Statistical significance of differences between DHA and pF described by correlation coefficient (R) (95% LSD method, n=15), according to Wolińska & Bennicelli, 2010
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5738",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nitrification and Denitrification",title:"Nitrification and Denitrification",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nitrification and denitrification are essential processes for aquatic ecological system and vital for human health. While ammonia is applied for disinfection together with chlorine to produce chloramine, excessive ammonia may cause nitrification and bacteria growth in water transmission pipeline. Since excessive discharge may cause eutrophication and deterioration of aquatic system, nitrate is regulated for wastewater discharge in sensitive areas. Further, nitrate needs to be monitored and controlled in drinking water treatment to protect against methemoglobinemia in bottle-fed infants.",isbn:"978-953-51-3300-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3299-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4753-4",doi:"10.5772/65170",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nitrification-and-denitrification",numberOfPages:120,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"96f22f827ff7c6bb3aa3fceac5c23d89",bookSignature:"Ivan X. Zhu",publishedDate:"July 5th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5738.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9398,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:40,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 27th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 10th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 2nd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 30th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 1st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"139789",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:"X",surname:"Zhu",slug:"ivan-zhu",fullName:"Ivan Zhu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139789/images/4788_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ivan Zhu has highly specialized expertise in biological wastewater treatment, membrane applications to industrial and municipal water and wastewater treatment, flocs and biofilm characterization in terms of microbial community distribution and extra-cellular polymeric substances, and membrane fouling characterization. He has applied his knowledge of separation processes to evaluation and design of water and wastewater chemical/biological treatment processes. Previously, he worked at Xylem Water Solutions, where he gained extensive experience in drinking water treatment, wastewater tertiary treatment, denitrification, biological active filtration, ozone-enhanced biofiltration, and dissolved air flotation. Presently, he is working at Evoqua Water Technologies as an Applications Engineer for integrated industrial solutions for water and wastewater treatment. He holds a bachelor’s degree from Shanghai Jiaotong University in Shanghai, China, and masters and doctoral degrees from the University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Evoqua Water Technologies (United States)",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"501",title:"Solid-State Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry-solid-state-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"55647",title:"Introductory Chapter: Effects of Salinity on Biological Nitrate Removal from Industrial Wastewater",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69438",slug:"introductory-chapter-effects-of-salinity-on-biological-nitrate-removal-from-industrial-wastewater",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ivan X. Zhu and Jian R. Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55647",authors:[{id:"139789",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"ivan-zhu",fullName:"Ivan Zhu"}],corrections:null},{id:"54718",title:"Innovative Nitrogen and Carbon Removal",doi:"10.5772/68054",slug:"innovative-nitrogen-and-carbon-removal",totalDownloads:1749,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aerobic systems have been the most widely biological treatment used for municipal and industrial wastewater but show serious problem with sludge sedimentation, high energy demand and microbial inhibition. On the other hand, the anaerobic digestion (AD) of wastewater is considered the best alternative to remove the organic compounds and to recover energy via methane production. Nevertheless, AD has a problem: the treatment of industrial wastewater with high organic nitrogen content reaches high free ammonia (NH3) concentrations due to the protein degradation. NH3 inhibits the methanogenic process and is toxic to the environment, and then, it must be removed before its final disposition. Several physicochemical processes have been evaluated for the recovery or/and treatment of ammonium from wastewater. The most frequent treatments are gas stripping and magnesium ammonium phosphate precipitation. These methods are effective, but they are very expensive compared to biological treatments. Moreover, these techniques usually require more power consumption than the biological process. The technologies based on partial nitrification and Anammox (PN‐A) are the ones with better performance. Thus, this chapter mainly focuses on biological processes based on AD, denitrification and PN‐A for the removal of carbon and nitrogen from industrial wastewater with recovery of energy and water.",signatures:"Marlene Roeckel von Bennewitz, Constanza Beatriz Arriagada\nGajardo and Víctor Gabriel Guzmán‐Fierro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54718",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54718",authors:[{id:"195743",title:"Prof.",name:"Marlene",surname:"Roeckel",slug:"marlene-roeckel",fullName:"Marlene Roeckel"},{id:"196954",title:"MSc.",name:"Víctor",surname:"Guzmán-Fierro",slug:"victor-guzman-fierro",fullName:"Víctor Guzmán-Fierro"},{id:"196955",title:"Ms.",name:"Constanza",surname:"Arriagada",slug:"constanza-arriagada",fullName:"Constanza Arriagada"}],corrections:null},{id:"54827",title:"Heterotrophic Nitrification and Aerobic Denitrification by Alcaligenes faecalis No. 4",doi:"10.5772/68052",slug:"heterotrophic-nitrification-and-aerobic-denitrification-by-alcaligenes-faecalis-no-4",totalDownloads:2105,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alcaligenes faecalis No. 4 (No. 4) has the ability to carry out the following heterotrophic nitrification and aerobic denitrification, NH4+ → NH2OH → N2O → N2. Approximately, 40 and 60% of ammonium were converted to N2 gas and cell mass, respectively. Only a few percent of NO2− and NO3− were produced from ammonium. After brief explanation of significant properties of No. 4, several examples of application of No. 4 to treat ammonium, especially high‐strength ammonium in several wastewaters were presented. The ammonium removal rates in these examples showed several hundredfold higher than those in conventional ammonium treatment method. In wastewater treatment plants, the selection of handling of excess sludge after treatment is a problem to be solved. Some possibilities of utilization of the excess cells of No. 4 in agriculture or in cattle farming were also presented.",signatures:"Makoto Shoda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54827",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54827",authors:[{id:"45707",title:"Prof.",name:"Makoto",surname:"Shoda",slug:"makoto-shoda",fullName:"Makoto Shoda"}],corrections:null},{id:"54873",title:"Biodegradation of Ammonia in Biofiltration Systems: Changes of Metabolic Products and Microbial Communities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68155",slug:"biodegradation-of-ammonia-in-biofiltration-systems-changes-of-metabolic-products-and-microbial-commu",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the first stage, the feasibility of using the waste materials from coal power plants (i.e., coal slag) and landscapes (i.e., wood chip and compost) as packing media in various biofiltration systems for ammonia (NH3) removal was investigated. In the second stage, the optimized biotrickling system packed with coal slag was employed to investigate the effects of inlet concentration on NH3 treatment performance. A complete NH3 removal was achieved at concentrations of up to 250 ppm at an empty bed retention time of as low as 8 s, which is shorter than most previously reported biofiltration systems. Results of metabolic product analysis indicated that half of introduced NH3 was oxidized to nitrate and the rest was converted to ammonium ion at low loadings, while nitrite and ammonium ions predominate at high loadings. A bacterial community shift was observed with regard to the loading rates and pH conditions. In addition, there were no common operating problems, such as clogging and compaction, in the operation for more than 1 year.",signatures:"Yiu Fai Tsang, Ya‐nan Wang, Huawei Wang, Yi Yang, Yuanhui\nZhang and Hong Chua",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54873",authors:[{id:"192519",title:"Dr.",name:"Yiu Fai",surname:"Tsang",slug:"yiu-fai-tsang",fullName:"Yiu Fai Tsang"}],corrections:null},{id:"55114",title:"Denitrification in the Presence of Chlorophenols: Progress and Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68860",slug:"denitrification-in-the-presence-of-chlorophenols-progress-and-prospects",totalDownloads:1064,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diverse industrial effluents may contain recalcitrant compounds such as chlorophenols. Besides, excessive use of pesticides in agriculture is a major cause of the appearance of chlorophenols in surface and groundwater. To mitigate and control the effects of chlorophenols in the environment, various methods have been developed for their elimination. Biological processes represent a sustainable and economical alternative that can lead to the mineralization of chlorophenols and be effective for the removal of these pollutants from different water bodies, such as rivers, groundwater, and wastewater. Some studies have reported that chlorophenols mineralization and nitrate reduction may simultaneously be performed. Other works have suggested that a reductive dechlorination occurs such as the first step and later, the phenol formed is subsequently mineralized by denitrification. However, the published information can be confusing as the denitrifying process is often associated with the sole nitrate consumption without corroborating the total reduction of nitrate to N2. Additionally, there are alternative systems that combine biological process with a chemical or electrochemical process for chlorophenols removal. This chapter focuses on the advances accomplished in the study of the removal of chlorophenols under denitrifying conditions with the aim of having a clearer panorama of the treatment alternatives that can be applied for treatment of this type of effluents.",signatures:"Emir Martínez‐Gutiérrez, Anne‐Claire Texier, Flor de María Cuervo‐\nLópez and Jorge Gómez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55114",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55114",authors:[{id:"114922",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Gómez",slug:"jorge-gomez",fullName:"Jorge Gómez"},{id:"114923",title:"Dr.",name:"Flor De María",surname:"Cuervo Lopez",slug:"flor-de-maria-cuervo-lopez",fullName:"Flor De María Cuervo Lopez"},{id:"139552",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne-Claire",surname:"Texier",slug:"anne-claire-texier",fullName:"Anne-Claire Texier"},{id:"201075",title:"Dr.",name:"Emir",surname:"Martínez Gutiérrez",slug:"emir-martinez-gutierrez",fullName:"Emir