\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He has done extensive research in andrology, sex education, and counseling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. He was a former Rotarian, Citizen Ambassador, and was selected for the Ford Foundation Fellowship.",institutionString:"University of Benghazi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Benghazi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Libya"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6934",title:"Psycho-Social Aspects of Human Sexuality and Ethics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44731b106aa0d1ab5c64a7394483c7d5",slug:"psycho-social-aspects-of-human-sexuality-and-ethics",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6934.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7163",title:"Infertility, Assisted Reproductive Technologies and Hormone Assays",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6db6e4ccb7088f17f819121f7eb6424d",slug:"infertility-assisted-reproductive-technologies-and-hormone-assays",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48609",title:"Presbyphagia",doi:"10.5772/60780",slug:"presbyphagia",body:'
1. Introduction
Everybody is eager to attain old age while preserving as much of their capabilities as possible. The lifespan has indeed increased considerably but is this also true for the disease-free period? Dealing with geriatric patients, there is growing awareness of the importance of the link between old age and swallowing problems. Although the severity and the nature of the swallowing problems are variable, deglutition in the elderly is somewhat compromised due to a decreased functional reserve [1]. However, it is important to distinguish between changes due to normal aging (i.e., presbyphagia) and changes due to pathologic conditions (i.e., dysphagia) caused by age-related diseases and their treatment. In primary aging a number of functions stay preserved, a number of functions deteriorate, and some compensatory mechanisms are evident.
Though a number of physiological, anatomical, and functional changes take place in the process of aging inducing an increased risk for dysphagia in older patients, the swallowing of a healthy older adult in not per se impaired. Presbyphagia refers to characteristic changes in the swallowing mechanism of otherwise healthy older adults [2].
While presbyphagia remains largely asymptomatic, as in contrast to presbyopia or presbyacousis [3], dysphagia implies the presence of a symptomatic swallowing problem. In healthy aging there seems to be no reduction of the quality of life linked to deglutition [4]. Dysphagia arises from the combination of presbyphagia and a pathologic condition such as a stroke [5], Parkinson’s disease [6], or dementia [7], just to mention the three most frequently encountered ones. Moreover, the geriatric patient with a diminished functional reserve, admitted in hospital with an acute illness, may develop a delirious state and subsequently a swallowing problem. There is also an increased likelihood that iatrogenic causes such as medication, surgical interventions, or radiotherapy are involved and finally the so-called frail elderly may be reaching the lower limits of his physiological reserves, which may induce a swallowing problem.
2. Changes due to normal aging
Swallowing is an integrated neuromuscular process in which volitional and relatively automatic movements successively are controlled. Normal swallowing consists of 5 phases: an anticipating phase, an oral preparatory phase, an oral phase, a pharyngeal phase, and finally an esophageal phase [2].
The act of swallowing starts with the anticipation when seeing and smelling the food and in a cognitively adequate elderly person with normal eyesight there are no changes whatsoever in this first phase.
In the second phase or oral preparatory phase, the solid bolus needs preparation to be swallowed. Of course the dentures play an important role here; elderly who are often lacking teeth or who are wearing ill-fitted dentures may experience problems in chewing and as a consequence they may have made some spontaneous adaptations as far as their diet is concerned, and they are, for example, likely to avoid raw vegetables and certain meats. It has also been established that with ill-fitted dentures the masticating muscles function less well, thereby leading to a prolongation of the chewing process and to a larger number of chewing movements [8, 9]. The saliva production, a factor strongly related to subjective comfort during swallowing, on the other hand, will remain intact with aging, with xerostomia in old age being mostly due to medication [10].
2.1. Oral phase
This phase comprises the manipulation and transportation of the food in the mouth; the tongue propels the food in one fluid movement into the pharynx. When reaching the “trigger zone” near the faucial pillars, the reflexively pharyngeal phase will be initiated. Labial, buccal, and lingual actions, in combination with saliva, all work together to manipulate the food and to ultimately mechanically formulate a bolus. This bolus is then moved to the posterior side of the mouth into the inlet of the superior aspect of the pharynx. With aging the tongue strength declines, yet during swallowing itself the tongue strength is similar as in young people probably indicating a compensation for a diminished functional reserve [11]. The duration of the oral phase increases while there is also an increase of residue in the mouth post swallowing [12]. Here, it is important to have a good evacuation of the bolus because food that rests lingering in the oral cavity may lead to bacterial overgrowth and to aspiration as well.
2.2. Pharyngeal phase
The oral cavity and pharynx contains an enormous amount of sensory receptors, represented by dense intricate nerve supply to the oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx. The exact timing of the onset of the pharyngeal swallow is triggered by reflexes based on the input from these sensory receptors in such a way that even a one-second delay in initiation can result in airway invasion of ingested material or aspiration.
This phase starts with the initiation of the swallowing reflex, and the triggering of this reflex is somewhat delayed in the elderly [13], which again points to a reduced functional reserve although there is still sufficient time to close the airway.
In the elderly, there is an increased distance between the hyoid bone and the larynx [14, 15]. This leads in combination with sarcopenia to a larger pharyngeal space that needs clearing at deglutition [14]. The hyoidal movement in the superior and anterior direction plays a crucial role as it is important not only for safety reasons as it moves the entrance of the airway further away from the bolus but also for reasons of efficiency as this movement is responsible for the opening of the upper esophageal sphincter (UES). This movement declines with aging and is even in healthy elderly already significantly reduced compared with younger individuals.
The safety of swallowing is further bolstered by the movement of the epiglottis and by active approximation of the vocal cords and both mechanisms remain intact [16, 17].
The opening of the UES, as observed on videofluoroscopy, is unchanged but in approximately 30% of the healthy elderly one can observe the presence of a so-called cricopharyngeal bar, a posterior impression at the pharyngoesophageal segment [15]. The cricopharyngeal bar is a frequent incidental radiologic finding, which in many cases does not cause any symptoms.
When the UES is investigated in the elderly with manometry, it shows a decreased relaxation of the UES often in combination with increased amplitude of the pharyngeal contraction [2, 18-22]. The intrabolus pressure measured at the level of the UES is also elevated. And to be complete in the description of this phase we see that at the top of the pharynx the velopharyngeal closure remains intact.
Due to these physiological changes normal in aging, the pharyngeal transit time is significantly increased in old age [2].
Swallow safety and swallow efficiency not only imply an adequate motor function but also a preserved sensibility. Increasing age is often associated with a declined perception of spatial tactile recognition on the lip and tongue [23] and the rest of the oral cavity.
A study that used air pulses at the posterior pharyngeal wall at the level of the piriform sinuses showed a decreased sensibility in old age and as a consequence the amount of pharyngeal residue required to initiate a so-called clearing swallow proved to be significantly higher than in young persons [24-26].
In older healthy adults, it is not uncommon for the bolus to spend a greater length of time next to an open airway, by pooling in the piriform sinuses and in the valleculae, than in younger adults. This senescent change may be associated with greater risk for airway penetration or aspiration.
