\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8360",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) II",title:"Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) II",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This Edited Volume Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) II is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters, offering a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the field of Computer and Information Science. The book comprises single chapters authored by various researchers and edited by an expert active in the Computer and Information Science research area. All chapters are complete in itself but united under a common research study topic. This publication aims at providing a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on Computer and Information Science, and open new possible research paths for further novel developments.",isbn:"978-1-83881-057-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-056-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-058-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78489",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"field-programmable-gate-arrays-fpgas-ii",numberOfPages:114,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"07085e95809ecc33b1b87b531ab1024c",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8360.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3041,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 14th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/9833/images/system/9833.jfif",biography:"Prof. George Dekoulis received his PhD in Space Engineering and Communications from Lancaster University, UK, in 2007. He was awarded a First Class BEng (Hons) degree in Communications Engineering from De Montfort University, UK, in 2001. He has received several awards from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), and the Hudswell International Research Scholarship (IET). He is currently the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences and Technology at the American University of Cyprus (AUCY), Cyprus. He was previously a professor at the Aerospace Engineering Institute (AEI), Cyprus. Founder of the IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society (AESS), Cyprus. General chair of IEEE Aerospace Engineering Innovations 2019 (IEEE AEI 2019), Limassol, Cyprus. He has worked as a professor in Space Computing & Engineering at various departments, such as Space & Planetary Physics, Aeronautical and Space Engineering, Professional Flight, Robotics/Mechatronics & Mechanical Engineering, Computer Science & Engineering, and Electrical and Electronics Engineering. His research focuses on the design of reconfigurable Space Computing and Engineering Systems.",institutionString:"Aerospace Engineering Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"739",title:"Electronic Circuits",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-electronic-circuits"}],chapters:[{id:"69787",title:"Real-Time FPGA-Based Systems to Remote Monitoring",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89629",slug:"real-time-fpga-based-systems-to-remote-monitoring",totalDownloads:775,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Some industrial and laboratory applications such as control, monitoring, test and measurements, and automation require real-time systems for their development. Embedded systems for acquisition and processing often require the participation of the embedded operating system and therefore are necessary techniques that can accelerate software execution. The latest field-programmable gate arrays’ (FPGA) technology has blurred the distinction between hardware and software with embedded processors that allow the development of Systems-on-a-Chip (SoC) running on operating systems. The widespread adoption of wireless technologies such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, and Wi-Fi in the last years has facilitated the use of these technologies to the development of real-time monitoring applications that combined with FPGA devices which has the advantages of low cost, flexibility, and scalability as compared with other commercial systems.",signatures:"J. Guadalupe Velásquez-Aguilar, Outmane Oubram and Luis Cisneros-Villalobos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69787",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69787",authors:[{id:"287147",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Velasquez",slug:"jose-velasquez",fullName:"Jose Velasquez"},{id:"307460",title:"Dr.",name:"Outmane",surname:"Oubram",slug:"outmane-oubram",fullName:"Outmane Oubram"},{id:"307461",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Cisneros-Villalobos",slug:"luis-cisneros-villalobos",fullName:"Luis Cisneros-Villalobos"}],corrections:null},{id:"68886",title:"Real-Time Echo State Network Based on FPGA and Its Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88820",slug:"real-time-echo-state-network-based-on-fpga-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:426,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In this chapter, a hardware processing architecture of real-time echo state network based on field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is proposed, which solves the problem that it is difficult to obtain the output weight of the network in real time. The design of this architecture strictly follows the reservoir calculation (RC) theory, and its five components are established in FPGA: input module, reservoir module, output module, training module, and system switch module. This paper implements the architecture in Altera FPGA chip and verifies it through the application of pattern recognition, waveform generation, and multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) channel prediction. Experimental results show that the hardware-implemented real-time echo state network can identify the duty cycle of different input signals, generate floating-point waveforms, and predict the MIMO channel by training. In this paper, a real-time echo state network based on field programmable gate array is proposed, which has the advantages of fast computation speed, less resource consumption, and ideal simple task execution.",signatures:"Yongbo Liao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68886",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68886",authors:[{id:"301301",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongbo",surname:"Liao",slug:"yongbo-liao",fullName:"Yongbo Liao"}],corrections:null},{id:"71280",title:"Flexible Baseband Modulator Architecture for Multi-Waveform 5G Communications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91297",slug:"flexible-baseband-modulator-architecture-for-multi-waveform-5g-communications",totalDownloads:609,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The fifth-generation (5G) revolution represents more than a mere performance enhancement of previous generations: it will deeply transform the way humans and/or machines interact, enabling a heterogeneous expansion in the number of use cases and services. Crucial to the realization of this revolution is the design of hardware components characterized by high degrees of flexibility, versatility and resource/power efficiency. This chapter proposes a field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-oriented baseband processing architecture suitable for fast-changing communication environments such as 4G/5G waveform coexistence, noncontiguous carrier aggregation (CA) or centralized cloud radio access network (C-RAN) processing. The proposed architecture supports three 5G waveform candidates and is shown to be upgradable, resource-efficient and cost-effective. Through hardware virtualization, enabled by dynamic partial reconfiguration (DPR), the design space exploration of our architecture exceeds the hardware resources available on the Zynq xc7z020 device. Moreover, dynamic frequency scaling (DFS) enables the runtime adjustment of processing throughput and power reductions by up to 88%. The combined resource overhead for DPR and DFS is very low, and the reconfiguration latency stays two orders of magnitude below the control plane latency requirements proposed for 5G communications.",signatures:"Mário Lopes Ferreira and João Canas Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71280",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71280",authors:[{id:"307961",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mário Lopes",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"mario-lopes-ferreira",fullName:"Mário Lopes Ferreira"},{id:"307963",title:"Dr.",name:"João Canas",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"joao-canas-ferreira",fullName:"João Canas Ferreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"71252",title:"An Efficient FPGA-Based Frequency Shifter for LTE/LTE-A Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91339",slug:"an-efficient-fpga-based-frequency-shifter-for-lte-lte-a-systems",totalDownloads:700,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Physical Random Access Channel plays an important role in LTE and LTE-A systems. Through this channel, the user equipment aligns its uplink transmissions to the eNodeB’s uplink and gains access to the network. One of the initial operations executed by the receiver at eNodeB side is the translation of the channel’s signal back to base-band. This operation is a necessary step for preamble detection and can be executed through a time-domain frequency-shift operation. Therefore, in this paper, we present the hardware architecture and design details of an optimised and configurable FPGA-based time-domain frequency shifter. The proposed architecture is based on a customised Numerically Controlled Oscillator that is employed for creating complex exponential samples using only plain logical resources. The main advantage of the proposed architecture is that it completely removes the necessity of saving in memory a huge number of long complex exponentials by making use of a Look-Up Table and exploiting the quarter-wave symmetry of the basis waveform. The results demonstrate that the proposed architecture provides high Spurious Free Dynamic Range signals employing only a minimal number of FPGA resources. Additionally, the proposed architecture presents spur-suppression ranging from 62.13 to 153.58 dB without employing any correction.",signatures:"Felipe A.P. de Figueiredo and Fabbryccio A.C.M. Cardoso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71252",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71252",authors:[{id:"309106",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Felipe A.P.",surname:"de Figueiredo",slug:"felipe-a.p.