Martínez Gutiérrez"}],corrections:null},{id:"55226",title:"Nitrate Removal from Groundwater with Membrane Bioreactor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68718",slug:"nitrate-removal-from-groundwater-with-membrane-bioreactor",totalDownloads:1430,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to model the denitrification process performed in a membrane bioreactor (MBR). The research was carried out using a modified Zenon ZeeWeed 10 MBR system. The membrane module consisted of submerged hollow-fibre membrane with a pore size of 0.04 µm and an active area of 0.93 m2. The concentration of nitrate in drinking water was (70 ± 2) mg/L NO3−. During the experiment, we maintained a constant concentration level of activated sludge at approximately 0.76 g/L under anoxic conditions. Sugar was added to the activated sludge as a source of carbon. The Monod kinetic parameters were estimated based on the experimental data numerical interpolation. Afterwards, a dynamic simulation with known parameters was carried out, and the time dependence of the substrate and biomass concentration was studied. We developed a model based on actual substrate outlet concentration. In addition, the time required to reach a steady state was estimated.",signatures:"Marjana Simonič, Andreja Goršek and Aleksandra Petrovič",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55226",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55226",authors:[{id:"196506",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marjana",surname:"Simonic",slug:"marjana-simonic",fullName:"Marjana Simonic"},{id:"196920",title:"Prof.",name:"Andreja",surname:"Goršek",slug:"andreja-gorsek",fullName:"Andreja Goršek"},{id:"205056",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Petrovič",slug:"aleksandra-petrovic",fullName:"Aleksandra Petrovič"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6476",title:"Sewage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77e161585d14c5343840a876d68c8594",slug:"sewage",bookSignature:"Ivan X. 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Akhlasur Rahman, Hasina Khatun, M. Ruhul Amin Sarker, Hosneara Hossain, M. Ruhul Quddus, Khandakar M. Iftekharuddaula and M. Shahjahan Kabir",dateSubmitted:"March 6th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 17th 2021",datePrePublished:"June 10th 2021",datePublished:"December 22nd 2021",book:{id:"11571",title:"Cereal Grains",subtitle:"Volume 2",fullTitle:"Cereal Grains - Volume 2",slug:"cereal-grains-volume-2",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",bookSignature:"Aakash Kumar Goyal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11571.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"97604",title:"Dr.",name:"Aakash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Goyal",slug:"aakash-k.-goyal",fullName:"Aakash K. Goyal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"338812",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Akhlasur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"M. 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Shahjahan Kabir",slug:"m.-shahjahan-kabir",email:"kabir.stat@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Bangladesh Rice Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"76501",slug:"enhancing-abiotic-stress-tolerance-to-develop-climate-smart-rice-using-holistic-breeding-approach",signatures:"M. Akhlasur Rahman, Hasina Khatun, M. Ruhul Amin Sarker, Hosneara Hossain, M. Ruhul Quddus, Khandakar M. Iftekharuddaula and M. 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It introduces the latest trends and past research results of researchers in a wide range of fields related to knowledge information processing, which is one of the ultimate goals of information processing technology and is necessary for making artificial brains useful in our society.",isbn:"978-1-83962-360-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-853-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-361-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87694",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"information-systems-intelligent-information-processing-systems-natural-language-processing-affective-computing-and-artificial-intelligence-and-an-attempt-to-build-a-conversational-nursing-robot",numberOfPages:140,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"793751ee53f02ca84c8fe298a66208c9",bookSignature:"Kazuyuki Matsumoto",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9885.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:1805,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 9th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 2nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 1st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 20th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A member of the technical committee of the international conference of IEEE and other international societies with broad research experience in Sensibility Robotics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"195756",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsumoto",slug:"kazuyuki-matsumoto",fullName:"Kazuyuki Matsumoto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195756/images/system/195756.png",biography:"Dr. Kazuyuki Matsumoto received a Ph.D. in 2008 from the Faculty of Engineering, Tokushima University, Japan, where he is currently an associate professor. 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The main purpose of the chapter is clarify description of the role of intracellular enzyme-dehydrogenase in the soil environment, as well as presentation of soil factors, influencing an enzymatic activity, by either stimulation or inhibition effect on soil dehydrogenase activity (DHA).
The most common laboratory procedure used for DHA determination is the method developed by Casida et al. (1964). According this method, specific dyes such as the triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC), that can specify the flow of electrons are useful indicators of electron transport system (ETS) activity. By the reduction of colorless, water soluble substrate (TTC) by dehydrogenases present in the soil environment, an insoluble product with red color (triphenylformazan-TPF) is formed.TPF can be easily quantified calorimetrically at the range of visible light (485 nm). This test however, reflected positive answer only at neutral range of pH and in presence of calcium carbonate for buffering soil system. Briefly, if the red colors of soil samples prepared for spectrophotometer analyses are more intensive, the measured level of DHA is higher. Consequently, soil samples without red colors or those with light red colors are characterized by lower DHA values.
Determination of DHA in the soil samples gives us large amount of information about biological characteristic of the soil. It was confirmed that although oxygen and other electron acceptors can be utilized by dehydrogenases, most of the enzyme is produced by anaerobic microorganisms. In other words, soil DHAstrongly increases under anaerobic conditions.
Several environmental factors, including soil moisture, oxygen availability, oxidation-reduction potential, pH, organic matter content, depth of the soil profile, temperature, season of the year, heavy metal contamination and soil fertilization or pesticide use can affect significantly DHA in the soil environment. In the current chapter we would like to concentrate on precise description of mentioned factors effect on soil DHA level. Presented results of laboratory experiments were conducted on different soil types, representing dominant types of arable soils in Poland, in order to demonstrate changeability and variability of DHA at diverse soil environment.
There are lots of enzymes in soil the environment, such as Oxidoreductases, Hydrolases, Isomerases, Lyases and Ligases. Each of them play key biochemical functions in the overall process of material and energy conversion (Gu et al., 2009).
Soil dehydrogenases (EC 1.1.1.) are the major representatives of the Oxidoreductase enzymes class (Gu et al., 2009). Among all enzymes in the soil environment, dehydrogenases are one of the most important, and are used as an indicator of overall soil microbial activity (Quilchano & Marañon, 2002; Gu et al., 2009; Salazar et al., 2011), because they occur intracellular in all living microbial cells (Moeskops et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2010; Yuan & Yue, 2012). Moreover, they are tightly linked with microbial oxidoreduction processes (Moeskops et al., 2010). What is important dehydrogenases do not accumulate extracellular in the soil.
Dehydrogenases play a significant role in the biological oxidation of soil organic matter (OM) by transferring hydrogen from organic substrates to inorganic acceptors (Zhang et al., 2010). Many specific dehydrogenases transfer hydrogen to either nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (Subhani et al., 2001). Throughout mentioned co-enzymes hydrogen atoms are involved in the reductive processes of biosynthesis. Due to this fact, the overall DHA of a soil depends on the activities of various dehydrogenases, which are fundamental part of the enzyme system of all living microorganisms, like enzymes of the respiratory metabolism, the citrate cycle, and N metabolism (Subhani et al., 2011). Thus, DHA serves as an indicator of the microbiological redox-systems and could be considered a good and adequate measure of microbial oxidative activities in soil.
Brzezińska et al. (2001) found that active dehydrogenases can utilize both O2 and other compounds as terminal electron acceptors, although anaerobic microorganisms produce most dehydrogenases. Therefore, DHA reflects metabolic ability of the soil and its activity is considered to be proportional to the biomass of the microorganisms in soil. However, the relationships between an individual biochemical property of soil DHA and the total microbial activity is not always obvious, especially in the case of complex systems like soils, where the microorganisms and processes involved in the degradation of the organic compounds are highly diverse (Salazar et al., 2011).
Among different environmental factors with special emphasis on enzymatic activities in the soil environment it is possible to screen some, which have positive impact on DHA. The most important soil factors stimulating soil DHA are described below.
Life in the soil environment, as well as land use is related to alternate cycles of humidification and drainage (Wolińska & Bennicelli, 2010). Water availability strongly affects on soil microbial activity, community composition (Geisseler et al., 2011), and consequently on soil enzymatic activities. As soils dry, the water potential increases, and as well microbial activity as intracellular enzyme activity slows down (Geisseler et al., 2011). In the case of wet soils, increased moisture could bring into soil solution soluble OM, what might be responsible for increase of bacterial population number (Subhani et al., 2001). What is important, we should have consciousness that any compound, which alters the number or activity of microorganisms, could on the other hand affect on soil biochemical properties, and ultimately also on soil fertility and plant growth (Subhani et al., 2001).
A basic hydrophysical characteristic of soil is water retention, that can be described as a dependence between soil water content and soil water potential. Soil water content in the function of the soil water tension is described by pF curve, which provides information about the ability for water retaining by the soil pores at any given water tension, or conversely, how tightly a water is held between soil aggregates (Wolińska & Bennicelli, 2010).
