail pressure under different injection pulse widths when the high pressure fuel pipeline size is constant. The change of injector pulse width has little effect on the trough of injector inlet pressure fluctuation under the same common rail pressure. The trough of injector inlet pressure fluctuation between four injector pulse widths has a maximum difference of 0.16 MPa under the same common rail pressure. It can be seen that the trough of dynamic pressure fluctuation is independent of injection pulse width, but increases with the increase of common rail pressure. The reasons are as follows. The higher the common rail pressure, the faster the opening response of the needle. The fuel injection rate increases after the needle is opened during the same time, the effective flow area at the nozzle hole increases and the fuel in nozzle volume injects through the nozzle hole more quickly. The pressure drop of the system increases and the trough of the pressure wave increases. The increase of injection pulse width under the same common rail pressure does not affect the early opening of the needle. That is, the needle motion state is the same before the injection pulse width is 400 μs. Therefore, the change of injection pulse width does not affect the trough of system pressure fluctuation.
As shown in Table 2, the crests of injector inlet pressure fluctuation increase with the increase of common rail pressure under the same injection pulse width when the size of high pressure fuel pipeline is constant. The smaller the injection pulse width, the higher the crest of injector inlet pressure fluctuation under the same common rail pressure. This is because the higher the common rail pressure with the same injection pulse width, the faster the fuel pressure wave propagates in the system. The superposition time of the large amplitude compression wave reflected from the common rail and the expansion wave aroused by the opening of the needle is advanced, which leads to the increase of the crest of pressure fluctuation at the injector inlet. The smaller the injection pulse width, the shorter the injection duration when the common rail pressure is the same. The short of opening and closing time of the needle will lead to a decrease in the encounter time of the first pressure crest and the third pressure crest as shown in Figure 4. The hydraulic resonance effect of the fuel pressure wave is more significant. Therefore, the crest of injector inlet pressure fluctuation decreases with the increase of injection pulse width at the same common rail pressure.
In this chapter, the pressure fluctuation of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system is studied theoretically. On the basis of revealing the wave mechanism of dynamic pressure wave, the influence of different parameters on the dynamic pressure wave of the fuel injection is investigated. The conclusions are as follows.
The theoretical study of pressure fluctuation for high-pressure common rail fuel injection systems shows that the reflected fuel pressure wave returned from the boundary surface of the pipeline end is the result of the coupling of boundary conditions and propagated pressure wave. The reflection of the pressure wave at common rail and high pressure fuel pipeline is a complete negative reflection. The reflection of the pressure wave when the needle closing is a complete positive reflection. The boundary condition type of needle opening nozzle hole is an orifice flow outlet end.
The dynamic pressure wave mechanism in high-pressure common rail fuel injection system is revealed. The results show that there is a delay characteristic from the solenoid valve energizing to fuel injection, and the fuel injection duration is longer than the solenoid valve energized time. The opening of the solenoid valve and needle causes the drop of injector inlet pressure. The fuel injection duration is consistent with the opening time of the needle. The fluctuation characteristics of injector inlet pressure before the opening of the needle are independent of the solenoid valve energized time or fuel injection duration. However, the fluctuation characteristics of injector inlet pressure caused by the water hammer effect when the needle closing obviously dependent on the solenoid valve energized time.