Swallow safety means that no material enters the airway; one distinguishes between penetration and aspiration. While in penetration nothing descends beyond the level of the true vocal cords, one speaks of aspiration when this is indeed the case with material ending up in the tracheal structures. In healthy elderly, there seems to be an increased incidence of penetration but not of aspiration [2, 27]. Another important clinical parameter consists of swallow efficiency, that is, the possibility to transport a bolus through the pharynx without leaving residue. Several studies have shown that residue both at the vallecular and the piriform sinuses level is frequently encountered in healthy asymptomatic elderly [22, 28]. With a new technique (Automated Impedance Manometry or AIM), it is possible to measure a Swallow Risk Index (SRI) [22]. This index is based on a number of manometric and impedance parameters and is clearly higher in the elderly pointing at an elevated level of swallowing dysfunction.
2.3. The esophageal phase
In 1974, it was shown that in elderly men above 80 years of age without comorbidities the peristaltic amplitude was significantly lower than in younger controls, but without changes in the speed or duration of the peristaltic wave [29]. The authors stated that aging results in a weaker esophageal muscle but with intact innervation. Later on the technique to perform manometric studies was further improved facilitating the discovery that the duration of the peristaltic wave increases in the aged population [30, 31].
Another manometric study of healthy Japanese volunteers showed that the elderly population (>60 years) had decreased peristaltic contraction amplitude compared to the young control group (<49 years) [32]. But in a similarly large study comparing older (>65 years) and younger (<45 years) patients with dysphagia, they could not find any significant difference in peristaltic amplitude, duration, and LES (lower esophageal sphincter) pressure [33].
Finally several studies have indicated an increase in both the amount of failed peristaltic events as well as in synchronous contractions [34].
To summarize, most studies in healthy elderly indicated that approximately 90% of these subjects had impaired peristaltic activity, while no peristalsis at all was observed in one third of them. Moreover the incidence of non-peristaltic contractions of the esophagus increases with age.
In conclusion, it is not easy to compare the preceding studies due to differences in subject population, average ages, and degree of comorbidities as well as differences in manometric and radiographic techniques. It appears that in subjects older than 90, the majority have comorbidities that would possibly predispose them to an esophageal motility disorder making it difficult to distinguish whether dysmotility in this group is due to age and disease or disease alone. In subjects aged 60 to 80, the duration of peristalsis is prolonged and the amplitude may be lessened, although whether these findings are clinically significant remains unclear. In healthy subjects aged from 80 to 90, esophageal muscle weakness exists but the swallow function remains intact. Although certain parameters change significantly with aging, the swallow safety and swallow efficiency are still adequately preserved in normal aging.
Increased duration [8] Increased number of chewing movements [9]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tORAL PHASE\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Altered functions
\n\t\t\t
Decreased functional reserve of the tongue strength [11] Increased oral residue [12]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
No changes
\n\t\t\t
Tongue strength during swallowing [11]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPHARYNGEAL PHASE\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Altered functions
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAt the motor level\n\t\t\t\t Decreased movement of the hyoid [16] Decreased pharyngeal constriction [15] Decreased relaxation of the UES [18-21] Reduced opening of the UES [22] Increased duration [2, 15]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAt the sensory level\n\t\t\t\t Delayed swallow reflex [1, 9, 13, 16] Decreased sensibility of the posterior pharyngeal wall [24, 25]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
No changes
\n\t\t\t
Downward movement of the epiglottis [16] Active closure of the vocal cords [17] Velopharyngeal closure [2]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Compensatory function
\n\t\t\t
Increased pharyngeal contractility [18, 19]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDeglutition in general\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Altered functions
\n\t\t\t
Increased incidence of penetration [18,26] increased pharyngeal residue [22, 28]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
No change
\n\t\t\t
No aspiration [2, 27]
\n\t\t
\n\t
3. Changes associated with normal aging, which might influence swallowing
A holistic approach is required while studying swallowing in the elderly. Swallowing cannot be regarded as an isolated action; one has to take into account the age-related functional decline occurring in several body-functions and its repercussions on swallowing (figure 1).
First of all there is an age-related decrease of sense of smell and taste, which are important for the pleasure we enjoy while eating [35-37].
Also, some anatomical differences arise in the older person such as a smaller cross-sectional area of masticatory muscles (masseter and medial pterygoid) and an increased lingual atrophy [38]. Next to the anatomical changes also, functional alterations occur in the muscle activity of the masseter, orbicularis oris, the supra- and infra-hyoidal muscles [39], and the thyroarytenoid muscle [39].
The respiratory system undergoes some changes as well; there is a decreased cough reflex, a diminished ciliary clearing, and a weakening of the respiratory muscles. These changes in combination with a deterioration of the immune system make the elderly more prone to developing an aspiration pneumonia.
As far as the digestive system is concerned, a delayed gastric emptying may lead to an earlier feeling of fullness at mealtime. Recent studies have shown a decreased sensibility and an increased stiffness of the esophagus in old age [40].
Another important issue is fatigue [41]. Fatigue, being a very common complaint in the elderly, is often associated with functional decline and may, as well as sleeping disturbances and depression, lead to a reduced food intake [42-44]. The elderly also often experience a declined perception of thirst and subsequently they have a low fluid intake. Tongue strength and endurance decline during a meal and this in combination with a diminished reserve may negatively influence deglutition especially in already weakened elderly [45].
As people get older, the slower swallowing act may actually also be a benefit as it can allow greater time to recruit the necessary number of muscle fibers to generate the necessary pressures for adequate bolus propulsion through the oropharynx. Hence, speeding up an elderly patient’s swallow may induce contradictory results, as it may lead to insufficient swallow pressures and therefore may be contraindicated as a therapy technique.
Cognitive changes are also considered to be part of the normal aging process and cognitive processes such as concentration, attention, and double-tasking are influenced by age. A decline in concentration and attention together with a reduced reserve may lead to aspiration. Moreover as eating is a social event, people tend to talk during mealtime further increasing the risk of penetration and aspiration.
Staying physically active is associated with healthy aging, therefore elderly who are bedridden are additionally exposed to a number of important risk factors due to the sedative life style such as a diminished lung capacity and a weaker cough, a greater risk to develop a pneumonia, muscle weakness, and a loss of appetite [46].
Finally, medication may also negatively influence deglutition [47]. Drugs with an anticholinergic effect may cause xerostomia while some may lead to a diminished (e.g., allopurinol, carbamazepine, and penicillamine) or an altered (e.g., captopril lithium) taste perception. Sedatives can reduce the level of alertness and neuroleptics may mimic the swallowing problems encountered in Parkinson’s disease. Nitrates are relatively contraindicated in gastro-esophageal, reflux disease as they lower the pressure in the lower gastro-esophageal sphincter and steroids can not only induce a Candida infection orally but they can also provoke a steroid myopathy. Moreover, 40% of already weakened elderly take at least one medication that is completely superfluous [48].
Figure 1.
The relationship between presbyphagia and dysphagia
4. Implications for the clinical practice: prevention and detection of swallowing problems
Detection
In view of the high prevalence of dysphagia in the elderly and its important consequences such as malnutrition, dehydration, aspiration pneumonia, acute food impaction, and a reduced quality of life, it is crucial to detect swallowing problems at an early stage. Moreover, the elderly themselves are not always aware of their deglutition problems [49]. In a study on 47 elderly women living at home a questionnaire was used to assess swallowing problems. Participants were all observed while drinking water. Only 44% of those in whom a clinical problem was observed admitted having experienced a deglutition problem [50]. The personnel in nursing homes is often not well trained to detect these problems [51], while for isolated elderly living at home this can be a challenge for their GP. When an elderly is admitted to a geriatric ward, the geriatrician as well as the nursing staff plays a key role in detecting a swallow problem.