The Figure 1 demonstrates diminishing trend for DHA behaviour at different soil moisture, described as water potential values. During this experiment gig set of soils (n=315), including all representatives among the most typical Polish mineral soils (
DHA (µgTPFg-1min-1) dependence from water potential (pF) at different mineral Polish soil types, during reoxidation (n=315), according to
Statistical relationships between DHA and soil water content, described as pF valuein the range of pF0 – pF3.2, determined by Wolińska & Bennicelli (2010) are presented in Table 1.
Founded significant negative relationships between DHA and pF are confirmed by our above mentioned observations, that DHA is strongly affected by soil moisture. These strong correlations are undoubtedly connected with the fact that the metabolism and the survival of soil microorganisms are also strongly impacted by the availability of water (Uhlirova et al., 2005), whatis essential for microbial survival and activity.Consequently, low water availability can inhibit microbial activity by lowering intracellular water potential, and thus by reducing of hydration and enzymes activity (Wall & Heiskanen, 2003).Periods of moisture limitation may affect microbial communities through starvation. Thus, the most common environmental stress for soil microorganisms is perhaps drought(Wolińska & Stępniewska, 2011).
It was shown in many studies that DHA is significantly influenced by water content and dropped with the decrease of soil humidity. For example,Gu et al. (2009) observed higher DHA level (even by 90%) in flooded soil, rather than in non-flooded conditions. The higher DHA values in flooded conditions agreed also with results presented by Zhao et al. (2010) and Weaver et al (2012).
DHA response | Depth (cm) | |
0-20 50-60 | -0.98*** -0.95** | |
0-20 50-60 | -0.97*** -0.22 n.s. |
Statistical significance of differences between DHA and pF described by correlation coefficient (R) (95% LSD method, n=15), according to Wolińska & Bennicelli, 2010
The decline of DHA with an increase of pF value, could be also explained by the fact, that flooding of soil with water significantly increased the electron transport system (Wolińska & Stępniewska, 2011).Dehydrogenases however, are responsible for electron transport in the soil environment. It was also reported that DHA is higher in flooded, anaerobically soils, than aerobically incubated soils (Trevors, 1984; Subhani et al., 2001).
Oxygen diffusion rate (ODR) is usually considered to be the most critical proximal regulator of microbial activities (Hutchinson, 1995). Moreover, it is often assumed that a decrease of soil water content (higher value of pF), cause a significant (
We confirmed that dehydrogenases are sensitive enzymes, indirectly depended on the soil aeration status (Wolińska & Bennicelli, 2010). Based on performed measurements we found, that pF constitutes a significant factor, determining ODR in the soil environment, as well as its DHA level (
The response of soil DHA to varied aeration factors (pF and ODR), at surface layers of
The Figure 3. demonstrates that low oxygen diffusion rate (2.8-25 µg O2 m-2 s-1)was optimal for DHA, what was also confirmed by correlation coefficient (Wolińska & Bennicelli, 2010; Wolińska, 2010). Our results and founding’s are compatible with work of Stępniewski et al. (2000), Brzezińska et al. (2001), and Yang et al. (2005).
Statistical relationships between DHA and ODR, determined for two soil types (
Relationship between DHA (µgTPFg-1min-1* 10-6) and ODR (µg m-2 s-1), insurface layer of different mineral Polish soil types (n=315,
DHA response | Depth (cm) | |
0-20 50-60 | -0.90** -0.84* | |
0-20 50-60 | -0.96** -0.16 n.s. |
Statistical significance of differences between DHA and ODR described by correlation coefficient (R) (95% LSD method, n=15)
Redox potential (Eh) is the next, important, environmental factor, which expresses the tendency of an environment to receive or to supply electrons in solution (Stępniewski et al., 2005).The well-oxygenated soils are characterized by high values of Eh (600-800 mV), in quite well-oxygenated soils Eh ~ 500-600 mV, whereas in anaerobic conditions drop of Eh below 300 mV or even lower values were observed (Pett-Ridge & Firestone, 2005; Stępniewski et al., 2000).
It is well known, that Eh play a crucial role in regulating microbial activity as well as community structure (Pett-Ridge &Firestone, 2005;Song et al., 2008), and affecting on soil enzymatic activity, especially DHA.Brzezińska et al. (1998) indicated that among all aeration parameters, Eh plays the most important role in determining soil DHA level. Similar conclusions were also reported by Włodarczyk et al. (2001) and Menon et al. (2005).
We founded significant negative relationships between DHA and Eh (Fig. 4) at surface layers of
Relationship between soil DHA level and Eh at
Negative correlations DHA-Eh were also described by Brzezińska et al. (1998), who determined r=-0.75***, r=-0.83*** and r=-0.87*** for temperature 10, 20 and 30ºC, respectively, and by Stępniewski et al. (2000), and Nyak et al. (2007).
Mentioned relationships DHA-Eh have significant negative character, what means that increase of soil DHA level is indirectly connected with decrease of Eh values, as most of microorganisms, which are responsible for DHA prefer rather anaerobic conditions, and belong to obligate anaerobes. What is more, anaerobic conditions are consequence of flooding and decrease of oxygen availability in soil environment. Competition for oxygen limits aerobic processes and the subsequent oxygen deficiency creates local anaerobic microsites, which stimulates growth of anaerobic bacteria (Wolińska & Stępniewska, 2011), and finally DHA. Also, in the absence of oxygen in the soil a decline of Eh and the reduction of oxidized forms (nitrate, Mn4+, Fe2+ and SO42-) takes place. Bohrerova et al. (2004) reported that the most common ions forming the redox couples of soil include NO3-/NO2-, Fe3+/Fe2+, and Mn4+/Mn2+. In the literature data, it was also assumed that DHA is strongly affected by both Fe as Mn presence in the soil (Brzezińska et al., 1998; Włodarczyk et al., 2002).
Soil organic matter (OM) has important effects not only on soil enzymes activities but first of all on microorganisms activities. Soil OM has been considered as an indicator of soil quality (similarly like dehydrogenases,) because of its character of nutrient sink and source that can enhance soil physical and chemical properties, and also promote biological activity (Salazar et al., 2011). Interestingly, not only amount of OM in the soil is important but most of all its quality, as OM affects the supply of energy for microbial growth and enzyme production (Fontaine et al., 2003).
It is evident that soil enzymatic activity is strongly connected with soil OM content. The higher OM level can provide enough substrate to support higher microbial biomass, hence higher enzyme production (Yuan & Yue, 2012). Several authors reported positive correlation between DHA and OM content (Chodak & Niklińska, 2010; Moeskops et al., 2010; Romero et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2010; Yuan & Yue, 2012).
Zhang et al. (2010) indicated also that as well DHA and CaCO3 correlated with OM content, and what is more DHA, OM and CaCO3 were correlated with each other in their spatial distribution, suggesting that abundant OM content contributed to the formation of pedogenic calcium carbonate.
Salazar et al. (2011) hypothesized that activities of dehydrogenases in different forest ecosystems are involved in the carbon cycling, and they also reported their positive relationships. Dehydrogenases, are highly associated with microbial biomass (MB), which in turn affects on decomposition of OM and the release of CaCO3 (Zhang et al., 2010).
We also investigated effect posed by total organic carbon (TOC) and response of DHA in the agricultural used
Relationship between DHA and TOC content in the
Analogically to our investigations also Koper et al. (2008) found and reported strong significant relationships between DHA and organic carbon content in
The study of Kumar et al. (1992) indicated that DHA displayed the close, positive correlations not only with OM content but also with fungal population abundance in four forest stands (two at low and two at higher attitudes).
High correlation coefficient reported for enzymatic activities and TOC level suggested an important role of these enzymes in transformations of basic components of soil OM (Wolińska & Stępniewska, 2011). There is in general agreement with previous results indicated by Pascual et al. (2000), who found that soils characterized with low microbial and biological activity (e.g. low microbial carbon and low respiration rate), also display the lowest values of DHA.
Summarizing, the higher content of OM, the more active the soil microorganisms. Microorganisms accelerate the degradation of OM, which is reflected in soil respiration and release of carbon dioxide from the rizosphere (Zhang et al., 2010), thus DHA is positively correlated with OM content. Similarly, increase of DHA with higher microorganisms number was reported (Fontaine et al., 2003).
The literature data, currently available, referring to the connections between DHA and soil pH are still ambiguous.
Generally, enzyme activities tend to increase with soil pH (Błońska, 2010; Moeskops et al., 2010) – please put a space before Moeskops. Błońska (2010) determined significant positive correlation (r=0.50***) DHA-pH(water) in the pH range 3.67-5.88.
Fernandez-Calviño et al. (2010) noted significantly positive correlations among soil DHA and pH in the range of 4.1 (pHKCl) and 4.9 (pHwater), suggesting that acidity suppressed potential enzyme activity.
Adequately, a study by Levyk et al. (2007) demonstrated that acidic conditions in the pH range between 1.5–4.5 resulted with strong DHA inhibition in relation to alkaline soils, whereas Ghaly & Mahmoud (2006) noted that under acidic conditions with pH less than 6.5, the rate of TTC - specific substrate for DHA, did not decrease.