-de-figueiredo",fullName:"Felipe A.P. de Figueiredo"},{id:"328944",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabbryccio A.C.M.",surname:"Cardoso",slug:"fabbryccio-a.c.m.-cardoso",fullName:"Fabbryccio A.C.M. Cardoso"}],corrections:null},{id:"71792",title:"VLSI Implementation of Medical Image Fusion Using DWT-PCA Algorithms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91298",slug:"vlsi-implementation-of-medical-image-fusion-using-dwt-pca-algorithms",totalDownloads:532,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, the usage of DIP is more important in the medical field to identify the activities of the patients related to various diseases. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computer Tomography (CT) scan images are used to perform the fusion process. In brain medical image, MRI scan is used to show the brain structural information without functional data. But, CT scan image is included the functional data with brain activity. To improve the low dose CT scan, hybrid algorithm is introduced in this paper which is implemented in FPGA. The main objective of this work is to optimize performances of the hardware. This work is implemented in FPGA. The combination of Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) and Principle Component Analysis (PCA) is known as hybrid algorithm. The Maximum Selection Rule (MSR) is used to select the high frequency component from DWT. These three algorithms have RTL architecture which is implemented by Verilog code. Application Specified Integrated Chips (ASIC) and Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) performances analyzed for the different methods. In 180 nm technology, DWT-PCA-IF architecture achieved 5.145 mm2 area, 298.25 mW power, and 124 ms delay. From the fused medical image, mean, Standard Deviation (SD), entropy, and Mutual Information (MI) performances are evaluated for DWT-PCA method.",signatures:"Surya Prasada Rao Borra, Rajesh K. Panakala and Pullakura Rajesh Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71792",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71792",authors:[{id:"310527",title:"Mr.",name:"Surya Prasada Rao",surname:"Borra",slug:"surya-prasada-rao-borra",fullName:"Surya Prasada Rao Borra"},{id:"310528",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",surname:"Panakala",slug:"rajesh-k.-panakala",fullName:"Rajesh K. Panakala"},{id:"310529",title:"Dr.",name:"Pullakura Rajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"pullakura-rajesh-kumar",fullName:"Pullakura Rajesh Kumar"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6003",title:"Robotics",subtitle:"Legal, Ethical and Socioeconomic Impacts",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"15ab11f5bb5aac89956dd8b42f261011",slug:"robotics-legal-ethical-and-socioeconomic-impacts",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6003.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5597",title:"Field",subtitle:"Programmable Gate Array",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee9b6139297123dec4d906c950913c0d",slug:"field-programmable-gate-array",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5597.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8613",title:"Aerospace Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075278075d72ebe02490ff58675119ef",slug:"aerospace-engineering",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8613.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6465",title:"Drones",subtitle:"Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"50a345acb86d524f7a505e09d1f2fc49",slug:"drones-applications",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6465.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8588",title:"Military Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03399bdb07c21c27150ee424106395e2",slug:"military-engineering",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8588.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7414",title:"Modulation in Electronics and Telecommunications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5066fa20239d3de3ca87b3c45c680d01",slug:"modulation-in-electronics-and-telecommunications",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7414.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6864",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c320902fc1cfc252c1db006b944996fb",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6864.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6350",title:"Space Flight",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"023c9b0d77a58c0a263c075a7deed7e5",slug:"space-flight",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3563",title:"Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d0a7e4bb67e54ab0bbe098ebb9537d4",slug:"advanced-microwave-circuits-and-systems",bookSignature:"Vitaliy Zhurbenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3563.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3721",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitaliy",surname:"Zhurbenko",slug:"vitaliy-zhurbenko",fullName:"Vitaliy Zhurbenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3576",title:"Solid State Circuits Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a14e0865ac126e0234df9b53a5943ebf",slug:"solid-state-circuits-technologies",bookSignature:"Jacobus W. Swart",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3576.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5235",title:"Professor",name:"Jacobus",surname:"Swart",slug:"jacobus-swart",fullName:"Jacobus Swart"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"80207",slug:"corrigendum-to-aspects-regarding-thermal-mechanical-fatigue-of-shape-memory-alloys",title:"Corrigendum To: Aspects Regarding Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue of Shape Memory Alloys",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80207.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80207",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80207",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80207",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80207",chapter:{id:"62954",slug:"aspects-regarding-thermal-mechanical-fatigue-of-shape-memory-alloys",signatures:"Petrică Vizureanu and Dragoș-Cristian Achiței",dateSubmitted:"April 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 25th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 26th 2018",book:{id:"7213",title:"Shape-Memory Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Shape-Memory Materials",slug:"shape-memory-materials",publishedDate:"September 26th 2018",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7213.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",middleName:null,surname:"Vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",email:"peviz2002@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"209329",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirabela Georgiana",middleName:null,surname:"Minciuna",fullName:"Mirabela Georgiana Minciuna",slug:"mirabela-georgiana-minciuna",email:"mirabela.minciuna@yahoo.ro",position:null,institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"245668",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragos Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Achitei",fullName:"Dragos Cristian Achitei",slug:"dragos-cristian-achitei",email:"dragos_adc@tuiasi.ro",position:null,institution:null},{id:"245669",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Perju",fullName:"Manuela Cristina Perju",slug:"manuela-cristina-perju",email:"cryss_ela@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"62954",slug:"aspects-regarding-thermal-mechanical-fatigue-of-shape-memory-alloys",signatures:"Petrică Vizureanu and Dragoș-Cristian Achiței",dateSubmitted:"April 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 25th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 26th 2018",book:{id:"7213",title:"Shape-Memory Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Shape-Memory Materials",slug:"shape-memory-materials",publishedDate:"September 26th 2018",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7213.