In Table 2 some tips are given as to when presbyphagia is suspected and when there might be a pathologic condition.
Prevention
As prevention is always preferred over cure, an overview is here presented with the most common preventative measures to allow a safe oral intake in the elderly.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSymptoms indicating the presence of presbyphagia\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSymptoms indicating the presence of dysphagia\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Prolonged chewing in a person with no teeth or ill-fitted dentures
\n\t\t\t
Significantly prolonged duration of a meal
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Diminished taste
\n\t\t\t
No taste
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Less appetite
\n\t\t\t
Important lack of appetite
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The elder drinks less
\n\t\t\t
Drinking fluids has become so difficult that he avoids it
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
The elder chokes seldom when his attention decreases (e.g., when talking during mealtime)
\n\t\t\t
He often chokes at mealtime, coughs frequently, and/or develops a wet voice during or after a meal
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
In general there are no problems with eating, only hard consistencies might be a challenge
\n\t\t\t
He avoids several foods and the difficulties at swallowing may influence his quality of life
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
He chokes seldom on his own saliva
\n\t\t\t
He is continuously coughing and has a wet voice
\n\t\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAdvices\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPay attention to a good hygiene of the mouth\n\t\t\t\t Clean your dentures adequately, make them fit well Discard any food residue from your mouth after mealtime Keep your mouth moist by rinsing or drinking at regular intervals
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPay attention to eat and drink moments\n\t\t\t\t Avoid eating and drinking when you are extremely tired or when your concentration is diminished. Do not speak during mealtime but start a conversation afterward. Do not eat just prior going to sleep. Remain in an upright position at least 5 to 10 min following a meal.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAdaptations of food\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
When experiencing difficulties chewing raw vegetables or some meat, you may cut it in very small pieces. When your food tastes insufficiently, you may add some spices. When you aspirate now and then on fluids, chilling it and adding some flavor could be a good idea. When you aspirate now and then on your own saliva try to think to swallow it on a regular base for instance whenever you look for the time thereby making it a habit.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMedication\n\t\t\t\t Take your pills only when you are perfectly alert and sitting upright. Remain in a prone position, at least 5 to 10 minutes. Drink sufficient water during and after the medication. When swallowing medication proves difficult mention it to your physician so that he can look for an alternative route of administration (sublingual, transdermal).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tGeneral advice\n\t\t\t\t Stay active
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tWhen to consult a physician in case of deglutition problems?\n\t\t\t\t When you are worried When you choke regularly When you cough regularly during and between meals When you eat a lot slower When you stop enjoying to eat and drink When you lose weight
\n\t\t
\n\t
5. Conclusions
Swallow safety is preserved in normal aging. Yet there are a number of changes, which bring the elderly in a more vulnerable position. Moreover, the elderly are more frequently confronted with events likely to provoke a deglutition problem.
All medical personnel dealing with the elderly should be alert not to miss any sign that might suggest the presence of a swallowing problem. Finally, the elderly should receive proper advice on how to cope with changes due to normal aging.
Acknowledgments
We hereby acknowledge that the tables in this manuscript are based on the following article: Presbyfagie: de invloed van het primair verouderingsproces op de slikfunctie. Liesenborghs C, Dejaeger E, Liesenborghs L, Tack J, Rommel N.Tijdschr Gerontol Geriatr 2014; 45: 261-272.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/48609.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/48609.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48609",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48609",totalDownloads:1963,totalViews:602,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:2,introChapter:null,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:92,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"June 23rd 2014",dateReviewed:"May 8th 2015",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 2nd 2015",dateFinished:"June 24th 2015",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/48609",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/48609",book:{id:"4545",slug:"seminars-in-dysphagia"},signatures:"Marian Dejaeger, Claudia Liesenborghs and Eddy Dejaeger",authors:[{id:"172690",title:"Prof.",name:"Eddy",middleName:null,surname:"Dejaeger",fullName:"Eddy Dejaeger",slug:"eddy-dejaeger",email:"eddy.dejaeger@uzleuven.be",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"KU Leuven",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Changes due to normal aging",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Oral phase",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Pharyngeal phase",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. The esophageal phase",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Changes associated with normal aging, which might influence swallowing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Implications for the clinical practice: prevention and detection of swallowing problems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Logemann J. Slikstoornissen: Onderzoek en Behandeling Amsterdam: Harcourt. 2000.'},{id:"B2",body:'Robbins J, Hamilton JW, Lof GL, Kempster GB. Oropharyngeal swallowing in normal adults of different ages. Gastroenterology. 1992 Sep;103(3):823-9. PubMed PMID: 1499933.'},{id:"B3",body:'Van Den Noortgate N. Lichamelijke veranderingen en de gevolgen van veroudering. 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Laboratory of Skeletal Cell Biology and Physiology (SCEBP), Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center (SBE), Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, UZ Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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1. Introduction
To meet electricity demand of people living in mountainous terrain is always a challenging task. Due to adverse geographical conditions, the cost of laying and maintaining electrical power distribution network increases. Under such conditions, using renewable energy sources is the best option to meet their energy requirement. It will also cause less adverse impact on environment as compared to impact caused by using conventional energy sources. Advancement in technology and growing concern on environmental issues worldwide have motivated and compelled the world to maximize the use of renewable sources of energy such as wind, small hydro, solar, geothermal, tidal, biomass, ocean thermal etc. [1]. These renewable energy sources are best choice to compliments the conventional sources of energy and also to meet the growing energy demand of the people living in remote areas where use of conventional grid for power distribution is difficult. An estimated 20–25% of the global final energy consumption comes from various renewable energy sources and is increasing day by day.
Hydroelectric power is the most appropriate, cost effective and environment friendly renewable energy source suitable for providing electrical power in remote mountainous regions which actually have the huge hydro power potential for electricity generation. Especially small hydro power plants play a significant role in meeting the electricity requirement of people living in remote mountainous regions in isolated mode. In comparison to large hydro power plants, micro/pico hydro power plants are environment friendly; require less investment and easy operating with minimal impact on environment. An estimated electric power potential of more than 200,000 MW from small hydro exists worldwide, out of which around 50,000 MW has been tapped so far. India also has an estimated potential of more than 5000 MW capacity of small hydro identified through more than 2000 sites in various states of India mostly located in Himalayan region. In hydro power plants, the erratic rainfall affects the water discharge in catchment areas which further affects the generated kWh output. Most of the small hydro power plants are located in mountainous terrains. However, due to the effect of global warming on overall environment around the globe and erratic rainfall due to disturbance in environment, the output of these small hydro-electric power plants (SHEPP) is not consistent. Similar varying water input conditions exist almost in the entire mountainous region as the water flow rate depends upon the average rainfall and quantity of snow on the mountain peaks in concerned catchment area which feed the small hydro power plants. Annual power generation trend based on the data collected from a cluster of small hydro power plants in Himalayan region shows the variation in power generation against the rated capacity due to varying inputs as shown in Figure 1 [2].