According to Frankenberger &Johanson (1982), the weakening of enzymatic activity in soil with the increase of soil acidity is the effect of destroying ion and hydrogen bonds in enzyme active centre.
On the other hand, study performed by Włodarczyk et al. (2002) indicated maximum DHA at pH 7.1, similarly to the work of Ros et al. (2003), where optimum for DHA was noted for pH 7.6-7.8. Also Brzezińska et al. (2001) reported that the best pH conditions for DHA ranged between 6.6-7.2.
Natywa & Selwet (2011) noted positive correlation between DHA and pH in soils under maize growth at pH range from 5.17 to 7.27.
Trevors (1984) concluded that very little DHA is observed below pH 6.6. and above pH 9.5. According to Nagatsuka & Furosaka (1980) the optimum range for DHA is contained between 7.4–8.5. However we should realize that many heterogeneous soil types might not be included in mentioned above range.
Our investigations, performed on
It is often assumed that pH may affects soil enzymes level in three different ways (Shuler & Kargi, 2010):
by changing in the ionic form of the active sites of the enzymes, which consequently affect the enzyme activity and hence the reaction rate,
by altering the three-dimensional shape of enzyme, and
by affecting the affinity of the substrate to the enzyme.
Thus, the pH factor is considered to be the best predictor of DHA in the soil environment (Quilchano & Marañon, 2002; Moeskops et al., 2010).
Relationship between DHA and pH values in the
Many researchers have studied effect posed by temperature incubation on soil DHA and/or on soil microorganisms abundance (Subhani et al., 2001; Ghaly & Mahmoud, 2006; Trasar-Cepeda et al., 2007). Taking into account the important fact that DHA is found inside the viable soil microbial cells only, its activity must be the highest at a temperature close to optimum temperature for microorganisms growth and their development (Wolińska & Stępniewska, 2011).
It is known that, the rate of enzyme catalysis generally increases with increase in temperature until the unfavorable temperature, at which enzyme becomes denaturized and hence its activity reduces (Wolińska & Stępniewska, 2011).
Our investigations were concentrated on investigations of DHA changeability at temperature range 5-30ºC, what reflect natural changes of soil temperature during seasons. Surface layer (0-20 cm) of
We found growing, linear trend for DHA with increase of temperature at the range from 5 to 30ºC, what we described by R2=0.97. The differences between DHA level estimated at 5 and 30ºC were significant (
The dependence between DHA and temperature incubation in the
Casida et al. (1964) indicated that incubation of soil samples at 37ºC increased of soil DHA above the value normally observed at lower temperatures.
Trevors (1984) described positive significant correlation among DHA and temperature in the range from 5 to 70ºC and determined r coefficient on the level of 0.99*. Moreover, study by Trasar-Cepeda et al. (2007) reported that increased temperatures up to 57-70ºC enhanced the product formation in the reaction catalyzed by soil dehydrogenases increased with, explained by the fact that specific substrate (TTC), used for DHA determination, is chemically reduced at high temperatures.
Analogically, Subhani et al. (2001) noted positive correlation in soil samples incubated at 10, 25 and 40ºC (under constant moisture – flooded conditions), what confirmed by r=0.82*.
As suggested by Cirilli et al. (2012) optimum temperature for soil DHA is 30ºC, what is in agreement with our findings. Similarly, Brzezińska et al. (1998) indicated that under laboratory conditions DHA demonstrated the highest activity at 28-30ºC.
Seasonal variations in both microbial biomass and soil enzymatic activities reflect the combine effects of temperature, moisture, substrate availability and other environmental factors. Dehydrogenases belong to the enzymes displaying strong fluctuations in their activities caused by season of the year, as they are in close relationships with dynamic of microbial activity.
Yuan & Yue (2012) stated the highest DHA level in autumn season and the lowest value of DHA in winter time. The study performed by Piotrowska & Długosz (2012) indicated that DHA level in
Similarly, our investigations demonstrated the highest level of DHA in
Effect of the season of the year on soil DHA in the
Analogical trend like our observations, related to high Oxidoreductases activity at the time form spring to autumn was noted by Januszek(1993). A study by Włodarczyk (2000) performed on
Spring season is strongly connected with increase in microbial activity, intensification of oxido-reduction reactions and temperature change, what is indirectly impacted with DHA, and is the reason of slight DHA increase during this time. Moreover, taking into account that DHA is present inside viable microbial cells, its activity must be the highest at temperature 20-30ºC (temperature characteristic for summer and early autumn), close to the optimum temperature for microbial growth, activity and development (Wolińska & Stępniewska, 2011).
Some of environmental factors have ability to affect negatively on DHA, by reducing its activity. In the role of enzyme inhibitors usually different molecules are involved, which by binding to enzymes activation sites are the reason of prohibition the enzymes from catalyzing its reaction, and finally decrease their activity. The most important soil factors inhibiting soil DHA are described below.
Depth of the soil profile is one of the most known and popular environmental factor reducing soil DHA level. It is well known that the highest microorganisms abundance is in the surface layer of the soil profile (till to the depth of 30 cm), at the deepest part of the soil the number of microbial cells is limited, and consequently also DHA level display diminishing trend.
DHA (µgTPFg-1min-1) at different depth of the
The confirmation of the above statement might be the Fig. 9, where effect of depth on DHA in
Our results are in agreement and might be supported by the findings of Xiang et al. (2008), who observed that DHA was roughly 4-fold higher in surface (till to 5 cm depth), than in subsoil (90-100 cm). It was also suggested by study of Gajda (2008), that values of DHA noted in the anthropogenic soil, till depth to 4 cm were by c.a. 30% higher in relation to the deeper part of the soil profile.
Brzezińska (2006), reported even 9-fold increase of DHA in the surface layer of the soil, than in the subsurface parts and 25-fold higher enzymatic activity in surface than in subsoil.
Generally it is possible to state, that both diversity, abundance as distribution of microorganisms are more even under oxic (surface layers) conditions, relative to anoxic (deeper layers) conditions (Fierer et al., 2003; Wolińska & Stępniewska, 2011).
Organic and inorganic fertilizers are commonly used to increase nutrient availability (Macci et al., 2012). The balanced fertilization of major elements (N, P, K) for plant nutrient could be beneficial for the growth of plant aboveground parts and roots (Chu et al., 2007), and also for improvement of soil structure (Macci et al., 2012).
However, fertilization could affect on the population of soil microorganisms and consequently soil enzymatic activities. It is often assumed, that inorganic fertilizers had relatively less effect on soil enzymes activity than organic fertilizers (Chu et al., 2007; Xie et al., 2009; Romero et al., 2010). Macci et al. (2012) noted, that DHA usually reached higher level in the organic treatments.
As was suggested by Chu et al. (2007) and Xie et al. (2009) long-term balanced fertilization greatly increased DHA level in the soil environment, rather than nutrient-deficiency fertilization. Zhao et al. (2010) indicated, that soils with higher fertility are more capable of maintaining the original biological functions (i.e. have a higher functional stability).
On the other hand, Moeskops et al. (2010) compared the effect of organic and conventional farming practices on soil enzymatic activities. On the organic farms, soil fertility was maintained mainly with composted OM, in contrast to conventional farmers, who combined fresh manure and chemical fertilizers, and typically applied large amounts of pesticides. As a consequence, a strong negative impact of intensive fertilizer and also pesticide use on DHA was demonstrated (Moeskops et al., 2010).
Soil DHA is an indicator of soil quality and microbial activity and also is the most frequently used to determining the influence of various pollutants (like pesticides or excessive fertilization) on the microbiological quality of soils (Xie et al., 2009; Tejada et al., 2010).
Despite the fact that pesticides are important tools in agriculture that help to minimize economic losses caused by weeds, insects and pathogens, they also are recognized as a source of potential adverse environmental impacts (Tejada et al., 2010). It is often assumed that less than 0.3% of the pesticide reaches its target pest, the remaining 99.7% is released to the environment, representing a potential hazard for non-target organisms (Muñoz-Leoz et al., 2011).
Stepniewska et al. (2007) noted the relationship between soil DHA and Fonofos (Stauffer Chemical Co., Westport, USA) concentration in the
Dynamic of DHA during incubation at 20ºC (0-control, 1 - 1µg g-1 Fonofos supplement; 10- 10 µg g-1 Fonofos supplement), according to
Our results suggest a negative effect of Fonofos on soil DHA in the first stage after application (1-7 day), later an initial, almost linear growth of DHA was observed and the final day of incubation resulted in significant extension of DHA, presumably because the process of Fonofos decomposition in the soil environment was almost completely finished.