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",middleName:null,surname:"Vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",email:"peviz2002@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"209329",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirabela Georgiana",middleName:null,surname:"Minciuna",fullName:"Mirabela Georgiana Minciuna",slug:"mirabela-georgiana-minciuna",email:"mirabela.minciuna@yahoo.ro",position:null,institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"245668",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragos Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Achitei",fullName:"Dragos Cristian Achitei",slug:"dragos-cristian-achitei",email:"dragos_adc@tuiasi.ro",position:null,institution:null},{id:"245669",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Perju",fullName:"Manuela Cristina Perju",slug:"manuela-cristina-perju",email:"cryss_ela@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7213",title:"Shape-Memory Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Shape-Memory Materials",slug:"shape-memory-materials",publishedDate:"September 26th 2018",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7213.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11863",leadTitle:null,title:"Inverse Problems - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tAn inverse problem, which starts with the causes and then calculates the effects, covers many fields of science. In many cases, models of given inverse problems can be linearized which allows the use of methods of linear algebra for their solutions. Effective tools of linear algebra in linear inverse problems are, in particular, generalized inverse matrices as one of the ways to represent (pseudo)solutions to singular (differential) matrix equations. Nowadays, the theory of generalized inverses is one of the hot topics of linear algebra in various aspects, such as elements of the ring, operators of Hilbert space, or matrices with real, complex, and quaternion entries. Matrices over quaternion algebra are also useful tools in a lot of applied inverse problems, among them in signal and color image processing, quantum physics, etc. In recent years, methods of simultaneous decompositions for tensors have been actively used in different inverse problems. In particular, a product singular value decomposition of a quaternion tensor triplet (higher-order PSVD) has various applications in digital watermarking technology. The main goals of this book are both to give the last achievements in various areas of linear algebra, such as generalized inverses and their applications in solving matrix equations and matrix minimization problems, decompositions of matrices and tensors, new developments in theories of quaternion matrices, and operators of Hilbert space, etc. It is also important to consider new applying models of inverse problems that can be linearized.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-223-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-222-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-224-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"778be380846c917e320eceaf5d7a5983",bookSignature:"Dr. Ivan Kyrchei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11863.jpg",keywords:"Generalized Inverse Matrix, Singular Value Decomposition, Quaternion Matrix, Tenzor, Pseudoinverse Solution, Matrix Equation, Matrix Minimization Problem, Linear Operator Equation, Regularization Method, Tomographic Method, Iterative Reconstruction Method, Convolution",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 11th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 10th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"19 hours",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A Leading Researcher of Pidstryhach Institute for Applied Problems in Mechanics and Mathematics of NAS, Ukraine. Dr. Kyrchei is an Editorial Board Member of the Journal ‘’Advances in Linear Algebra & Matrix Theory’’ and is a member of the International Linear Algebra Society.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"226980",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kyrchei",slug:"ivan-kyrchei",fullName:"Ivan Kyrchei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226980/images/system/226980.jpg",biography:'Ivan Kyrchei was born in 1964 in Lviv region, Ukraine. In 1992, he was awarded a Master of Science in Mathematics from Ivan Franko National University (Lviv, Ukraine). After that, he worked a high school teacher, studied in graduate school of Pidstryhach Institute for Applied Problems in Mechanics and Mathematics of NAS of Ukraine in Lviv and started his jobs in this institute in junior research positions. In 2008, he held a Doctor of Philosophy (Candidate of Science) degree from Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv in specialty of Algebra and the Theory of Numbers. His PhD thesis "Theory of the column and row determinants and inverse matrix over a skew field with involution" introduces and develops the theory of new column and row determinants for matrices with noncommutative entries. In 2021, he was awarded a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences degree from Institute of Mathematics of NAS of Ukraine in Kyiv. His habilitation ScD thesis " Generalized inverse matrices over the quaternion skew field and their applications" is devoted to generalized inverse matrices over the quaternion skew field, first of all to their determinantal representations, and their applications to solving quaternion matrix equations, some differential matrix equations, and problems of quaternion matrix minimizations and approximations. Now, he is working as the Leading Researcher of PIAPMM of NAS of Ukraine. In 2014, he held an academic degree of Senior Research Fellow (Algebra and the Theory of Numbers) from Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine that is equivalent to Associate Professor. He obtained the award for significant achievements in the field of science from the Lviv Regional State Administration and Regional Council (2019, 2021). His research interests are mostly in Algebra, Linear Algebra and their Applications. He has more than 80 scientific publications, from them more than 60 are papers with the high science citation index that have been published in well-known professional scientific journals and editor\'s books. He serves also as Editorial Board Member and reviewer in several SCI-journals.',institutionString:"National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50529",title:"Docosahexaenoic Acid Promotes Recovery of Motor Function by Neuroprotection and Neuroplasticity Mechanisms",doi:"10.5772/62709",slug:"docosahexaenoic-acid-promotes-recovery-of-motor-function-by-neuroprotection-and-neuroplasticity-mech",body:'\nPolyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of the omega-3 and omega-6 series are lipids with major structural and signalling roles. The long-chain omega-3 PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is present in significant concentrations in the central nervous system (CNS), where its synthesis from the dietary precursor alpha-linolenic acid (LNA) occurs through desaturation, elongation and β-oxidation reactions. Its intermediate precursors are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA). In humans, the conversion of LNA into DHA is below 5% [1, 2]. Therefore, an adequate dietary supply of DHA is required, especially because due to modern food manufacturing, there has been a significant decrease in the omega-3 intake and the omega-3 to omega-6 PUFA dietary ratio in the Western diet [3]. These changes have been linked to an increase in the incidence and the prevalence of diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis and asthma [4]. After absorption, the omega-3 PUFA can cross cellular membranes through specialized fatty acid transporters and interact with fatty acid-binding proteins (FABP). These proteins are a family of lipid chaperones involved in the extracellular and intracellular transport of fatty acids [5]. FABP bind long-chain fatty acids, with different ligand selectivity and binding affinity profiles. Changes in FABP levels have been reported following injury. For example, B-FABP is found in the brain and has very high affinity for DHA; it is detected in plasma as a high specificity and sensitivity biomarker of brain injury [6]. More recently, Figueroa et al. [7] reported increases in tissue levels of FABP-5 after spinal cord injury.
\nThe principal omega-3 PUFA in the brain is DHA, representing 10–20% of the total fatty acid composition. Retinal tissue is also highly enriched in DHA. This fatty acid is a component of phospholipids, in particular phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine; it is concentrated in cytoplasmic and synaptosomal membranes, growth cones, microsomal and mitochondrial membranes, and is also a component of myelin [8]. DHA-enriched phospholipids are present in the inner leaflet of the cytoplasmic membrane, and DHA chains are very flexible and transition rapidly between conformational states. This creates a unique microenvironment for the functioning of many proteins embedded in membranes, such as neurotransmitter receptors [9]. After release from membrane phospholipids by phospholipases, long-chain omega-3 PUFA such as DHA can be metabolized and produce a wide range of metabolites, designated with the generic term of “docosanoids”, which include protectins, D-series resolvins and maresins. These DHA metabolites have intrinsic biological effects, which are mediated through specific receptors [10, 11]. Therefore, some of the effects induced by DHA may be due not to a direct action of the fatty acid but to specific metabolites which are derived from it, and which could attain significant levels, especially under conditions of chronic DHA supplementation [12].