The influence rules of injection pulse width and common rail pressure on dynamic pressure wave of high-pressure common rail fuel injection system are analyzed. The results show that the inlet pressure of the injector fluctuates in attenuation mode when the injection pulse width is different. The smaller the injection pulse width, the larger the amplitude of pressure fluctuation during fuel injection duration. The change rate of inlet pressure fluctuation amplitude decreases with the increase of injection pulse width. The average injector inlet pressure increases after fuel injection. The inlet pressure of the injector decreases to some extent under different common rail pressure. The average inlet pressure fluctuation of the injector is higher than that of the other three common rail pressures when the common rail pressure is 40 MPa. The inlet pressure fluctuation rules are consistent when the common rail pressure increases from 80 MPa to 160 MPa. The higher the common rail pressure, the larger the injector inlet pressure drop amplitude and the lower the average pressure fluctuation. The dynamic pressure wave of the system has different frequency characteristics under different injection pulse widths and common rail pressure. It either fluctuates at the main crest frequency or shows the characteristics of multi-frequency fluctuation. However, the dynamic pressure wave of the system shows low frequency fluctuation characteristics under a low common rail pressure at the same injection pulse width. The average pressure drop increases linearly with the increase of common rail pressure, and the increase rate of average pressure drop is faster with the increase of injection pulse width. In addition, it increases with the increase of fuel injection pulse width, and the higher the common rail pressure between the two same fuel injection pulse widths, the larger the increased amplitude of the average pressure drop. Both the trough and crest of dynamic pressure waves increase with the increase of common rail pressure. The smaller the fuel injection pulse width, the higher the crest of the pressure wave at the injector inlet.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Heavy Machinery Fluid Power Transmission and Control.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
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\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
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This change influences one another at various temporal and spatial scales; however, improper land uses are the primary causal factor on climate change. It studies relevant literature and Nepal’s case to assess the relationship between land use and climate change. Similarly focuses on how land-use impacts climate change and vice versa. In recent centuries land-use change significant effects on ecological variables and climate change. Likewise, understanding the research on both topics will help decision-makers and conservation planners manage land and climate.",book:{id:"10754",slug:"the-nature-causes-effects-and-mitigation-of-climate-change-on-the-environment",title:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment",fullTitle:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment"},signatures:"Pawan Thapa",authors:[{id:"349566",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pawan",middleName:null,surname:"Thapa",slug:"pawan-thapa",fullName:"Pawan Thapa"}]},{id:"50282",title:"Relation Between Land Use and Transportation Planning in the Scope of Smart Growth Strategies: Case Study of Denizli, Turkey",slug:"relation-between-land-use-and-transportation-planning-in-the-scope-of-smart-growth-strategies-case-s",totalDownloads:4667,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the decision-making process of planning residential areas in developing countries, importance of the commercial areas and need for a sustainable urban transportation infrastructure have generally been ignored based on several sociopolitical reasons. Meanwhile, decision-making periods of location choice and determining areal densities are conducted without quantitative spatial/technical analyses. Those urban matters bring along new planning paradigms like smart growth (SG) and new urbanism. SG is a land use planning paradigm which indicates that traffic problems should be minimized by transit alternatives, effective demand management and providing a balance between land use and transportation planning. This study aims to apply SG strategies to the land use planning process and evaluate the accuracy of land use planning decisions in the perspective of sustainable transportation. In order to reveal the effects of land use planning decisions on the available transportation infrastructure, two scenarios are investigated for 2030. In the first scenario “do nothing” option is considered, while the residential area densities and trip generation rates are regulated based on SG strategies in the second scenario. The results showed that the land use and traffic impact analyses should simultaneously be conducted before land use configuration process.",book:{id:"5235",slug:"sustainable-urbanization",title:"Sustainable Urbanization",fullTitle:"Sustainable Urbanization"},signatures:"Gorkem Gulhan and Huseyin Ceylan",authors:[{id:"182126",title:"Dr.",name:"Gorkem",middleName:null,surname:"Gulhan",slug:"gorkem-gulhan",fullName:"Gorkem Gulhan"},{id:"185555",title:"Dr.",name:"Huseyin",middleName:null,surname:"Ceylan",slug:"huseyin-ceylan",fullName:"Huseyin Ceylan"}]},{id:"42926",title:"Disaster Risk Management and Social Impact Assessment: Understanding Preparedness, Response and Recovery in Community Projects",slug:"disaster-risk-management-and-social-impact-assessment-understanding-preparedness-response-and-recove",totalDownloads:10045,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3364",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Environmental Change and Sustainability"},signatures:"Raheem A. Usman, F.B. Olorunfemi, G.P. Awotayo, A.M. Tunde and\nB.A. Usman",authors:[{id:"156875",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman A",middleName:null,surname:"Raheem",slug:"usman-a-raheem",fullName:"Usman A Raheem"},{id:"166449",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M",middleName:null,surname:"Tunde",slug:"a.m-tunde",fullName:"A.M Tunde"},{id:"167886",title:"Dr.",name:"F.B.",middleName:null,surname:"Olorunfemi",slug:"f.b.