Figure 1.
Annual kWh generations in 1 MW Manjhal HEPP.
Another crucial factor in deciding the appropriate technology for isolated type of pico-hydro power plants is the type of loading on the power plant. Generally the load requirement in remote locations varies as the load fluctuates as per the requirement. Daily load requirement varies during 24 hours in remote areas as most of the electrical load comprises of lighting and heating. Electrical loading profile in the rural remote areas can be best generated using the data from any 11 kV feeder feeding these regions. Figures 2 and 3 show the electrical loading pattern as the per logged data collected from various 11 kV feeders feeding the rural villages in District Chamba, Himachal Pradesh situated in the Himalayan mountainous region during winter and summer months of 2013 and 2015 [2, 3].
Figure 2.
Electrical loading pattern in remote rural areas in hilly regions.
Figure 3.
Electrical loading profile of mountainous regions.
Domestic electrical load in mountainous regions generally comprises of lighting and heating load. Apart from this there is few small industrial load too operate mostly in day times. Electrical loading pattern as shown in Figures 2 and 3, indicate that during the evening time between 6:30 PM to 10 PM, electrical load is maximum with peak loading at around 8 to 9 PM. The load is minimal during mid night to 6 AM and which is about 20% of the peak load. This loading pattern is of much importance when the rural isolated load is fed from a small hydro power plant without conventional grid and operating in isolated mode. Under these conditions, the use of appropriate power conversion technologies such as use of asynchronous generators (induction generators) [1] is useful due to their adaptability to load variation and to keep voltage and frequency within permissible limits.
Recent advancement in technology and widespread use of advanced computer based controllers in renewable energy conversion systems for power generation, have increased the use of induction generators which offer increased efficiency, better control and better co-ordination with grid based power supply systems or in isolated modes [1]. For isolated load, pico-hydro power plants involving self-exciting induction generators are cost effective and reliable and are best suited under varying input and fluctuating load conditions in mountainous remote locations. In these isolated pico-hydro power plants during off-load periods, the generated power can be used for other applications such as flour mills, water pumping [3], and heating of domestic homes etc. As the effect of water discharge variation is less on pico-hydro power plants, these small hydro power plants use uncontrolled hydro-turbines due to continuous availability of required water discharge. These small hydro power plants are installed in the remotest part of the mountainous region feeding isolated load for small populated areas having small electrical load requirement. Isolated Pico hydro power plants are useful in meeting the electricity requirements of these remote locations where supplying electrical power using conventional grid is not feasible due to tough climatic and geographical conditions.
This chapter presents the suitability of self-excited induction generators feeding isolated load in remote locations. After evaluating the performance characteristics of self-excited induction generators using MATLAB/Simulink based models, the simulated results are validated experimentally. The setup comprises of 2.2 kW, 4 pole, 415 V, 3-phase, squirrel cage induction motor operated as 3- phase self-excited induction generator (SEIG) driven by a 3.7 kW rated DC shunt motor which is acting as prime-mover. For self-excitation of SEIG, a 3-phase capacitor bank with different required ratings of capacitors in star and delta mode has been used. Experimental electrical load comprises of a 3-phase lamp load and a single/three-phase inductive load. The performance of SEIG is evaluated at no load and at different loads (balanced & un-balanced load) emulating the actual electrical load conditions in remote mountainous regions.
2. Induction generators
Induction generators are most suitable for renewable energy conversion systems involving wind & small hydro. The difference between induction motor and induction generator lies in their rotor speed. The rotor speed is more than the synchronous speed in induction generator and in induction motor the rotor speed is slightly less than the synchronous speed of the induction machine. In induction generators, reactive power is consumed rather than supplying from it. Induction generator supplies only the real power (kW) to the system to which it is connected. The kVAr required by the induction generator and loads on the system must be supplied from separate source such as capacitor banks. The induction generators are classified [4, 5, 6] as Self Excited Induction Generator (SEIG), Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) and Permanent Magnet Induction Generator (PMIG).
2.1 Self-excited induction generator
Self-excited induction generator is suitable for micro or pico hydro power plants feeding an isolated load. In stand-alone mode of operation of SEIG, the reactive power must be fed externally using capacitors as shown in Figure 4 to establish the required magnetic field. Capacitors banks are connected in parallel with the induction generator terminals. These capacitor banks are connected in either star or delta modes. When the speed of induction machine rotor exceeds the synchronous speed, the residual magnetic field in the rotor starts generating a voltage across the SEIG terminals and which is further supplemented by the capacitor current to strengthen or reinforce the magnetic field and system builds up voltage with an increasing excitation.
Figure 4.
Three phase SEIG with (a) delta connected capacitor bank, (b) star connected capacitor bank.
As the speed increases, the capacitor impedance further decreases and excitation increases. This further results in increase in generated voltage of the induction generator till the voltage is limited by saturation of magnetic circuit in the induction machine. For voltage build up, there must be some residual magnetism present in the rotor of induction generator. The required value of capacitance depends upon the actual value of kVAr required and there are various techniques to calculate the exact required value of capacitance in SEIG system [7, 8, 9, 10]. The minimum capacitance required is inversely proportional to square of the speed of rotation and to the peak value of saturated magnetizing reactance. The value of capacitance is also affected by load impedance and power factor. The maximum power output from the isolated SEIG depends upon its terminal capacitance and the speed of the generator. There must be a threshold speed called cut-off speed below which no excitation is possible at any capacitor value.
2.2 Control mechanism in SEIG
The main aim of the control strategies in self-excited induction generator is to regulate and maintain the required voltage and frequency of the generated output. This control is achieved using various types of controllers involving power electronics based devices. These controllers are called electronic load controllers. Electronic load controller in pico-hydro power plant using SEIG in isolated mode maintains the output load constant as seen by the SEIG under different load conditions. The SEIG supplies output to two loads connected in parallel. The main load is consumer load and the other load is called dump load or auxiliary load. In this dump load, power dissipated is generally wasted. However, this can be used for other useful applications such as pumping of water etc. [3]. The chopper in this ELC circuit regulates the real & reactive power so that load seen by the generator is always constant. The conventional controller has discontinuous nature of control having discrete steps in connecting and disconnecting dump load. This results in power quality problems. The advanced electronic load controllers are designed to meet the demand of various types of consumer loads which may be of linear, non-linear, balanced or unbalanced type and also maintain the power quality in the system [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
Conventional diode rectifier based ELC circuit consists of an uncontrolled 3-phase rectifier using diodes, a filtering capacitor, an IGBT or MOSFET based chopper circuit and resistive dump load as shown in Figure 5. The uncontrolled rectifier converts generated AC voltage at terminals of SEIG into DC voltage and filtering capacitor removes ac ripples from rectified output. The chopper circuit consists of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) or MOSFET; which is used as electronic switch operated by a close loop controller based driver circuit. The controller circuit is used to switch ON or switch OFF the IGBT to connect the auxiliary dump load in such a way that total load seen by the SEIG terminal remains constant. However, the conventional ELC suffers from power quality problems. The improved or modern electronic load controllers have the capability of harmonics elimination, load balancing and maintaining desired voltage and frequency at various operating conditions. These improved electronic load controllers consist of voltage source converters (VSC) for voltage regulation, chopper circuit and auxiliary dump load. There are various topologies of these electronic load controllers based on the type of systems such as 3-phase-3 wire or 3-phase-4 wire systems to which SEIG is connected and also on the number of switches used in the VSC. One of the improved electronic load controllers which are the combination of conventional ELC and VSC based ELC called de-coupled electronic load controller is shown in Figure 6. In this topology, ELC maintain the desired voltage & frequency like conventional controller, while the VSC serves the purpose of voltage regulation, eliminating harmonics and load balancing [16, 19].