\nDHA has an essential role in normal neurodevelopment, in particular for vision and cognition [13]. Supplementation with DHA has been shown to improve various aspects of learning and memory in children [14]. More than two decades ago, Martinez and collaborators [15] carried out seminal studies in children with peroxysomal disorders, which lead to a major DHA deficit, and showed that supplementation with DHA can lead to significant improvement in neurological function, and this is accompanied by improved myelination of the immature brain. At around the same time, studies initiated by Lazdunski and collaborators were providing evidence that omega-3 PUFA had significant neuroprotective potential under conditions which lead to CNS injury, such as seizures and ischaemia [16]. DHA has been increasingly linked to a variety of conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, and also schizophrenia, depression and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder [17–19], and this has consolidated the idea that dietary supplementation with DHA could have therapeutic value across a spectrum of major disorders in neurology and psychiatry.
\nSchematic model of the rodent CPG controlling hind limb movement. Excitatory neurons are shown in red, and inhibitory neurons are shown in green. Rhythm generator (RG), pattern formation (PF) and motoneurons (Mn) are present for both flexion and extension on both sides of the spinal cord. V0d, V0v, V0c, V1, V2a, V2b and V3 are different types of interneurons which in some cases correspond to existing well-characterized neuronal types (e.g. V1 neurons include Renshaw cells). V2a neurons are shown in blue and have direct projections to motoneurons, plus projections to V2b/V1 PF inhibitory interneurons and to V0v excitatory commissural interneurons. Afferent feedback and descending control occur bilaterally, but for simplicity have only been shown ipsilaterally. The diagram is based on diagrams contained in Harris-Warrick [
Locomotion in rodents is controlled by a central pattern generator (CPG) which generates the basic rhythm of limb flexion and extension and which, for the hindlimbs, is located in the lower thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord. In recent years, great progress has been made in dissecting the organization of the CPG, by identifying subtypes of neurons based on their developmental expression of specific transcription factors (summarized in [20, 21]). Genetic ablation of specific transcription factors can then be used to probe the functional roles of different neuronal subtypes (see e.g. [22, 23]). Figure 1 illustrates one possible model of the CPG based on studies reported in [22, 23]. Flexor and extensor motoneurons are thought to have separate rhythm generators (RG) which provide input to a pattern formation (PF) network that controls flexor/extensor alternation. The RG network also connects to commissural interneurons which coordinate left/right hindlimb movement. As an example of the complexity of the system, we have highlighted the V2a class of excitatory interneuron in Figure 1. V2a neurons can be identified by their expression of the homeodomain protein Chx10 and receive input from the RG centres. They project to three different targets, namely (1) motoneurons, (2) V2b inhibitory interneurons that are part of the PF centre, and (3) V0v commissural interneurons [21]. They therefore can influence locomotion by direct monosynaptic inputs to motoneurons and by regulating the flexor/extensor and left/right coordinating centres. However, V2a interneurons are not only present in the lumbar CPG, they also occur in the cervical spinal cord and play a key role in skilled forelimb movement, by conveying an internal copy of the premotor signals. This is possible because of their dual innervation of cervical motoneurons and precerebellar interneurons [22].
\nThe CPG can generate alternating hindlimb movements independently, but in the intact animal, the CPG is modulated by afferent feedback and by descending control. The effects of SCI depend on the spinal level of the injury. Rats subject to complete transection above the level of the lumbar locomotor centres show some spontaneous recovery of hindlimb movement [24], and this can be increased by a variety of treatments, including weight supported treadmill training [24], delivery of growth factors [25, 26] and implantation of various exogenous cells [27–29]. At least some of this recovery of function appears to be related to regeneration or sprouting of descending bulbospinal [30, 31] and corticospinal [25] pathways. In contrast, the lasting paraplegia that results from a SCI at lumbar level is thought to result from loss of spinal interneurons, possibly including components of the CPG [32]. An efficacious treatment for SCI might need to preserve and/or restore descending control pathways and repair damage to intrinsic networks such as the CPG.
\nDHA promotes recovery of quadrupedal locomotion in rats and mice following thoracic hemisection [33], compression [34–36] and contusion [37] SCI, when acutely administered post-injury. Recovery is further improved if an acute injection of DHA is followed by a DHA-supplemented diet (Figure 2). The DHA treatment results in increased neuronal and oligodendrocyte survival [34] and decreased macrophage and microglial activation [36, 38] at the injury site. However, since the motoneuron pools that contribute to locomotion are not at thoracic level, it is likely that the effects on locomotion are due to preservation of descending axons passing through the injury site rather than preservation of thoracic neurons themselves. Analysis of axon numbers at the SCI site using generic axonal markers such as neurofilament and myelin basic protein (MBP) reveals that DHA preserves axons in white matter tracts [39] but, with the exception of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), the origin and role of those axons have not been much explored. As outlined above, corticospinal and bulbospinal projections play an important role in motor control but mainly innervate motoneurons indirectly, via interneurons, and so are difficult to analyse (however, see Section 4 on pyramidotomy below). In contrast, 5-HT axons are derived from the medullary raphe nuclei, innervate many motoneurons monosynaptically and play key roles in modulating motoneuron excitability [40]. DHA treatment preserves the number of 5-HT axons at the level of a thoracic compression injury [39], including axons that appear to contact motoneurons (see Figure 3). It is therefore likely that at least some of the motor recovery is due to increased preservation of 5-HT axons that pass through the injury site and innervate motoneurons at lumbar level. 5-HT axons have a great capacity to sprout and make new connections [41]. Another possibility is therefore that some 5-HT axons are spared by the SCI but that DHA promotes sprouting and restoration of synaptic circuits by these axons. These possibilities have not been examined directly following thoracic SCI, but the effects of DHA on 5-HT axons have been studied in much more detail following cervical injury.