Tejada et al. (2010) indicated that MCPA herbicide rate of 1.5 l ha-1 (manufactures rate recommended) was the reason of 39.3% soil DHA inhibition, what suggest that the MCPA caused toxic effect on soil enzymatic activity. A field half-life of MCPA ranged from 14 days to 1 month, dependently on soil moisture, pH and microorganisms abundance. The most important soil factor in predicting MCPA effect on soil enzyme activities is pH, as at acidic conditions persistence of pesticide may last even 5 years, whereas at alkaline pH only 6 days. Moreover, decrease of soil moisture and reduction of microbial abundance influence on elongation of MCPA decomposition process.
We also studied effect posed by MCPA (Organika Sarzyna, Poland) on soil DHA behavior (Fig. 11). The following MCPA dosage were introduced into the soil samples: 0.165; 0.30 and 3.3 mg MCPA per g of soil. Non-amended with pesticide soil sample was marked as 0 and used as a control. As a result of realized experiment we found linear inhibition of DHA by increasing MCPA doses (R2=0.99). Decrease of DHA level at 3.3. mg g-1 MCPA dose by c.a. 38.5%, in comparison to the control sample, was noted. However, registered inhibition was not significant (
Effect of MCPA pesticide on DHA level in
Other pesticide, which we take into account in our investigations was Glyphosate – commonly used by Polish farmers (in the form of RUNDUP), a broad spectrum, non-selective, systemic and post-emergence herbicide, widely popular in soil cultivation, forestry, rights-of-way and aquatic systems to prevent grass and weeds competition with plant seedlings (Bennicelli et al., 2009).At low doses it is used as a plant growth regulator.
Glyphosate (Monsanto Co., USA) is a polar substance that is highly soluble in water (12 g l-1 at 25°C), and insoluble in most organic solvents. In soil is moderately persistent; its half-life is reported between 1 to 174 days (Bennicelli et al., 2009).Glyphosate in soil is transformed to aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), which is non-persistent metabolite. As a effect of mentioned transformations and in presence of dehydrogenases (microorganisms), Glyphosate give CO2 and H2O(Forlani et al., 1999). Glyphosate degradation in soil is mainly the reason of microbial activity, while the chemical decomposition and photolysis play a minor role (Bennicelli et al., 2009).As was reported by Zabaloy et al. (2008), Glyphosate, as an organophosphonate can be used as a source of P, C or N by either gram-positive as gram negative bacteria.
The purpose of our study was to research the influence of Glyphosate on soil DHA in the
Mean DHA in
We found that both 1 and 10 μg of Glyphosate additions to soils caused a decrease of DHA, dependently on the pesticide doses. The strongest effect of Glyphosate was observed in
Glyphosate supplement seemed to be
Suggested by us inhibition effect,may be supported by founding’s of Zabaloy et al. (2008), who in typical Ardiudoll from Argentina observed reduction of DHA for about 48%,as an effect of Glyphosate contamination, in comparison to control sample.
Results, suggesting inhibitory pesticide effect on DHA level are also in agreement with those obtained by other plaguicides such as: chlorpyrifos (Kadian et al., 2012), or vermicompost (Romero et al., 2010). Moreover, Muñoz-Leoz et al. (2011) noted that DHA was inhibited by 14%, as a effect of application 5 mg kg-1 tebuconazole fungicide dosage.
Conversely, others have found also different results. For example, Tejada et al. (2011) noted insignificant (by 10%) growth of DHA, when the Prochloraz fungicide applied to the soil increased, possibly because the fungicide is commonly used by bacterial communities, as a source of energy and nutrients. AlsoAndreá et al. (2003), noted that DHA was slight higher after month from Glyphosate application. In that case authors reported, that Glyphosate stimulated DHA, which means that the herbicide might stimulate the soil oxidative processes.
Heavy metals, even though they are natural constituents of soil, could have long-term hazardous impacts on the health of soil ecosystems, and adverse influences on soil biological processes (Pan & Yu, 2011). Generally, it was assumed that heavy metals can reduce enzyme activity by interacting with the enzyme-substrate complex, denaturing the enzyme protein or interacting with the protein-active groups, they could also affect the synthesis of enzyme microbial cells (Pan & Yu, 2011).
Xie et al. (2009) noted that Cu of 100 mg kg-1 could suppress DHA significantly, while Cd of 5 mg kg-1 had relative greater influence on soil microbial diversity, what suggest that the effect of each soil pollutant on soil microbes and their enzymatic activities was specific. On the contrary, a study by Fernandez-Calviño et al. (2010) indicated adverse effect of Cu on DHA (r=-0.24,
A study by Pan & Yu (2011) undertaken with brown soil, showed that DHA was significantly lower by 37.8% and by 51.1% in Cd and Pb treatments, than in control. Moreover, mentioned researchers noted that the effect of Cd and Pb combined on DHA were higher, than Cd or Pb alone.
We also investigated effect posed by Cd (2 and 20 mg kg-1) on soil DHA (Fig. 13). Incubation of soil material with mentioned Cd doses lasted 42 days. After that DHA was determined via Casida et al. (1964) method.
We observed that Cd presence at concentration of 2 mg kg-1 had stimulating effect on soil DHA level, and we noted increase of DHA by 8.8%, in comparison with control sample (without Cd contamination). However, 10-fold higher Cd amendment (20 mg kg-1) consequence with strong DHA inhibition, by as follows: 29.4% and 35%, in relation to control and 2 mg kg-1 sample, respectively. Observed inhibition effect was probably caused by Cd interaction with enzyme-substrate complex, what resulted with strong decrease of DHA level.
Effect of Cd on DHA in
Our results, may be supported by findings of Moreno et al. (2001), who by investigating the influence of Cd on DHA stated, that Cd content strongly affected on DHA, by reducing its activity, and this effect is noticeable even after 3 hours.
Negative effect of heavy metals on DHA was reported also by Kizilkaya et al. (2004), who organized the following order of this inhibition: Cu > Cd > Co. Analogically, strong reduction of DHA by Cd contamination was indicated by Welp (1999), who tested the effect of Co, As, Hg, Cd, Pb and Cu on soil DHA, and demonstrated that the strongest effect was displayed by Hg and Cd.
Stępniewska & Wolińska (2005) found that the application of trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds had a noticeable negative effect on soil DHA (Fig. 14). The soil sample (
The variations of DHA in
Non-amended soil samples were used as a control, and their enzymatic activity were estimated as 100%. Effect posed by Cr content was calculated as a decrease of its level, in relation to the control value. We found that the lowest values of DHA were the effect of increasing Cr(III) and Cr(VI) doses.
In the same way we investigated effect of Cr forms on
Inhibition of DHA by applied Cr compounds was also reported by Wyszkowska et al. (2001), who noted that decrease of enzymatic activity in soil should be considered as very unfavourable in terms of soil fertility, because soils of goodquality and high content of soil OM show high enzymatic activity.
The decrease of soil DHA by several metallic elements (Al, Be, Cu, U) was also discussed by Antunes et al. (2011), whereas a study by Nowak et al. (2002) found that DHA decreased by up to 85% at 5 mM selenic acid (IV) presence.
The variations of DHA in
Soil is a part of the terrestrial compartment, and supports all terrestrial life forms. Thus, without proper soil protection policies, numerous problems may arise, like reduction of soil fertility, erosion, groundwater contamination, insufficient water holding capacity and loss of biodiversity. To asses soil quality, it is essential to measure all potential changes in biological soil properties, because they are highly sensitive to any environmental perturbations and stresses. A usual approach to diagnose soil quality, is to use a soil microbial indicators, which are very sensitive and respond quickly to environmental alterations.
Among different soil indicators, DHA is one of the most adequate, important and one of the most sensitive bioindicators, relating to soil quality and fertility. Moreover, their routine measurement is simple and low-cost under laboratory condition. However, we should not remind about limitations, resulting from laboratory conditions, when we are able to measure and estimate only potential DHA, similarly like we are able to cultivate only small percentage of soil microorganisms, on artificial media.
Soil enzymes are strongly associated with microorganisms. Soil enzymatic activity plays an important role in catalyzing reactions indispensable in life processes of soil microorganisms, decomposition of organic residues, circulation of nutrients, as well as forming organic matter and soil structure. Thus, it is possible to say that without proper soil enzymes system, soil life processes will be disturbed.
DHA is related to quantitative changes in microorganisms populations, as only strictly intracellular enzymes can truly reflect microbial activity, because with respect to the degradation processes of extracellular soil enzymes, they will be quickly mineralized by other enzymes (i.e. proteases), unless they are either adsorbed by clays or immobilized by humic molecules.
It should be also remind, that overall soil DHA level depends most of all from the activities of various types of dehydrogenases, which are fundamental part of the enzyme system of all living soil microorganisms, i.e. the respiratory metabolism, the citrate cycle, and N metabolism.
Due to this fact, DHA is proposed as the best indicator of the microbiological redox-systems, and could be considered as good and adequate parameter of microbial oxidative activities in soil. Furthermore, soil DHA is also used as a measure of any soils disruption posed by pesticides, heavy metals, or other soils contaminates and improper management practices.
As DHA is strictly connected with living microbial cells, its activity depends from the same environmental factors, which influence on microorganisms abundance, activity and life processes. Consequently, when entertaining soil DHA behavior in the soil environment, we should be not only limited to DHA, but it is necessity to consider on the most important soils factors and conditions, affecting measuring by us DHA level.