-olorunfemi",fullName:"F.B. Olorunfemi"},{id:"167887",title:"Dr.",name:"G.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Awotayo",slug:"g.p.-awotayo",fullName:"G.P. Awotayo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"136",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82644",title:"Climate-Driven Temporary Displacement of Women and Children in Anambra State, Nigeria: The Causes and Consequences",slug:"climate-driven-temporary-displacement-of-women-and-children-in-anambra-state-nigeria-the-causes-and-",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104817",abstract:"With increasing periods of extreme wet seasons, low lying geographic position, with socioeconomic, and political factors; some communities in Anambra State, Nigeria experience heightened floods annually resulting in loss of shelter, displacement of people with breakdown of livelihoods, particularly in rural communities worsening their risks and vulnerabilities. In 2012, a major flood event in the state temporarily displaced about 2 million people. In this chapter, we used a community-based adaptation approach to investigate the causes and consequences of climate-related temporary displacement on community members in Ogbaru LGA, Anambra State following flood events. We used global positioning system to obtain the community’s ground control points and gathered our data via field observation, transects walks, focus group discussions, photography, and in-depth interviews. Our findings reveal a heightened magnitude of flood related disasters with decreased socio-economic activities, affecting their health and well-being. Also, the community members have a practice of returning to their land, after flood events, as a local mitigating risk management strategy. For multilevel humanitarian responses at the temporary shelter camps, it becomes imperative to meaningfully engage the community members on the challenging risks and vulnerabilities they experience following climate-driven temporary displacement to inform adaptation and resilience research, policy change and advocacy.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Akanwa Angela Oyilieze, Ngozi N. Joe-Ikechebelu, Ijeoma N. Okedo-Alex, Kenebechukwu J. Okafor, Fred A. Omoruyi, Jennifer Okeke, Sophia N. Amobi, Angela C. Enweruzor, Chinonye E. Obioma, Princess I. Izunobi, Theresa O. Nwakacha, Chinenye B. Oranu, Nora I. Anazodo, Chiamaka A. Okeke, Uwa-Abasi E. Ugwuoke, Uche M. Umeh, Emmanuel O. Ogbuefi and Sylvia T. Echendu"},{id:"79637",title:"Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of the Annual Extreme Precipitation Using Kriging and Co-Kriging Methods in Algeria Country",slug:"evaluation-of-the-spatial-distribution-of-the-annual-extreme-precipitation-using-kriging-and-co-krig",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101563",abstract:"In this chapter, we have conducted a statistical study of the annual extreme precipitation (AMP) for 856 grid cells and during the period of 1979–2012 in Algeria. In the first step, we compared graphically the forecasts of the three parameters of the generalized extreme value (GEV) distribution (location, scale and shape) which are estimated by the Spherical model. We used the Cross validation method to compare the two methods kriging and Co-kriging, based on the based on some statistical indicators such as Mean Errors (ME), Root Mean Square Errors (RMSE) and Squared Deviation Ratio (MSDR). The Kriging forecast error map shows low errors expected near the stations, while co-Kriging gives the lowest errors on average at the national level, which means that the method of co-Kriging is the best. From the results of the return periods, we calculate that after 50 years the estimated of the annual extreme precipitation will exceed the maximum AMP is observed in the 33-year.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Hicham Salhi"},{id:"77854",title:"Flooding and Flood Modeling in a Typhoon Belt Environment: The Case of the Philippines",slug:"flooding-and-flood-modeling-in-a-typhoon-belt-environment-the-case-of-the-philippines",totalDownloads:162,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98738",abstract:"Flooding is a perennial world-wide problem and is a serious hazard in areas where the amount of precipitable water has potential to dump excessive amount of water. The warming of the Earth’s climate due to the increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) increases the availability of water vapor and hence, of extreme precipitation as observed and forecasted by researchers. With rainfall intensity too high, the torrential rains coupled with weather systems that enhances its effects, flooding not only submerges anything low-lying, it also washes away living and non-living things along the course of the river and the floodplain. The flooding is even worsened by the increase in velocity of flow caused by unsustainable urbanization and denudation of the watershed at the headwaters. Nature’s strength is an order of a magnitude that is way beyond that of the strength of men but human ingenuity enables us to transform our living environment into models that could help us better understand it. Flood modeling provides us decision support tools to deal better with nature. It also enables us to simulate the future especially nowadays that changes in our climate is imminent and even happening already in many parts of the world. Therefore, strategies on how to cope with our ever changing environment is very important particularly to countries that are at more risk to climate change such as the archipelagic Philippines.