\nLocomotor performance of thoracic compression SCI rats injected with saline or DHA and of animals injected with DHA and then fed on a DHA-enriched diet. Results for days 1–7 are shown in the bottom half of the graph, plotted against the bottom X-axis. Results for 2–6 weeks are shown in the top half of the graph, plotted against the top X-axis. Both DHA- and saline-treated animals showed similar low levels of locomotor function 1 day after surgery, as assessed on the BBB open field task. During the first week, DHA-treated animals had improved motor function recovery compared with saline-treated animals (days 5, 6 and 7; *
Immunofluorescence micrographs showing thin, 5-HT immunoreactive (IR) axons (red) that innervate NeuN labelled neurons (green) in the ventral horn (VH). In naïve animals (A), a dense network of beaded 5-HT-positive fibres can be seen surrounding large NeuN neurons. At 6 weeks post-thoracic compression injury, a marked loss of 5-HT-positive fibres was seen in saline-treated animals (B) compared with the groups receiving DHA injection alone (C), or in combination with a DHA-enriched diet (D). Quantitative analysis (E) at 6 weeks post-injury revealed a significant loss of 5-HT IR in the VH of saline-treated animals following injury. A significant amelioration in the loss of 5-HT IR was observed in the VH in both DHA-treatment groups (significantly different from *naïve or #saline-treated animals at
The majority of experimental studies have focused on thoracic injury, but the most common clinical injury is at cervical level (57% of SCI). Recently, we have therefore examined the effects of DHA in a cervical (C5 level) hemisection SCI model [42]. The cervical level of injury also has the advantage of allowing us to examine the effects of DHA treatment on a skilled motor task, namely retrieval of food using the forepaws. Rats are trained to retrieve food by extending a forelimb through a gap in a perspex box and grasping food pellets which are on a staircase [43]. Following SCI at C5 level, rats lose the ability to recover the food pellets, but recover partial function if treated acutely with DHA (Figure 4). Following cervical hemisection, 5-HT axons show a remarkable degree of plasticity. Rostral to the hemisection, there is an increase in 5-HT immunoreactivity which is maintained up to 3 weeks. Caudal to the hemisection, there is a transient loss of 5-HT immunoreactivity at 1 week, but levels are restored by 3 weeks (Figure 5B). DHA treatment results in an even greater number of 5-HT immunoreactive axons caudal to the injury (Figure 5B), and increased density of 5-HT axons contacting motoneurons (Figure 5C–E). However, 5-HT axons are not the only ones to sprout in response to DHA treatment. Corticospinal tract (CST) axons on the intact side of the spinal cord were identified by anterograde labelling with the tracer biotinylated dextran amine (BDA). Following hemisection, a small number of these axons sprout across the midline to innervate the denervated side of the spinal cord. However, after DHA treatment, this number doubles [42]. It is therefore possible that the recovery of skilled movement is due to sprouting of 5-HT and CST axons and formation of novel circuits. However, since the increase in axons occurs at the same level as the hemisection, it is possible that the increase in 5-HT and CST axons is due to neuroprotection rather than neuroplasticity. We have therefore examined the effect of DHA treatment in a third model of SCI, namely unilateral pyramidotomy in the mouse [42].
\nDHA enhances functional recovery following cervical lateral hemisection in the rat. A, B, In the Montoya staircase test, all injured animals lost the ability to displace (gross motor function) or eat (fine motor function) the food pellet after cervical lateral hemisection 2 d after injury. The animals treated with vehicle did not recover any food retrieval ability (blue squares), but DHA-treated animals gradually recovered food retrieval ability (red circles) from around 2 weeks onwards, compared with uninjured sham operated animals (green triangles). *
DHA enhances 5-HT (serotonin) fibre regrowth following cervical lateral hemisection in the rat. (
DHA enhances functional recovery via connection with Chx10 interneurons in pyramidotomy mice. (
The CST axons in rodents run in the medullary pyramids, before decussating and descending at the base of the dorsal columns. Unilateral pyramidotomy transects these CST axons and results in the loss of CST axons in the spinal cord on the contralateral side. Using BDA to label the CST axons on the non-lesioned side, we observed that a small number of CST axons respond to the pyramidotomy by sprouting across the midline to innervate the lesioned side (Figure 6A). The number of sprouting CST axons is doubled following DHA treatment [42]. Furthermore, we have shown that the sprouting axons contact a particular class of interneuron, namely the V2a propriospinal neurons described above. V2a neurons were identified by their expression of the Chx10 transcription factor (Figure 6A–D). V2a interneurons have been shown to play an important role in skilled reaching [22]. Following DHA treatment and pyramidotomy, an increased number of V2a interneurons receive contacts from CST axons (Figure 6E), and the recovery of forelimb movement shows a tight correlation with the number of V2a neurons that receive contacts (Figure 6F). It therefore appears that DHA treatment after pyramidotomy results in the formation of a novel circuit (CST to contralateral V2a interneurons) that promotes recovery of skilled reaching. This is in addition to the effects of DHA on sprouting 5-HT axons, and neuroprotective effects on neuronal cell bodies and axons.
\n\nMotor pathways are so complex that it is difficult to establish a direct causal relationship between the effects of a therapeutic agent on spinal circuitry and an improvement in a particular motor task. However, the data reviewed above indicates that there is a strong correlation between the neuroprotective and neuroplasticity effects of DHA and the recovery of motor function. This dual effect of DHA, together with its established safety profile and the recent demonstration of the efficacy in SCI of a multinutrient combination containing DHA and EPA [44], makes DHA a particularly promising candidate for development as a therapeutic agent in SCI. There is a substantial literature on the neuroprotective effects of DHA (reviewed above) but the effects on neuroplasticity are more novel and less studied. We have shown that DHA treatment following SCI upregulates the microRNA miR-21 and suppresses phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), a central negative regulator of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signalling pathway [42]. However, these effects are quite widespread and it is not known how they result in beneficial axon sprouting. Bareyre and colleagues [45] have shown that new connections form after SCI, but inappropriate connections are lost because they are not used. A similar mechanism may mould the sprouting and connections promoted by DHA, in which case, there may be great benefit in combining DHA treatment with rehabilitation and task specific training.
\nThe magnitude of the effects induced by the acute administration of DHA and reported in various models of SCI is comparable with that described with various other therapeutic approaches which are already being explored in clinical trials in neurotrauma, such as progesterone, erythropoietin, riluzole and minocycline [46]. DHA has clear potential for clinical translation in SCI; therefore, it is appropriate to consider the issues which remain to be clarified in order to improve the chances of translational success.
\nIt is important to note that in the studies published so far with DHA and reporting beneficial effects of this fatty acid in a variety of conditions, there are two types of administration: DHA administered using a chronic oral supplementation route and DHA administered as an acute bolus, using an injectable route. Are the cellular targets and mechanisms activated by DHA the same in the two types of treatment? When DHA is administered chronically, one of the consequences of this regime is the structural enrichment in DHA in membranes, and because DHA has unique molecular structural characteristics, this influences the dynamics of membrane components, and may change the activity of ion channels and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). DHA incorporation in membranes changes the properties of specialized domains such as the lipid rafts and caveolae, and this can modify signalling [47]. When DHA is administered acutely as a bolus, its half-life in plasma is very short (approximately 2 min), as shown in PET imaging studies carried out in healthy volunteers [48]; therefore, efficacy may be due to the activation of different mechanisms. Long-chain omega-3 PUFA such as DHA and EPA have various specific molecular targets, including ion channels, GPCR and nuclear receptors [17, 47]. They include voltage-sensitive Na+ and Ca2+ channels and two-pore domain background K+ channels, such as TREK-1 (which is also a target for riluzole), the GPCRs GPR40 and GPR120, and transcription factors such as the retinoid X receptors (RXR) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR). RXR can heterodimerize with PPAR or with retinoic acid receptors (RAR), and changes in the expression of these receptors have been reported after SCI [49]. Several studies indicate that the activation of retinoid signalling supports axonal regeneration [50].