Figure 5.
Conventional ELC for isolated 3-phase SEIG in pico-hydro power generation system.
Figure 6.
De-coupled electronic load controller for 3-phase SEIG system feeding isolated load.
3. Simulated performance evaluation of SEIG using MATLAB/Simulink
Before experimental validation of SEIG, performance characteristics of the SEIG under steady state condition were simulated using MATLAB-Simulink based model as shown in Figure 7 of a 3-phase induction machine of 2.2 kW, 415 Volts, 4-Poles rating which is actually used in real time practical application [20, 21, 22, 23].
Figure 7.
MATLAB/Simulink based model of 3 HP, 3-phase, 415 V, 50 Hz SEIG in isolated pico-hydro power generation system.
After selecting the required capacitance value in SEIG system under consideration for simulation, the capacitors are connected in delta mode in the model and various simulation tests are conducted under steady state conditions of rated voltage and speed. The different simulation conditions are created and the effect on capacitance rating is observed with variation in speed, variation in power factor, change in inductive load and various other loading conditions. Simulation results show the voltage build-up at a required capacitance and various of capacitance with speed. Results show that capacitance value increases with the decrease in power factor and also affected by the variation in connected load. For rated voltage, the value of excitation capacitance is slightly less than the value required at certain value of connected load. The terminal voltage of SEIG is affected by the change in load. As the load on SEIG increases, its terminal voltage decreases slightly. The MATLAB/Simulink based model and some of the results obtained from simulation such as developed terminal voltage and its variation at change in load, variation of capacitance at different load and power factors are shown in Figures 8–11. In the simulated model, the consumer load, controller circuit and measurement sections are shown as sub-systems [23].
Figure 8.
Generated 3-phase output voltage of SEIG.
Figure 9.
Variation in terminal voltage with change in load.
Figure 10.
Variation in terminal SEIG speed with change in load.
Figure 11.
Capacitance v/s load current curves.
4. Experimental evaluation of performance of 3-φ SEIG in pico-hydro power generation system
Simulated results are validated to prove the efficacy and suitability of self-excited induction generator feeding isolated load in pico-hydro power generation system using a hardware setup. Figure 12 shows the complete experimental set-up in the lab to perform the experiments. The main components of hardware set-up are [23]:
3HP, 3-phase, 415 V, 4 pole, 50 Hz squirrel cage induction motor operated as 3-phase SEIG
5HP, DC shunt motor acting as prime-mover and coupled with induction machine
Capacitor banks (3-phase/1-phase)
Control Panels for induction machine and prime mover.
Data logging, metering equipment and power meter for measurement of voltage, current, power, frequency, power factor and total harmonics distortion (THD)
3-phase resistive load panel containing lamp loads on each phase.
Inductive load of 5A, 415 V rating.
Electronic load controller circuit.
Resistive dump load of 2.2 kW rating
Figure 12.
Hardware setup: (a) induction machine coupled with prime-mover, (b) terminals and metering panel, (c) prime-mover motor control panel, (d) excitation capacitor bank panel, (e) load control panel (f) complete experimental set-up.
The complete experimentation for operating the 3-phase induction motor as induction generator involves running the induction machine first as induction motor for few hours to initiate the residual magnetic field. Once it is sure that residual magnetism exists in the induction machine, it is the coupled with prime mover. To emulate the pico-hydro power plant which has constant power prime-mover characteristics, the selected machine as prime-mover should supply the constant power to the induction machine. In this set up, a DC shunt motor of 5 HP rating is selected to drive 3HP (2.2 kW) induction machine and its input power is monitored under all operating conditions. Now power to prime mover machine is switched on to drive the coupled induction machine to its rated speed. Prime-mover speed is further increased to take the 3-phase induction motor speed at above the synchronous speed (1500 RPM for 4-pole machine). Induction machine is driven at 1545 RPM for certain period without connecting the capacitor bank across SEIG terminals. The measurement devices are connected in the system at appropriate places to record the SEIG parameters at various excitation capacitance values and at different speeds. Initially the self-excited induction generator is run at no load. Then the first set of excitation capacitor bank (in delta or star mode) is switched ON to generate the no-load voltage across SEIG terminals. Then the value of the connecting capacitor banks is increased in steps until the required voltage is build up in the SEIG. And when the required voltage is build-up, load is connected across the SEIG and its effect on the SEIG speed, voltage, power factor and excitation capacitance is recorded under different loading and operating conditions.
4.1 Voltage build-up process in SEIG
At speed slightly higher than the synchronous speed of induction machine, a set of excitation capacitance (6 μF/phase) is switched ON and then the generated voltage at the terminals of SEIG is observed. In this set-up, full voltage development across the SEIG terminals is recorded when 12 μF/phase excitation capacitance in delta mode is connected for 2.2 kW rated induction generator at no load. Voltage generated at no load is slightly higher than the rated voltage of SEIG, but when load is switched, the voltage falls and is brought to its rated value by varying the excitation capacitance value connected across SEIG terminals. The required value of the capacitance as shown in Table 1 can also be calculated by observing the terminal voltage and capacitor line current readings recorded during the experimentation. In this experimental process, the connected capacitance value in the capacitor bank connected in delta mode matched with the calculated value of excitation capacitance experimentally.
3-φ, star connected resistive lamp load (W) across SEIG
Capacitance/phase in delta mode (μF)
Cap. bank line voltage (V)
Cap. bank line current (A)
Cap. bank phase current (A)
Calculated value of capacitance/phase (μF)
Frequency of generated voltage
SEIG speed in RPM
Rph
Yph
Bph
Total
0
0
0
0
12
455
3.10
1.79
12.09
49.8
1525
100
100
100
300
12
430
2.89
1.67
11.9
49.8
1518
200
200
200
600
12
415
2.76
1.59
12.1
49.6
1510
Table 1.
Experimental values of excitation capacitance per phase in delta mode.
4.2 SEIG under loaded conditions
Domestic consumer electrical load in remote mountainous regions generally comprises of lighting and heating load using incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps. Apart from this; for a very short period electronic gadgets and house-hold single phase appliances are also used. To emulate these loading conditions, a three phase lamp load with multiple loading steps for each phase has been used to connect the lamp load on each phase in the experimental set-up. With greater emphasis on the maximum use of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) from energy conservation point of view, CFLs have also been used along with conventional incandescent lamps to evaluate the performance of SEIG. Table 2 shows the experimental recorded parameters [23].