In the presented chapter we described the most important soil parameters, affecting DHA, which poses ability either for stimulation or inhibition its activity.
To sum up the forgoing observations it was demonstrated, that DHA display increasing trend under anaerobic conditions, what suggest that the facultative and anaerobic member of soil microbial community become more important in soil respiration processes. Thus, soil DHA was reported to be negatively correlated with soil water potential, oxygen diffusion rate, and redox potential, what means that DHA reached higher values at lower soil water potential, lower oxygen diffusion rate and lower redox potential conditions. Analogically, negative correlation we also found in the case of soil depth–what was connected with spatial stratification of microorganisms abundance and its preference for inhabiting the surface layers of the soil profiles. Inhibiting effect on DHA level have also pesticides and soil contamination with heavy metals.
Important parameter affecting soil biological activity is pH. Our investigations demonstrated, that optimal pH range for DHA is between 5.5-5.73, what was confirmed by correlation coefficient (r=-0.70*).
Soil DHA depends also from the season of the year, similarly like dynamics of microbial activity, and reached the highest level in May, as spring season is strongly connected with increase in microbial activity, and intensification of oxido-reduction reactions, what is indirectly linked with DHA.
Positive relationships we noted between DHA and two parameters: TOC and temperature, what means that DHA reached higher values at soils with higher TOC content (what is also preferred by soil microorganisms), analogically like increase of temperature to 30°C (temperature close to optimum for microorganisms growth and development) resulted in DHA stimulation.
Presented and discussed above results are based on our several years studies, however additional investigations are needed and recommended to determine the relative contribution of the different environmental effects on soil DHA. However, the discussion highlights the strong interactions between the soil environment, soil enzymes (dehydrogenases especially) and soil microorganisms.
The study was partly funded by Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (grant N305 009 32/0514).
Nociceptive phenomena associated with surgical trauma involve local and systemic inflammatory processes, activation of cellular and humoral immune mechanisms, and adrenergic and neuroendocrine activation. The activation of the glutaminergic pathway plays a determining role in secondary sensitization at the level of the central nervous system, which is responsible for nociceptive amplification, persistence of postoperative pain, and hyperalgesia.
Strategies to reduce perioperative opioid consumption and its consequent side effects have been based on the use of multimodal analgesia schemes. The development of opioid-free anesthesia (OFA) techniques, indicated for particular patient populations in which opioids may be harmful, requires the use of drug mixtures in which NMDA receptors (NMDAr) antagonists are integral. The most clinically used NMDAr inhibitors in anesthesia are ketamine and magnesium sulfate. Their co-administration in OFA techniques has synergistic analgesic effects. The concomitant use of intravenous lidocaine and dexmedetomidine provides additional benefits to the use of NMDAr antagonists to reduce the central sensitization phenomenon (SC), hyperalgesia and opioid-induced hyperalgesia (OIH).
The nociceptive pathway undergoes important functional changes and modulation under surgical trauma (tissue damage and inflammation). This plasticity is mediated by many mechanisms, including peripheral and central sensitization. The paramount element for these modificationsis the result of release of many chemical mediators peripherally as well as neurotransmitters in the spinal cord and the brain [1].
Peripheral sensitization contributes to increased afferent stimulation of the spinal cord. It is mediated by many processes in which nerve tissues and immune cells act under a complex barrage of pain-mediating substances. The nociceptive impulse generated by an inflammatory event in peripheral tissue is regulated in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) by a system that involves satellite glial cells and glutamatergic NMDA receptors (NMDAr) [2].
Mechanical inflammatory nociceptor sensitization is dependent on glutamate release in the DRG and subsequent NMDAr activation in satellite glial cells. That fact supports the idea that peripheral hyperalgesia is an event modulated by a glutamatergic system in the DRG. Moreover, retrograde sensitization of the primary sensory neuron has been proposed as an essential mechanism for induction and maintenance of peripheral inflammatory hyperalgesia. It has been suggested that this phenomenon is due to the release of glutamate in the spinal cord, which acts retrogradely on NMDARs present at the presynaptic terminals of the primary sensory neuron [3, 4, 5].
In summary, numerous receptors and ion channels are involved. Continued increased input to the spinal cord results in further central sensitizing changes.
The glutamate receptor NMDAr is the starting pointof secondary sensitization and the amplification of pain. Hence, the NMDAr may be a potential target for analgesic therapy in the context of opioid-free anesthesia and postoperative analgesia (OFAA).
The primary sensitization resulting from local inflammation of the tissue under surgical trauma activates the “asleep afferent” thereby increasing the total nociceptive afferent signals to the spinal cord, which is the beginning of the development of the central sensitization. The excitatory amino acid glutamate plays a central role both via the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5- methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA) ion-channel linked receptor in acute pain transmission and via the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor to mediate sensitizing effects. In the acute state, the NMDAr are limited by a voltage-dependent magnesium ion block of the channel. Increased afferent input from primary sensitization releases the magnesium ions and activates theNMDA receptors. NMDAr activation increases intracellular calcium flux and enhances the activation of the second-order neuron. The increase in intracellular calcium also stimulates cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase and protein-kinases [2, 6].
Surgical stimulus activates C fibers and generatesa progressive build-up in the amplitude of response in dorsal horn neurons andbrings onthe Wind-up phenomenon, which is a specific initiator of central sensitization [1].
Neuropeptides like substance P and the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), released from primary afferent neurons, contribute to the activation of the NMDAr in pain states. Neuropeptides such as neurokinin A and B act on NK receptors and activate the NMDAr directly by inducing decreased potassium ion conductance and phosphorylation-induced increases of intracellular calcium, facilitating central sensitization and hyperalgesia. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is produced by nerve growth factor (NGF)-dependent nociceptors and increases the glial inflammation. Moreover, BDNF augments spinal neuron excitability by phosphorylation-mediated stimulation of the NMDAr.
Finally, longer-term changes of central sensitization may be explained by transcriptional changes.
Hence, the significance ofthe spinal cord as a location for an anti-hyperalgesic approach leads us consider the important role the NMDA receptors have in central sensitization and their potential usefulness as a focus of analgesic therapeutics [7, 8].
Ketamine and magnesium sulfate are the most frequently used NMDAr antagonist drugs in anesthesia. Ketamine in association with lidocaine and dexmedetomidine infusions have led to the development of opioid-free anesthetic techniques (OFA). Moreover, the combination of low doses of ketamine with these adjuvant medications have shown an important opioid-sparing effect on postoperative pain control and has an additional anti-hyperalgesic effect [8].
Intravenous opioids are the commonly used analgesics during general anesthesia along with hypnotic drugs. Opioids provide potent analgesia, attenuate the neuro-endocrine response triggered by surgery, and provide hemodynamic stability. However, these drugs have side effects like nausea, vomiting, decreased intestinal peristalsis, respiratory depression, histamine release and opioid-induced hyperalgesia mediated by NMDAr stimulation [6].
Multimodal postoperative analgesia has been the gold standard for more than 20 years. It makes for opioid-sparing and better outcomes than with drugs like morphine that are administered as a sole analgesic agent after surgery. OFA is based on the association of drugs and/or techniques that makes for good quality general anesthesia with no need for opioids. The association can combine NMDAr antagonists (ketamine, lidocaine, magnesium sulfate), sodium channel blockers (local anesthetics), anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID, dexamethasone, lidocaine) and alpha-2 agonists (dexmedetomidine, clonidine) [9].
There is a group of patients in whom opioid use is relatively contraindicated. It is comprised of those with gastrointestinal intolerance susceptible to developing intestinal ileus, functional bladder disorders, a history of severe nausea and vomiting, sleep apnea syndrome, morbid obese, patients with mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS), autonomic symptoms like postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), patients with chronic pain, chronic fatigue syndrome and myalgic encephalomyelitis, patients with high-dose opioid use, opioid tolerance, opioid-induced hyperalgesia (OIH) and patients who are prone to drug dependence [9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
The above patients benefit from OFAA techniques. When feasible, the use of regional anesthesia is helpful. Then again, the substitution of opioids for analgesic drugs with different mechanisms of action is desirable when general anesthesia is indicated [14, 15].
Ketamine plays a fundamental role in OFA techniques since it is a potent NMDAr inhibitor that provides an excellent analgesic effect at sub-anesthetic doses. Since ketamine can cause dose-dependent side effects (cardiovascular excitation, hallucinations, psychomimetic events, nausea and vomiting as well as hyper-salivation), it is advisable to associate it with other NMDAr antagonists like magnesium sulfate or dextromethorphan to enhance its analgesic effect with lower doses.
Ketamine and magnesium have been widely described as improving postopera-pain control. The literature has consistently reported that both drugs provide effective postoperative analgesia and a reduction in opioid consumption. A meta-analysis that aggregated data from 2482 patients showed that intravenous ketamine reduces postoperative opioid use by 40% [16]. Similar results have been shown with the administration of intravenous magnesium [17, 18, 19].