\nThe spontaneous partial recovery of function which occurs after SCI may be due to neuroplasticity, compensation and repair [51]. Rehabilitation through training is at present the most successful treatment for patients with SCI, to enhance the recovery of some neurological function. Rehabilitation enhances the spontaneous plasticity changes that occur after injury and enhances the activity of sensorimotor pathways, as documented in experimental SCI [52]. Exercise leads to a reconfiguration of cortical representation maps, it modifies the biophysical properties of motoneuron membranes, changes the activity of spinal inhibitory circuits and also increases the levels of neurotrophic factors, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) [53]. Liu and collaborators [54] have shown that exercise increases the expression of miR21 and decreases PTEN mRNA levels, a profile of effects similar to our observations with DHA. Considering this similarity of action, a goal of future studies should be the exploration of a combination of DHA and exercise, to establish whether what could be achieved is true synergism or only additivity. The concept of combining treatment with exercise is supported by examples such as the successful combination of exercise with strategies such as the reduction in the glial scar components using chondroitinase ABC [55]. However, not all combinations achieve an optimum effect, as shown by the negative results obtained by combining exercise with antibodies against the myelin-derived inhibitor Nogo A [56]. Therefore, it will be essential to continue to characterize the targets and mode of action of DHA, so that it becomes clear what mechanisms could be harnessed and amplified by combining DHA (acute administration and chronic exposure) and rehabilitation training, to optimize outcome in SCI patients.
\nWe acknowledge the generous support of Spinal Research, Corporate Action Trust, Barts Charity and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital (Taiwan) for the DHA studies in the various models of SCI discussed here.
\nThe Indian traditional system of medicine (Ayurveda) had important role in prevention and treatment of disease. Many of the plants showing effect as an immunomodulator. Though conventional immunomodulatory chemotherapy is available but it is costlier and is not usually affordable to ordinary people with loweconomic status [1]. Therefore, the modulation of immune system by traditional medicinal plant products has become a subject matter for current scientific investigations worldwide. A huge number of medicinal plants have been indicated in Siddha and Ayurveda classical literature towards the management of several diseases that results in immune deficiency. The present study summarized that the Ayurveda, siddha used as Immunomodulator in Health care system.
Immunity is the capability of the Multicellular organism to resist harmful microorganism .these microorganism act as foreign body for living cell, and it try to kill that microorganism. It is also called defense mechanism of the organism to protect from the external factor. Immunity involves both specific and nonspecific components. The nonspecific components act as fighter or barriers to the number of pathogens with various genetic makeup and its nature while specific type of immunity is produce only when specific type of Pathogen produce specific type of Infection and to resist it specific type of immune cell become active and produce resistant to that pathogens [2].
Immunity can be defined as a complex biological system of the body which having capacity to identify whatever belongs to cell or which is beneficial to body and resist to foreign or harmful material with the capacity to recognize and tolerate whatever belongs to the self, and to recognize and reject what is foreign (non-self) [2].
The basic architecture of the immune system is multi layered, with the Defense on several levels. First barrier is the skin, against the infection. Another is physiological conditions, where conditions like temperature and pH of the body provide in appropriate living condition for foreign organisms. Once pathogens have successfully entered in the body, they are addressed by the innate or acquired or adaptive immune system.
The immune system has two components: innate and adaptive immunity. The innate immunity is present in all metazoans, while the adaptive immunity only occurs in vertebrates.
The innate system after the stimulation of foreign material body produces Inflammation and phagocytosis. On the other side on adaptive system is composed with Lymphatic cell, these cells have ability to distinguish between self cell and non self cell [3].
The inflammation reaction is produce when foreign material enters into body and cells able to find out its foreign material.while The non-reaction to self substances is described as immunity - meaning to exempt.
These two action produce dynamic biological environment and it called health. Disease can occur when foreign material not eliminated or what is self is not spared [3].
These are natural or synthetic compound or its combination which alter or modify both types of immune system either adaptive or innate of the body.
Imunoadjuants are used to enhance the efficiency of vaccines and therefore could be considered a specific immune stimulant. Imunoadjuants hold the promise of being the true modulator of the immune response. It has been proposed that they be exploited as selectors between cellular and humoral helpers [4].
Immunostimulants are inherently non specific as they are envisaged as enhancement to the resistance to the inspection. They act through the intent as well as adaptive immune responses. In healthy individuals, the immunostimulants are play a role as proteolytic or promoter for formation of immune cell. Drugs which impart in production of immune cells are called Immunomodulator [4].
Immunosuppressant is structurally and functionally heterogeneous group of drugs which are often, simultaneously administered in a combination of Regiment to treat the various types of organ transplant rejection and autoimmune disease.
In clinical practice, both aspects of immunomodulation, i.e. immunostimulation and immunosuppression are equally important. Immunostimulation may require during conventional chemotherapy when the host defense mechanisms are to be activated under conditions of impaired immune responsiveness.
The mechanism ofImmunomodulation activity occurs mainly via the stimulation of phagocytes, macrophages, lymphoid cells, increasing circulating total white cell counts and interleukin-2 levels. Immunological defense is a constant interplay between nonspecific and specific, cellular and humoral immune responses, stimulation and suppression of immunocompetent cells, and the influence of endocrine and other mechanisms. The Primary targets of the Immunostimulant are T or B lymphocytes and it plays a central role an immunostimulation. The second most important role in the stimulation of T lymphocytes is Activation of macrophages, which can be achieved either directly or indirectly, via macrophages [5].
The primary objective of Ayurveda, the Indian traditional system of medicine is the prevention of the disease. The different health care measures to be adopted by an individual are grouped together under the heading of “Rasayana.” Rasayana meaning in sanskrit that literally implies to the circulation of rasa means Nutrients and these nutrients reach to the various parts of body, reaches upto tissues and cell. In that nutrients some are micro and macro nutrients which help in proper functioning of the body and resistant to diseases. Sushruta was more specific, describing a Rasayana as one, which is antiaging, increases the life-span, promotes intelligence and memory, and increases resistance to diseases [6].