3-φ, star connected resistive lamp load (W) across SEIG
C/ph (μF) delta mode
VLL (V)
IL(C) cap. line current (A)
Iph (load) (A)
N (RPM)
PF
F (Hz)
Prime mover (DC shunt motor) parameters
Rph
Yph
Bph
Total
VA (V)
VF (V)
IA (A)
IF (A)
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
1550
1
—
210
186
0.9
0.73
0
0
0
0
12
470
3.21
0
1552
1
50.8
209
185
2.5
0.70
0
0
0
0
12
415
2.66
0
1460
0.5
48.3
211
190
2.5
0.71
100
100
100
300
12
440
3.0
0.49
1539
0.90
50.3
208
184
4.3
0.69
200
200
200
600
12
425
2.82
0.95
1535
0.95
50.1
208
182
5.4
0.69
300
300
300
900
12
411
2.65
1.31
1530
0.94
49.8
207
183
6.9
0.68
340
0
320
660
12
445
3.0
1.35
1564
0.92
51.3
214
189
6.0
0.69
400
400
400
1200
12
383
2.50
1.52
1525
0.95
49.5
208
182
7.5
0.67
400
400
400
1200
12
417
2.65
1.60
1574
0.84
51.5
217
187
8.0
0.69
500
500
500
1500
12
355
2.30
1.77
1559
0.85
51
215
188
7.7
0.65
500
500
500
1500
18
415
2.7
1.9
1448
0.85
46.8
203
194
11
0.67
Table 2.
Experimental values of SEIG & prime-mover parameters under different operating conditions.
Experimental results show that a minimum value of excitation capacitance is required to build up the voltage at SEIG terminals on no load. For 2.2 kW, 4-pole SEIG, the terminal voltage built-up at 12 μF/phase in delta connected capacitor bank and it will be 36 μF/phase if connected in star connected mode [23]. With the increase in load, the SEIG terminal voltage slightly decreases along with the slight reduction in SEIG speed. This decrease in terminal voltage of SEIG due to increased load can however be balanced by increasing prime mover speed. Further increase in electrical load leads to increased requirement of excitation capacitance at rated speed. Since most of the domestic consumer electrical load is of single-phase type, 4-wire electrical distribution system is used for electrifying the villages which results in the un-balancing of load in each phase. To emulate this, unequal loading of SEIG has been done in the experimental study. The requirement of the excitation capacitance increases when inductive load is added to compensate for the lagging reactive power caused by the inductive load. Table 3 shows the SEIG parameters recorded under resistive and inductive load.
3-φ, star connected resistive lamp load (W) across SEIG
Parameters of 3-φ, star connected inductive load across SEIG
C/ph (μF) in delta mode
VLL (V) SEIG terminal voltage
IL (A) SEIG line current
IL(C) (A) cap. circuit line current
Iph (load) (A) load phase current
N (RPM)
F (Hz)
Rph
Yph
Bph
Total
VLL (V)
IL (A)
Q (kVAr)
100
100
100
300
0
0
0
12
443
3.11
3.0
0.49
1540
50.2
100
100
100
300
452
1.20
0.95
18
452
3.39
3.02
0.49
1522
49.8
200
200
200
600
438
1.15
0.89
18
436
3.35
3.1
0.98
1519
49.7
400
400
400
1200
395
1.03
0.70
18
390
3.28
2.55
1.52
1512
48.8
400
400
400
1200
427
1.11
0.83
18
427
3.4
2.90
1.50
1542
50.2
Table 3.
Experimental values of SEIG parameters under different resistive & inductive loads.
5. Conclusions
The simulated performance of 3-phase SEIG system feeding isolated load have been investigated in this chapter and results are further validated using an experimental setup. The observed results validate the usefulness and suitability of self-excited induction generators for feeding the isolated load in remote mountainous regions as it adapts well to meet the varying loading requirements and keeping the voltage and frequency of the system under permissible limits. During less load period, the wasted energy across dump load can further be utilized for other useful applications such as pumping of water to meet the potable and irrigation requirement in the hilly terrains. The vast use of these self-excited induction generator based systems can be useful to harness the maximum small hydro potential without affecting the environment much and also to meet the electricity requirement of remote Himalayan mountainous regions where distributing electricity is itself a challenging task due to harsh climatic and tough terrain conditions.
Acknowledgments
Our sincere thanks to the management of Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board Limited to collect the daily electrical load data from their 33 kV/11 kV substation feeders feeding the remote locations presented in this paper.
\n',keywords:"self-excited induction generator, small hydro, isolated load, electronic load controller, dump load",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82414.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82414.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82414",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82414",totalDownloads:11,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 7th 2022",dateReviewed:"June 1st 2022",datePrePublished:"June 30th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 27th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Providing reliable and clean power from conventional grid in remote mountainous regions is always a challenging task due to tough geographical and climatic conditions. Renewable energy sources-based power plants such as small hydro power plants play a significant role in meeting the power requirements in these remote locations in mountainous regions. Synchronous generators are the most commonly used generators in small hydro power plants. However, with the advancement in controller technology for voltage and frequency control, induction generators are nowadays preferred in renewable energy conversion systems. Self-excited induction generators (SEIG) in small hydro power plants feeding isolated domestic loads are more suitable due to their inherent advantages as compared to conventional synchronous generators. This chapter deals with the usefulness of electronic load controller used in voltage and frequency control of self-excited induction generator used in small hydro power plant feeding isolated load in remote mountainous regions of Himalayas.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82414",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82414",signatures:"Umesh C. Rathore and Sanjeev Singh",book:{id:"11534",type:"book",title:"Renewable Energy - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Renewable Energy - Recent Advances",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ahmed M. Nahhas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11534.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-528-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-527-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-529-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"140058",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"M.",surname:"Nahhas",slug:"ahmed-nahhas",fullName:"Ahmed Nahhas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Induction generators",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Self-excited induction generator",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Control mechanism in SEIG",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Simulated performance evaluation of SEIG using MATLAB/Simulink",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Experimental evaluation of performance of 3-φ SEIG in pico-hydro power generation system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Voltage build-up process in SEIG",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 SEIG under loaded conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Simoes MG, Farret FA. Alternate Energy Systems: Design and Analysis with Induction Generators. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2008'},{id:"B2",body:'Rathore UC, Singh S. Performance evaluation of 3-phase self-excited induction generator for remote mountainous region of Himalayas. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Control, Instrumentation, Energy & Communication (CIEC). India: University of Calcutta; 2014. pp. 421-425'},{id:"B3",body:'Rathore UC, Singh S. Isolated 3-phase self-excited induction generator in pico-hydro power plant using water pump load in mountainous region of Himalayas. In: Proceedings of 2014 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference - South Asia Satellite (GHTC-SAS). 2014. pp. 40-44'},{id:"B4",body:'Murthy SS, Malik OP, Tandon AK. Analysis of self-excited induction generator. In: Proceedings of the. Inst. Elect. Eng. C. 1982. pp. 260-265'},{id:"B5",body:'Singh SP, Singh B, Jain MP. Comparative study on the performance of a commercially designed induction generator with induction motors operating as self-excited induction generators. Proceedings of IEE–C. 1993;140(5):374-380'},{id:"B6",body:'Bansal RC. Three-phase self-excited induction generators: An overview. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 2005;20:292-299'},{id:"B7",body:'Al Jabri AK, Alolah AI. Capacitance requirement for isolated self-excited induction generator. Proceedings of IEE Electric Power Application. 1990;137(3):154-159'},{id:"B8",body:'Chan TF. Capacitance requirements of self-excited induction generators. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 1993;8(2):304-311'},{id:"B9",body:'Shridhar L, Singh B, Jha CS, Singh BP, Murthy SS. Selection of capacitors for the self-regulated short shunt self-excited induction generator. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 1995;10(1):10-17'},{id:"B10",body:'Chandran VP, Vadhera S. Capacitance requirements of self-excited induction generator for different operating conditions. In: Proceedings of the IEEE ICEAS. 2011. pp. 1-6'},{id:"B11",body:'Suarez E, Bortolotto G. Voltage-frequency control of a self-excited induction generator. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 1999;14(3):394-401'},{id:"B12",body:'Singh B, Murthy SS, Gupta S. Analysis and design of STATCOM-based voltage regulator for self-excited induction generators. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 2004;19(4):783-790'},{id:"B13",body:'Rathore UC. Design and Development of Voltage and Frequency Controller for Micro/Pico Hydro Power Generation System. Punjab; India: SLIET University Longowal; 2017'},{id:"B14",body:'Singh B, Murthy SS, Gupta S. Transient analysis of self-excited induction generator with electronic load controller (ELC) supplying static and dynamic loads. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 2005;41(5):1194-1204'},{id:"B15",body:'Singh B, Kasal GK. Voltage and frequency controller for isolated asynchronous generators feeding 3-phase 4-wire loads. In: Proceedings of the IEEE ICIT’06. 2006. pp. 2773-2778'},{id:"B16",body:'Singh B, Kasal GK. Analysis and design of voltage and frequency controllers for isolated asynchronous generators in constant power applications. In: Proceedings of the IEEE PEDES’06. 2006. pp. 1-7'},{id:"B17",body:'Ramirej JM, Torres E. An electronic load controller for self-excited induction generator. Proceedings of the IEEE PES. 2007;24-28:1-8'},{id:"B18",body:'Idjdarene K, Rekioua D, Rekioua T, Tounzi A. Performance of an isolated induction generator under unbalanced loads. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 2010;25:303-311'},{id:"B19",body:'Rajagopal V, Singh B. Improved electronic load controller for off grid induction generator in small hydro power generation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE IICPE’10. 2011. pp. 1-7'},{id:"B20",body:'Murthy SS, Ahuja RK. Design and analysis of three phase self-excited induction generator using MATLAB GUI based methodology. In: Proc. IEEE ICPECS’10. 2010. pp. 357-361'},{id:"B21",body:'Cozorici F, Vadan I, Munteanu R A, Cozorici I, Karaissas P. Design and simulation of a small wind-hydro power plant. In: Proceedings of the IEEE ICCEP’11, Ischia. 2011. pp. 308-311'},{id:"B22",body:'Scherer LG, Camargo RF, Pinheiro H, Rech C. Advances in modelling and control of micro hydro power stations with induction generators. In: Proceedings of the IEEE ICCEP’11. 2011. pp. 997-1004'},{id:"B23",body:'Rathore UC, Singh S. Experimental evaluation of performance of constant power prime-mover driven isolated 3-phase SEIG for pico-hydro power generation system in remote mountainous region of Himalayas. In: Proceedings of the ICAET-2016, MATEC Web of Conferences, India. pp. 1-6'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Umesh C. Rathore",address:"rathore7umesh@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Electrical Engineering Department, Government Hydro Engineering College Bandla, India
Electrical Engineering Department, MA NIT Bhopal, India
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We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"59212",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73864",title:"Insect Conservation for the Twenty-First Century",slug:"insect-conservation-for-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:1965,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Insects have been immensely successful as an animal group. They dominate compositional diversity of all but the saltiest and coldest parts of the planet. Yet today insects are declining at a precipitous rate. This is of great concern in terms of impoverishment of Earth, and is also dire for us. Insects contribute to the maintenance of terrestrial and freshwater systems, their service delivery and their resilience. The meteoric impact of humans is challenging this dominance, yet so few people realize that the very fabric of life on which they depend is being unraveled at an alarming rate. Action is required, as are new perspectives, if we are to maintain insect diversity and services through the twenty-first century. Here, we review how we should view and act to have more effective insect diversity conservation based on six themes: (1) philosophy (establishing the ethical foundation), (2) research (the finding out), (3) policy (the framework for action), (4) psychology (understanding how to engage humans in insect conservation action), (5) practice (implementation of action), and (6) validation (establishing how well we are doing at conserving insects). We then overview some emergent challenges and solutions at both the species and landscape operational levels in agricultural, forestry, and urban environments.",book:{id:"6619",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",title:"Insect Science",fullTitle:"Insect Science-Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition"},signatures:"Michael J. Samways",authors:[{id:"233323",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Samways",slug:"michael-samways",fullName:"Michael Samways"}]},{id:"79121",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100416",title:"Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests",slug:"botanical-insecticides-are-a-non-toxic-alternative-to-conventional-pesticides-in-the-control-of-inse",totalDownloads:265,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Insect control for crops is one of the most critical global concerns. Pest management is an economic and ecological problem worldwide due to the human and environmental risks raised by most synthetic pesticide products. Botanical insecticides have resurfaced in popularity due to their low cost and low environmental impact, rather than their negative effects on human health. Botanical insecticides destroy only the insects they are meant to kill, leaving no residue on food or in the environment. Botanicals have long been used to combat pests. The compounds have many environmental advantages. However, as opposed to other bio-control pests and pathogens, their use was minimal during the twentieth century. In developing countries, botanical insecticides are well adapted for use in organic food production. Nonetheless, they may play a far bigger role in developed countries’ food production and post-harvest food protection. Consequently, the current chapter briefly addresses botanicals with active ingredients with insecticidal, antifeedant, or repellent properties.",book:{id:"10739",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",title:"Global Decline of Insects",fullTitle:"Global Decline of Insects"},signatures:"Nazeer Ahmed, Mukhtar Alam, Muhammad Saeed, Hidayat Ullah, Toheed Iqbal, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Kiran Shahjeer, Rafi Ullah, Saeed Ahmed, Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed, Hanem Fathy Khater and Muhammad Salman",authors:[{id:"97300",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid Awadh",middleName:"Al-Mutairi",surname:"Al-Mutairi",slug:"khalid-awadh-al-mutairi",fullName:"Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi"},{id:"191884",title:"Dr.",name:"Toheed",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"toheed-iqbal",fullName:"Toheed Iqbal"},{id:"263876",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"hidayat-ullah",fullName:"Hidayat Ullah"},{id:"263877",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Alam",slug:"mukhtar-alam",fullName:"Mukhtar Alam"},{id:"355528",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"nazeer-ahmed",fullName:"Nazeer Ahmed"},{id:"420069",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahjeer",slug:"kiran-shahjeer",fullName:"Kiran Shahjeer"},{id:"420070",title:"Mr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"saeed-ahmed",fullName:"Saeed Ahmed"},{id:"420221",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"muhammad-saeed",fullName:"Muhammad Saeed"},{id:"420222",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafi",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"rafi-ullah",fullName:"Rafi Ullah"},{id:"436507",title:"Dr.",name:"Nibal Abd Aleem",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan Ahmed",slug:"nibal-abd-aleem-hassan-ahmed",fullName:"Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed"},{id:"436596",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:null,surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"},{id:"485113",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"muhammad-salman",fullName:"Muhammad Salman"}]},{id:"50307",doi:"10.5772/62654",title:"From Extraction to Meliponiculture: A Case Study of the Management of Stingless Bees in the West-Central Region of