Furthermore, experiments on the association of ketamine and magnesium may give us an important clue as to the useful of the association. In fact, pretreatment with ketamine has been demonstrated to improve the anti-nociceptive effect of magnesium [20]. Interestingly, myocardial and endothelial cells express NMDA receptor. Thus, a synergistic effect can be expected on the NMDA receptor in the cardiovascular system with the resulting cardiovascular stability by the competitive blocking actions of drugs [21, 22].
On the other hand, there are many publications that describe the use of intravenous lidocaine as a systemic analgesic with particular attenuating effects on the intraoperative inflammatory reaction at multiple levels (i.e., reduction of inflammatory biomarkers by direct action on cell membrane of monocytes, neutrophils and mast cell, PKC-mediated reduction of Ca++ intracellular influx and K+A-channels, action over cholinergic, adrenergic, GABAergic, NMDAr, and NK-1r pathways, etc.). Lidocaine has a non-relevant analgesic effect mediated by Na+-channel blocks at therapeutic plasmatic concentrations [10, 23, 24].
Additionally, lidocaine modulates the immune response to surgical trauma with benefits in term of cancer recurrence. So, it is advisable to associate the intravenous infusion of lidocaine along with dexamethasone plus non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to complement the analgesic effect of NMDA antagonists through the reduction of inflammation due to surgical trauma. Moreover, it has been shown that the intravenous lidocaine reduces the requirements for hypnotic drugs (propofol or sevoflurane) and has a dose-dependent anti-NMDAr effect [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31].
Dexmedetomidine is an alpha-2 adrenergic agonist which acts at different levels of the nociceptive pathway like on the peripheral nerves, pre-synaptic receptors at the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and at the supraspinal level (Locus Coeruleus). The association of dexmedetomidine with OFA may provide additional benefits. They encompass the attenuation of the sympathetic nervous system, a reduction in intraoperative catecholamines release, a decrease in the requirements for hypnotics (propofol or inhalation anesthetics) due to its sedative effects, decreases in the post-operative psychomimetic side-effects of ketamine, the prevention of postoperative delirium and shivering [32, 33].
Meta-analyses have shown that clonidine and dexmedetomidine provide analgesia with an added opioid-sparing effect and PONV reduction [34, 35].
The authors has been using the OFAA protocol on patients with a medical history of postoperative nausea and vomiting, ERAS protocols in complex laparoscopic surgery that include bariatric surgery and patients with chronic pain, opioid treatment and OIH who are to undergo extensive/complex spinal surgery. The outcomes of our patients have undergone complex gastro-intestinal surgery have been consistent with the published literature. An important reduction in nausea and vomiting (20%), a faster recovery from intestinal peristalsis, adecrease in ileus and acute gastric remnant dilatation, and a reduction in the post-operative use of opioid rescue (30%) have been recorded in our case-series [36, 37, 38].
Patients with severe spinal deformities like scoliosis, and cranio-cervical-thoracic instability due to connective tissue defects and Joint Hypermobility Syndrome often suffer from widespread chronic pain and hyperalgesia. In patients with Joint Hypermobility Syndrome (JHS) who developed cranio-cervical instability (CCI), both severe craniocervical pain and widespread pain (i.e., somatic/neuropathic/visceral), have multi-factorial causes, that are strongly related to chronic nociceptive neuro-inflammation, glial activation and neuronal plasticity in the spinal cordas well as in the brainstem and brain that lead to a common final pathway, which is the Central Sensitization phenomena (CS) [7, 10].
Furthermore, many patients with CCI, JHS, chronic fatigue and severe chronic pain receive different types of opioids, which further complicates pain due to OIH. Sometimes, these patients may suffer from a category of pain known as central intractable pain. It is a painful condition that does not respond to opioids and their use may even be detrimental to the patient [6, 7].
Therefore, considering the probable mechanisms of the chronic pain (CS and OIH) that affect patients with JHS and CCI as well as their frequent association with MCAS and POTS, the use of opioids in total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) during occipitocervical~thoracic fixation (OCF) was halted in our practice. Intra-operative opioid-based analgesia has been replaced by infusions of lidocaine, ketamine, magnesium, dexmedetomidine and propofol as hypnotic [10, 39]. As stated before, they are coadjuvants with known anti-hyperalgesic properties. This OFAA protocol aims at improving postoperative pain control, minimizing postoperative opioid rescues and reducing preoperative opioid doses in those patients who have been prescribed those drugs over a long period (Figure 1).
Opioid-free anesthesia and analgesia (OFAA) vs. opioid based anesthesia and analgesia (OP) protocols for patients with joint hypermobility syndrome undergoing craneo-cervical fixation. Adapted from Ramírez-Paesano C., et al. [
Infusions of lidocaine, ketamine and dexmedetomidine are continued at lower doses during the post-operative period (for a maximum of one week) as part of a multimodal analgesia plan [10, 39]. The continued perioperative use of a lidocaine, ketamine and dexmedetomidine infusion and the gradual reduction of the doses over one week might overcome the peak of the inflammatory surgical-response. Therefore, its effect on pain and Central Sensitizationis to minimize opioid exposure and result in a reduction of VAS [8, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
In a case-series study of 42 patients with JHS that have undergone OCF [39], the authors found a lower VAS in the OFA group in the postoperative time (
The doses of lidocaine, ketamine, magnesium and dexmedetomidine proposed in the author’s protocol seems to be a combination with balanced anti-nociceptive synergism. It coincides with recent publications that describe lidocaine, ketamine, dexmedetomidine and MgSO4 as the best options in both obese patients and complex spine surgery [23, 44].
According to the literature, there is more consensus on the benefits of OFA use in bariatric surgery or complex laparoscopy surgery. In term of the reduction of postoperative opioid requirements and a better recovery, the controversies that surround the benefits of OFA in major spinal surgery may be due to the diversity of surgicalprocedures, the varying degrees of complexity of the cases and the exceptionally varied use of coadjuvants for post-operative multi-modal analgesia. However, there is strong evidence that opioid-inclusive anesthesia does not reduce postoperative pain but is associated with more side effects in comparison with the opioid minimizing approach. OFA management should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
With the current evidence, OFA management could not be confirmed as an independent factor in reducing postoperative pain in all the surgical settings in which it has been used. However, OFA management plus postoperative use of lidocaine, ketamine, and dexmedetomidine infusions (OFAA) as part of robust multimodal analgesia may explain the results seen in patients with extensive chronic pain, hyperalgesia and Central Sensitization phenomena [10, 39, 45, 46].
Many times patients undergoing extensive surgery require postoperative opioids as rescue for breakthrough pain control. The OFAA protocol used in our hospital includes methadone as rescue for severe postoperative pain [10, 39]. We believe that methadone is the most suitable opioid to use as rescue analgesic for severe pain due to its anti-MNDAr effect. Methadone decreases OIH and attenuates the central sensitization phenomenon. It also has a reducing effect on the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. All these mechanisms of action make methadone a suitable opioid for use in OFAA protocols. In addition, the use of methadone with ketamine (both anti-NMDAr) shows a “boosting” and synergistic effect that enhances the opioid-sparing effect [47].
Recent publications have recommended the use of methadone (0.15–0.2 mg/kg bolus) at the start of anesthetic induction in complex spinal surgery [48]. Methadone has been shown to provide a postoperative opioid-sparing effect and improved pain control. These benefits appear to persist for months after surgery compared to other opioids such as morphine or hydromorphone [49].
A recent meta-analysis confirms the benefits of methadone use at the onset of anesthesia in extensive and painful surgeries [50, 51].
We should be noted that OFAA is no applicable to all patients. OFAA is relatively contraindicated in patients with node blocks, autonomous nervous system disfunctions including orthostatic hypotension as seen in patients with multiple systemic atrophy disease. Furthermore, OFAA should not be administered to patients with coronary stenosis or acute coronary isquemia as well as patients with hemodynamic instability, increased intracranial pressure or polytrauma. The peripheral vasodilation caused by OFAA which could limit the perfusion of vital organs [52]. Finally, OFAA should not be administered to patients who have known allergies to some of its components.
There is uncertainty in the literature on the balance between OFA benefits and risks. Some systematic reviews have shown an improvement in the incidence of postoperative pain, nausea and vomiting [53]. However, alpha-2-receptor agonists such as Dexmedetomidine or clonidine may be responsible of some side effects such as hypotension, bradycardia and sedation. Therefore, the safety of OFAA has been questioned [53, 54, 55]. The authors have not observed the aforementioned complications with the use of dexmedetomidine, probably because we did not administer starting boluses, and the maintenance doses used were limited to 0.2–0.3 mcg/kg/h.
A Meta-Analysis of randomized controlled trials including 2209 participants comparing OFAA to opioid based anesthesia (OBA) found no clinically significant effect of OFA on acute pain and opioid use after surgery in a large sample of studies. However, it found clinically important reductions in postoperative nausea, vomiting, shivering and sedation incidence showing a beneficial impact on postoperative patient comfort [56]. Definitive evidence-based conclusions related to the use of OFAA are still lacking. For this reason, it is important to continue exploring how to prevent its side effects as well as possible alternatives.