The great Tamil saint ‘Thiruvalluvar’ has discuss the significance of diet as the cause of disease. According to Siddha system, the Term “Food is medicine and medicine is food” indicated that proper diet and healthy lifestyle containing medicinal herbs has intrinsic elements allowing the body to remain healthy. The ultimate essence of our consumed food acts as an essential component to strengthen the seven UdalkattugalSaaram (Plasma), Seneer(Blood), Oon (Muscles), Kozhuppu, Enbu, Moolai, Sukkilam, Suronitham thereby stimulating immunomodulation [6].
An in India wide range of traditional medicine that is from ancient time use for medicinal purpose. India is heritage for wide range of medicinal plants. These medicinal plants show various pharmacological action like anti-inflammatory, Anti diabetic, Antiulcer, Stimulant, Nervine tonic and many more.
In that some plants contain some micronutrients present in form of secondary metabolite and produce action of immunomodulation [7].
Some of the indigenous plants investigated for immunomodulatory effects.
Liliaceae. It grows 1.5 to 2.5 cm with having Characteristic and Aromatic Odor.
Bulb are whit to pink in color. Garlic contain volatile oil, alliin and allicin.Garlic used as Carminative, expectorant, Antibacterial, disinfectant and also used in treatment ofpulmonary infection [7].
Immunomodulatory effect
Inhibit growth of cancer cells.
Modulates activity of chemical carcinogens.
Enhances capillary skin perfusion.
Enhances macrophage (oxidative burst) and T lymphocytes.
It consists of dried juice of leaves of
Aloe is indigenous to eastern and southern Africa and grown in cape colony, Zanzibar and island of Socotra. In India it is available in almost all the houses. The genos Aloe consists of about 200 species, theseplants have rosettes of subulate, succulent large leaves. These leaves are sessile and have a strong spine at apex and also no. of spines in margins. Aloe mainly contains Barbaloin and alosin. Barbaloin is C- glycosides. Aloe used as a purgative, Antiseptic, cooling agent and also in many of the cosmetic preparation [7].
Immunomodulatory effect
Prevents UV-induced suppression of DTH.
Polysaccharides from it show adjuvant activity for antibody (Ghrit-kumari) production and DTH.
Inhibits inflammation.
Improves wound healing.
Serves as oxygen radical scavenger, acts synergistically with NO.
Causes regression of tumor.
It consists of dried leaves and tender shoots of plant
Stimulates macrophage migration,
Phagocytosis of
Proliferation of splenic lymphocytes.
Inhibits NO synthase.
It is also called as Shatmuli. It consists of dried roots and the leaves of the plant
Immunomodulatory effect
Stimulates RE System and PMN cell.
Induces lag in tumor development.
Prevents leucopoenia induced by cyclophosphamide.
Inhibits ochratoxin A induced suppression of IL-1, TNF-α – Antiaging and macrophage chemotaxis.
It is also known as Margosa. It is non edible fixed oil obtained from fully matured seeds of
Stimulates IL-1, INF-γ, TNF-α production, enhances proliferative response of spleen cells to Con A and tetanus toxoid.
Inhibits both complement pathways as well as activates PMN cells.
Enhances macrophage phagocytosis and expression of MHC II antigen.
Enhances anti-ovalbumin antibody response, DTH response, macrophage migration inhibition.
Attenuation of stress and xenobiotic induced suppression of humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
Enhances PMN leucocytes and cell-mediated immunity.
Induces production of interferons.
Reduces mortality induced by Tacaribe viral encephalitis.
Inhibits intracellular multiplication of Chlamydia and cytopathic effects of herpes.
In a clinical study reduced erythema desquamation and infiltration of psoriatic lesions.
Amla consist of dried and fresh of plant
Immunomodulatory effect
Protects against pancreatitis
Induce positive nitrofgen balance
Protects against toxic effect of metals
Enhance NK cell and Antibody dependant cellular toxicity against Dalton lymphoma ascites Tumor [9].
It is also called as Holy basil. Tulsi consists of fresh and dried leaves of plant
Increases colony forming unit in spleen and protects mice after irradiation.
Enhances survival of viral encephalitis patients.
Enhances humoral immunity; inhibits histamine release from sensitized mast cells and antagonizes tissue responses to histamine [10].
I also known as Haridra, Indian Saffron, Turmeric, Curcuma.
Turmeric consist of dried and also fresh Rhizomes of plant
Increases mitogenic response of lymphocytes
Inhibits NO production and scavenges reactive oxygen species.
Enhanced IgG level but did not affect DTH and NK cell activity.
Helps in rheumatoid arthritis.
Chemoprotective agent against cancer.
It consist of dried roots 0f various species of Panax like P.
Immunomodulatory effect
Stimulates macrophage migration;
Enhances circulating antibody and antibody forming cells to SRBC in mice.
It is also called Withania root, Winter cherry. Withania consists of dried roots and stem bases of
Immunomodulatory effect
Stimulates RE system and PMN cells.
Inhibits tumor development.
Increases WBC counts in irradiated mice.
Prevents myelosuppression induced by azathioprine, cyclophosphamide and prednisolone.
Inhibits Ochratoxin A induced suppression of IL-I, TNF-α and macrophage chemotaxis.
Enhances spleen colony forming units.
Enhances Radio sensitization for V97 Chinese hamster cell.
Immunomodulatory effect
Enhances antibody and DTH response to SRBC in mice.
Inhibits ochratoxin A induced suppression of IL-1, TNF-α and macrophage chemotaxis.
Protects animals against leishmania and filarial infections.
Enhances phagocytosis, stimulates PHA, ConA and LPS induced lymphocyte proliferation, macrophage migration, enhances antibody response against SRBC [12].
Methanolic extract of
It is commonly called as Guduchi. It is large, glabrous, perennial, climbing shrub of weak and fleshy stem found throughout India. It is used as an antidiabetic, antipyretic, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotectives, immunomodulatory, antispasmodic, antineoplastic activity.
The plant commonly found in moist waste ground and open plantations.it is cultivated throughout India. Its family is Caesalpiniaceae. The bark powder of plant is ingredients of the herbal tonic Kanchanar guggul,is an Ayurvedic remedy used to increases white blood cells. The plant also used as tonic for liver, in treatment of leprosy, menorrhagia, impurities of blood, wounds, ulcer, asthma.The effect of the ethanolic extract of the stem bark of
It is commonly called as Arjuna bark and Arjun. It consists of dried stembark of the plant known as
Besides of allopathic diagnosis system, we can use Traditional system for the treatment of various diseases and which can be affordable to the common communities. Ayurveda and siddha system involved the medicinal plants for the treatment of diagnosis and it is available easily in Indian forest. So, the medicinal plant or Indian traditional system is best way for treatment or Immunomodulator.