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Fibor J. Tan"},{id:"77797",title:"Adapting to Climatic Extremes through Climate Resilient Industrial Landscapes: Building Capacities in the Southern Indian States of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh",slug:"adapting-to-climatic-extremes-through-climate-resilient-industrial-landscapes-building-capacities-in",totalDownloads:98,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98732",abstract:"There is now greater confidence and understanding of the consequences of anthropogenic caused climate change. One of the many impacts of climate change, has been the occurrence of extreme climatic events, recent studies indicate that the magnitude, frequency, and intensity of hydro-meteorological events such as heat waves, cyclones, droughts, wildfires, and floods are expected to increase several fold in the coming decades. These climatic extremes are likely to have social, economic, and environmental costs to nations across the globe. There is an urgent need to prepare various stakeholders to these disasters through capacity building and training measures. Here, we present an analysis of the capacity needs assessment of various stakeholders to climate change adaptation in industrial parks in two southern states of India. Adaptation to climate change in industrial areas is an understudied yet highly urgent requirement to build resilience among stakeholders in the Indian subcontinent. The capacity needs assessment was conducted in two stages, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and focus group discussion (FGD) were conducted among various stakeholders to determine the current capacities for climate change adaptation (CCA) for both, stakeholders and functional groups. Our analysis indicates that in the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, all stakeholder groups require low to high levels of retraining in infrastructure and engineering, planning, and financial aspects related to CCA. Our study broadly supports the need for capacity building and retraining of functionaries at local and state levels in various climate change adaptation measures; likewise industry managers need support to alleviate the impacts of climate change. Specific knowledge, skills, and abilities, with regard to land zoning, storm water management, developing building codes, green financing for CCA, early warning systems for climatic extremes, to name a few are required to enhance and build resilience to climate change in the industrial landscapes of the two states.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Narendran Kodandapani"},{id:"77460",title:"Changing Climatic Hazards in the Coast: Risks and Impacts on Satkhira, One of the Most Vulnerable Districts in Bangladesh",slug:"changing-climatic-hazards-in-the-coast-risks-and-impacts-on-satkhira-one-of-the-most-vulnerable-dist",totalDownloads:210,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98623",abstract:"Changes in the climate due to anthropogenic and natural variation are indicated by parameters including temperature and rainfall. Climate change variability with changing trends of the two have been unpredictable and unprecedented globally leading to changing weather patterns, natural disasters, leading to sectoral impacts on food and water security, livelihood, human health among others. This research analyses the changing patterns of these parameters over the last 35/37 years of Satkhira district of Bangladesh to assess the state and trend across spatial and temporal dimensions. Such, the study validates to rationalize the observed seasonal changes that persist in Satkhira of Bangladesh. Both in terms of intensity and frequency of the occurrences of natural disasters, the series of natural events have been triangulated, with impacts and vulnerability being assessed from temperature variations, erratic rainfall, cyclone, flood and water logging etc. The study’s prime contribution remains in attribution of climate change in relation contextual circumstances in the region including sea level rise, salinity intrusion. Therefore, the risk and climatic hazards and its resulting impacts over time has been assessed to draw deeper connection between theoretical and practical values. The series of analyses also draw conclusion that assets are at risk from changing climatic condition.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Golam Rabbani, Md. Nasir Uddin and Sirazoom Munira"},{id:"76915",title:"The Impacts of Climate Change in Lwengo, Uganda",slug:"the-impacts-of-climate-change-in-lwengo-uganda",totalDownloads:101,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97279",abstract:"Climate Change has become a threat worldwide. Vulnerable communities are at foremost risk of repercussions of climate change. The present study aimed at highlighting a case study of climate change impacts on Lwengo District of Uganda. Out of the total geographical area of the district, 85% hectares are under cultivation and most of its population depends majorly on the rain- fed agriculture sector to meet the food requirement and as a major income source. With the changing climatic conditions, agriculture is the major sector which is being impacted. The region has experienced disasters from some time, usually the second seasons rains used to result in such disasters but since 2016 both seasons have occurred disasters, which majorly include hailstorm, strong wind, long dry spells, pests and diseases. The situation became more severe due to shortage of availability of skilled human resources, quality equipment for disaster management, limited financial resources and weak institutional capacity, which resulted in increasing vulnerability of small farm holders. Some of the adaptation strategies are being taken up by the government but there is a need to understand prospects of decision-making that are site specific and more sustainable for smallholder communities. Climatic changes possess many obstacles to farming communities which require sustainable adaptation to enhance the adaptive capacities of the communities through continued production systems, which are more resilient to the vagaries of weather. Farmers are practising such options which are location specific, governed by policy framework and dependent on dynamism of farmers. This study investigated how these drivers influence farmers’ decision- making in relation to climate change adaptations.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Shyamli Singh and Ovamani Olive Kagweza"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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