The activation of the glutaminergic pathway plays a determining role in secondary sensitization at the level of the central nervous system, which is responsible for nociceptive amplification, persistence of postoperative pain, and hyperalgesia.
The development of opioid-free anesthesia techniques, indicated for particular patient populations in which opioids may be harmful, requires the use of drug mixtures in which NMDAr antagonists are essential.
The most clinically used NMDA receptor inhibitors in anesthesia are ketamine and magnesium sulfate. They are the cornerstone to reduce or avoid the SC phenomenon, hyperalgesia and OIH in the surgical setting. Their co-administration in OFA techniques has synergistic analgesic and anti-hyperalgesic effects. The concomitant use of intravenous lidocaine and dexmedetomidine provides additional benefits to the use of NMDAr antagonists.
The authors consider that OFA has precise indications. However, the use of regional anesthetic techniques (whenever possible) or the use of intravenous mixtures with anti-hyperalgesic and opioid-sparing effects should be used, ifpossible, in patients with a history of chronic pain or with central sensitization phenomena and hyperalgesia who are to undergo extensive and very painful surgeries. Finally, methadone is a suitable opioid for use in modified OFAA protocols because its anti-NMDAr action and opioid-sparing effect.
The authorsthanks bariatric and spinal surgeons at Centro MedicoTeknon for their support in developing our OFAA protocol. We are also grateful tothe anesthesia/analgesia nursing team of “Anestalia”, without them our OFAA protocol could not have been implemented.
The authors declare no conflict of interest and no funding.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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In addition, it reports the involvement of antioxidant enzymes in the tolerance of plants to various stresses.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Andréia Caverzan, Alice Casassola and Sandra Patussi Brammer",authors:[{id:"176303",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Casassola",slug:"alice-casassola",fullName:"Alice Casassola"},{id:"176409",title:"Dr.",name:"Andréia",middleName:null,surname:"Caverzan",slug:"andreia-caverzan",fullName:"Andréia Caverzan"},{id:"176410",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Patussi Brammer",slug:"sandra-patussi-brammer",fullName:"Sandra Patussi Brammer"}]},{id:"49289",doi:"10.5772/61442",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Elicitors–Role in Secondary Metabolites Production through In Vitro Culture of Medicinal Plants",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-elicitors-role-in-secondary-metabolites-production-through-in-vitro-culture-of-me",totalDownloads:6998,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plant secondary metabolites are having the great application in human health and nutritional aspect. Plant cell and organ culture systems are feasible option for the production of secondary metabolites that are of commercial importance in pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavors, and other industrial materials. The stress, including various elicitors or signal molecules, often induces the secondary metabolite production in the plant tissue culture system. The recent developments in elicitation of plant tissue culture have opened a new avenue for the production of secondary metabolite compounds. Secondary metabolite synthesis and accumulation in cell and organ cultures can be triggered by the application of elicitors to the culture medium. Elicitors are the chemical compounds from abiotic and biotic sources that can stimulate stress responses in plants, leading to the enhanced synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites or the induction of novel secondary metabolites. Elicitor type, dose, and treatment schedule are major factors determining the effects on the secondary metabolite production. The number of parameters, such as elicitor concentrations, duration of exposure, cell line, nutrient composition, and age or stage of the culture, is also important factors influencing the successful production of biomass and secondary metabolite accumulation. This chapter reviews the various abiotic and biotic elicitors applied to cultural system and their stimulating effects on the accumulation of secondary metabolites.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Poornananda M. Naik and Jameel M. Al–Khayri",authors:[{id:"176282",title:"Prof.",name:"Jameel M.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khayri",slug:"jameel-m.-al-khayri",fullName:"Jameel M. Al-Khayri"},{id:"176284",title:"Dr.",name:"Poornananda M.",middleName:null,surname:"Naik",slug:"poornananda-m.-naik",fullName:"Poornananda M. Naik"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4059,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"63148",title:"Domestic Livestock and Its Alleged Role in Climate Change",slug:"domestic-livestock-and-its-alleged-role-in-climate-change",totalDownloads:15897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is very old wisdom that climate dictates farm management strategies. In recent years, however, we are increasingly confronted with claims that agriculture, livestock husbandry, and even food consumption habits are forcing the climate to change. We subjected this worrisome concern expressed by public institutions, the media, policy makers, and even scientists to a rigorous review, cross-checking critical coherence and (in)compatibilities within and between published scientific papers. Our key conclusion is there is no need for anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and even less so for livestock-born emissions, to explain climate change. Climate has always been changing, and even the present warming is most likely driven by natural factors. The warming potential of anthropogenic GHG emissions has been exaggerated, and the beneficial impacts of manmade CO2 emissions for nature, agriculture, and global food security have been systematically suppressed, ignored, or at least downplayed by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and other UN (United Nations) agencies. Furthermore, we expose important methodological deficiencies in IPCC and FAO (Food Agriculture Organization) instructions and applications for the quantification of the manmade part of non-CO2-GHG emissions from agro-ecosystems. However, so far, these fatal errors inexorably propagated through scientific literature. Finally, we could not find a clear domestic livestock fingerprint, neither in the geographical methane distribution nor in the historical evolution of mean atmospheric methane concentration. In conclusion, everybody is free to choose a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, but there is no scientific basis, whatsoever, for claiming this decision could contribute to save the planet’s climate.",book:{id:"7491",slug:"forage-groups",title:"Forage Groups",fullTitle:"Forage Groups"},signatures:"Albrecht Glatzle",authors:[{id:"252990",title:"Dr.",name:"Albrecht",middleName:null,surname:"Glatzle",slug:"albrecht-glatzle",fullName:"Albrecht Glatzle"}]},{id:"66714",title:"Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Plants",slug:"biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-in-plants",totalDownloads:5808,totalCrossrefCites:54,totalDimensionsCites:96,abstract:"Plants are subjected to a wide range of environmental stresses which reduces and limits the productivity of agricultural crops. Two types of environmental stresses are encountered to plants which can be categorized as (1) Abiotic stress and (2) Biotic stress. The abiotic stress causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide and includes radiation, salinity, floods, drought, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, etc. On the other hand, attacks by various pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, oomycetes, nematodes and herbivores are included in biotic stresses. As plants are sessile in nature, they have no choice to escape from these environmental cues. Plants have developed various mechanisms in order to overcome these threats of biotic and abiotic stresses. They sense the external stress environment, get stimulated and then generate appropriate cellular responses. They do this by stimuli received from the sensors located on the cell surface or cytoplasm and transferred to the transcriptional machinery situated in the nucleus, with the help of various signal transduction pathways. This leads to differential transcriptional changes making the plant tolerant against the stress. The signaling pathways act as a connecting link and play an important role between sensing the stress environment and generating an appropriate biochemical and physiological response.",book:{id:"8015",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants"},signatures:"Audil Gull, Ajaz Ahmad Lone and Noor Ul Islam Wani",authors:null},{id:"62573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7556,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:51,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"62876",title:"Introduction to Phytochemicals: Secondary Metabolites from Plants with Active Principles for Pharmacological Importance",slug:"introduction-to-phytochemicals-secondary-metabolites-from-plants-with-active-principles-for-pharmaco",totalDownloads:5802,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Phytochemicals are substances produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity. In the pharmaceutical industry, plants represent the main source to obtain various active ingredients. They exhibit pharmacological effects applicable to the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and also chronic-degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cancer. However, the next step in science is to find new ways to obtain it. In this chapter, we discuss about the main groups of phytochemicals, in addition to presenting two case studies. One of the most important secondary metabolites is currently Taxol, which is a natural compound of the taxoid family and is also known for its antitumor activity against cancer located in breasts, lungs, and prostate and is also effective with Kaposi’s sarcoma. Our case studies will be about Taxol, extracted from an unexplored plant species, and the production of Taxol by its endophytic fungi.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Nadia Mendoza and Eleazar M. Escamilla Silva",authors:[{id:"51406",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleazar",middleName:"Máximo",surname:"Escamilla Silva",slug:"eleazar-escamilla-silva",fullName:"Eleazar Escamilla Silva"},{id:"243304",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"nadia-mendoza",fullName:"Nadia Mendoza"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"41",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:315,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:23,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. Banigo, Chigozie A. Nnadiekwe and Emmanuel M. Beasi",slug:"recent-advances-in-biosensing-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82080",title:"The Clinical Usefulness of Prostate Cancer Biomarkers: Current and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103172",signatures:"Donovan McGrowder, Lennox Anderson-Jackson, Lowell Dilworth, Shada Mohansingh, Melisa Anderson Cross, Sophia Bryan, Fabian Miller, Cameil Wilson-Clarke, Chukwuemeka Nwokocha, Ruby Alexander-Lindo and Shelly McFarlane",slug:"the-clinical-usefulness-of-prostate-cancer-biomarkers-current-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Cancer Bioinformatics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10661.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"86",type:"subseries",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"