Mexico",slug:"from-extraction-to-meliponiculture-a-case-study-of-the-management-of-stingless-bees-in-the-west-cent",totalDownloads:2743,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Currently, stingless bees' populations are declining due to environmental degradation. In this context, the authors have developed a research project in the central-western region of Mexico with the goal to generate strategies for conservation and sustainable management of stingless bees. The chapter aims to present the process of this investigation and its main results in terms of a) local knowledge and management strategies of stingless bees, and b) the social process of technological appropriation of meliponiculture by beekeepers. We recognized specific knowledge on the biology and ecology of stingless bees that result in a system for identifying species and management strategies of wild populations of these bees based on the extraction of nests. The implementation of an innovative productive activity based on the principles of meliponiculture and current techniques has been well received by producers, which has led to the formation of the Meliponicultores Michoacanos del Balsas Association, which grows five species of stingless bees. The research suggests that conservation associated with the use of bees (integral meliponiculture) can be enhanced in the region. Faced with the loss of biodiversity and environmental crisis, it is essential to maintain and enhance local knowledge of stingless bees and management practices. This represents an alternative to develop management schemes that allow the raising and breeding of these bees, while its products are obtained.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Alejandro Reyes-González, Andrés Camou-Guerrero and Salvador\nGómez-Arreola",authors:[{id:"179951",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Camou-Guerrero",slug:"andres-camou-guerrero",fullName:"Andres Camou-Guerrero"},{id:"185413",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-González",slug:"alejandro-reyes-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes-González"},{id:"192049",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Arreola",slug:"salvador-gomez-arreola",fullName:"Salvador Gómez-Arreola"}]},{id:"50683",doi:"10.5772/63145",title:"Advances in Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Composition of Propolis Produced in Americas",slug:"advances-in-pharmacological-activities-and-chemical-composition-of-propolis-produced-in-americas",totalDownloads:2580,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from the selective collection of plant exudates that are subsequently mixed with beeswax and salivary bee secretions. Propolis has been used in folk medicine, and certainly, several studies have validated its biological properties. The chemical composition and pharmacological activities of propolis collected through North (including Central America and Caribbean) and South America have been studied in the last years, and several papers have reported differences and similarities among the analysed geographical samples. Propolis has been classified according to its aspect and plant source; however, the ecological diversity present along the Americas provides a plethora of botanical resins. Herein, we summarize and discuss most of the studies performed at present on this profitable product for apiculture, attempting to compare the bioactivity, phytochemical diversity and botanical sources of honeybee propolis produced in Americas.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Efrain Alday, Moisés Navarro-Navarro, Adriana Garibay-Escobar,\nRamón Robles-Zepeda, Javier Hernandez and Carlos Velazquez",authors:[{id:"96966",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Navarro",slug:"moises-navarro-navarro",fullName:"Moises Navarro-Navarro"},{id:"180409",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"carlos-velazquez",fullName:"Carlos Velazquez"},{id:"186351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Zepeda",slug:"ramon-robles-zepeda",fullName:"Ramón Robles-Zepeda"},{id:"186352",title:"MSc.",name:"Efrain",middleName:null,surname:"Alday",slug:"efrain-alday",fullName:"Efrain Alday"},{id:"186353",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"javier-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Hernandez"},{id:"189161",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay-Escobar",slug:"adriana-garibay-escobar",fullName:"Adriana Garibay-Escobar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50170",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2296,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"70501",title:"Southeast Asian Meliponiculture for Sustainable Livelihood",slug:"southeast-asian-meliponiculture-for-sustainable-livelihood",totalDownloads:1260,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are one of the most important pollinators of native plants and economic crops in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. They not only establish large perennial colonies with complex social organization but also have a diverse nesting biology. The economic utilization of a total of 60 stingless bee species in Asia has been reported. The current status of meliponiculture in Southeast Asia is mainly focused on pollination utilization and honey and propolis production. This chapter shows that small-scale beekeeping of stingless bees, which is suitable for the flowering pattern in the tropics, is one of the best potential alternative opportunities. The cost-effectiveness analysis based on production yield, investment cost, and profit-return rate is reviewed. Finally, a sustainable utilization of stingless bees is considered to be an enhancer of pollination services both in an agricultural crop and natural ecosystem.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Orawan Duangphakdee",authors:[{id:"283087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Atsalek",middleName:null,surname:"Rattanawannee",slug:"atsalek-rattanawannee",fullName:"Atsalek Rattanawannee"},{id:"306411",title:"Dr.",name:"Orawan",middleName:null,surname:"Duangphakdee",slug:"orawan-duangphakdee",fullName:"Orawan Duangphakdee"}]},{id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3411,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"74836",title:"Chironomidae: Biology, Ecology and Systematics",slug:"chironomidae-biology-ecology-and-systematics",totalDownloads:460,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The family of Chironomidae is a group of Diptera insects belonging to the suborder of Nematocera, commonly called “non-biting midges” in the adult stage and “bloodworms” in the larval stage. The Chironomidae are often the most abundant group of macroinvertebrates, in number of species and individuals, encountered in all aquatic environments of freshwater, brackish, terrestrial and even the sea. Likewise, Chironomidae occur in all the continents. The Chironomidae family is divided into 11 sub-families that have diffrent ecological statues. Despite the wealth of data on Chironomidae in the Holarctic region, other parts of the world are poorly studied and few guides to identifying Chironomidae have been produced. This chapter includes a theoretical synthesis on the Chironomidae, it deals with the Biology (life cycle and description of different stages), description of all subfamilies and the ecology of this important family of Diptera.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Zerguine Karima",authors:[{id:"334825",title:"Dr.",name:"Karima",middleName:null,surname:"Zerguine",slug:"karima-zerguine",fullName:"Karima Zerguine"}]},{id:"75438",title:"Characteristics of Dipteran Insects",slug:"characteristics-of-dipteran-insects",totalDownloads:504,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Diptera means two wings (Di: two, pteron: wing). They have complete metamorphosis and they are holometabolous insects which means there are 4 stages (egg, larvae, pupae and adult). The name of larval stage is “maggot”. Some of the dipteran insects cause damage in agricultural production. Some are harmful for humans. Dipteran insects have two wings. Hind wings are reduced and they are called “halteres”. Function of halteres is balancing when the insects fly. Except mosquitoes, dipteran insects have sponging-sucking mouthparts. Important examples for dipteran insects are Olive fruit fly and Medfly which cause damages in agricultural production. OFF is the most destructive pest in olive growing areas and Mediterranean fruit fly cause damages in fruit production.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Murat Helvacı",authors:[{id:"301984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Helvaci",slug:"murat-helvaci",fullName:"Murat Helvaci"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"35",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{},subseries:{},overviewPageOFChapters:[],overviewPagePublishedBooks:[],openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/114808",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"114808"},fullPath:"/profiles/114808",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()