All Works published by IntechOpen prior to October 2011 are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-BC-SA 3.0). Works published after October 2011 are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0), the latter allowing for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
",metaTitle:"Translation Policy",metaDescription:"Translation of Works - Book Chapters",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/translation-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All Works licensed under CC BY-BC-SA 3.0 can be freely translated and used for non-commercial purposes. Works licensed under CC BY 3.0 license can be freely translated and used for both commercial and non-commercial purposes.
\\n\\nAll translated Chapters have to be properly attributed in accordance with the requirements included in IntechOpen's Attribution Policy. Besides proper attribution translated sections of Works must include the following sentence: "This is an unofficial translation of a work published by IntechOpen. The publisher has not endorsed this translation".
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and other compilations are reserved by IntechOpen. The copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a Copyright separate from any that exists in the included Works.
\\n\\nA Book in its entirety, or a significant part of a Book, cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Requests for permission can be made at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'All Works licensed under CC BY-BC-SA 3.0 can be freely translated and used for non-commercial purposes. Works licensed under CC BY 3.0 license can be freely translated and used for both commercial and non-commercial purposes.
\n\nAll translated Chapters have to be properly attributed in accordance with the requirements included in IntechOpen's Attribution Policy. Besides proper attribution translated sections of Works must include the following sentence: "This is an unofficial translation of a work published by IntechOpen. The publisher has not endorsed this translation".
\n\nAll rights to Books and other compilations are reserved by IntechOpen. The copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a Copyright separate from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\nA Book in its entirety, or a significant part of a Book, cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Requests for permission can be made at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[],filtersByRegion:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"6"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11643",title:"Genetic Diversity - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0b1e679fcacdec2448603a66df71ccc7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmut Çalışkan and Dr. Sevcan Aydin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11643.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11644",title:"Structural and Molecular Aspects of DNA Repair",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"83dfefc2400d2d037281f1e25bbc544b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Subrata Kumar Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11644.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"31178",title:"Prof.",name:"Subrata",surname:"Dey",slug:"subrata-dey",fullName:"Subrata Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11645",title:"Neural Tube Defects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"08d6ba70d97767769a97cfeeb52dac78",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11645.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11669",title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9117bd12dc904ced43404e3383b6591a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Assistant Prof. Erik Froyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"415310",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Erik",surname:"Froyen",slug:"erik-froyen",fullName:"Erik Froyen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11670",title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"69f009be08998711eecfb200adc7deca",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Murat Şentürk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11673",title:"Stem Cell Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"13092df328080c762dd9157be18ca38c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Diana Kitala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5d7d49bd80f53dad3761f78de4a862c6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gaia Favero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11676",title:"Recent Advances in Homeostasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"63eb775115bf2d6d88530b234a1cc4c2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gaffar Sarwar Zaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11676.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Zaman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11804",title:"CRISPR Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4051570f538bd3315e051267180abe37",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yuan-Chuan Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11804.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11805",title:"Genome-Wide Association Studies - Trends and Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"006916e730c66d3b84d3ec036f769e00",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Rafael Trindade Trindade Maia, Dr. Magnólia De Araújo Campos and Dr. Marco Antônio Alves Schetino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11805.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"212393",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Trindade Maia",slug:"rafael-trindade-maia",fullName:"Rafael Trindade Maia"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12174",title:"Genetic Polymorphisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5922df051a2033c98d2edfb31dd84f8c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12174.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:43},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:61},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:124},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3}],offset:12,limit:12,total:23},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9808",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb6371607c2c6c02c6a2af8892765aba",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9808.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9544",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb8cb09b9599246add78d508a98273d5",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Jingbin Wang , Md. Samim Al Azad and Selim Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9544.jpg",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4380},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3385,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1875,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3842,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3008,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1109,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1010,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3918,editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1654,editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7686,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3444,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10871",title:"Computed-Tomography (CT) Scan",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"966d8cf74fa27eea1b9cbc9a6ee94993",slug:"computed-tomography-ct-scan",bookSignature:"Reda R. Gharieb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10871.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",slug:"brain-computer-interface",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11196",title:"New Updates in E-Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6afaadf68e2a0a4b370ac5ceb5ca89c6",slug:"new-updates-in-e-learning",bookSignature:"Eduard Babulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11196.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"10086",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Babulak",slug:"eduard-babulak",fullName:"Eduard Babulak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"18",title:"Neuroscience",slug:"life-sciences-neuroscience",parent:{id:"2",title:"Life Sciences",slug:"life-sciences"},numberOfBooks:65,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1649,numberOfWosCitations:1070,numberOfCrossrefCitations:725,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1699,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"18",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",slug:"brain-computer-interface",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10922",title:"Music in Health and Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6a079df045b086b404399c5ed4ac049a",slug:"music-in-health-and-diseases",bookSignature:"Amit Agrawal, Roshan Sutar and Anvesh Jallapally",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10922.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100142",title:"Prof.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Agrawal",slug:"amit-agrawal",fullName:"Amit Agrawal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10554",title:"Proprioception",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e104e615fbd94caa987df3a8d8b3fb8b",slug:"proprioception",bookSignature:"José A. Vega and Juan Cobo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10554.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"59892",title:"Prof.",name:"José A.",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",slug:"jose-a.-vega",fullName:"José A. Vega"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9853",title:"Connectivity and Functional Specialization in the Brain",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79f611488f3217579b5c84978f870863",slug:"connectivity-and-functional-specialization-in-the-brain",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel and Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",biography:"Yongxia Zhou obtained a Ph.D. in Biomedical Imaging from the University of Southern California. Her research interest is radiology and neuroscience technology and application. She had been trained as an imaging scientist at several prestigious institutes including Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Her research focuses on multi-modal neuroimaging integration such as MRI/PET and EEG/MEG instrumentation to make the best use of multiple modalities for better interpretation of underlying disease mechanisms. She is the author and editor of more than twelve books for well-known publishers including IntechOpen and Nova Science. She has published more than 100 papers and abstracts in many reputed international journals and conferences and served as reviewer and editor for several academic associations.",institutionString:"University of Southern California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10475",title:"Smart Biofeedback",subtitle:"Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d2bd9997707c905959eaa41e55ba8f1",slug:"smart-biofeedback-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Edward Da-Yin Liao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10475.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3875",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward Da-Yin",middleName:null,surname:"Liao",slug:"edward-da-yin-liao",fullName:"Edward Da-Yin Liao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8059",title:"Neurostimulation and Neuromodulation in Contemporary Therapeutic Practice",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cc2c649900edf37ff3374fdc96a1586",slug:"neurostimulation-and-neuromodulation-in-contemporary-therapeutic-practice",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee and Seyed Mansoor Rayegani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8059.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",middleName:null,surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8851",title:"Advances in Neural Signal Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a44ac118b233b29a3d5b57d61680ec38",slug:"advances-in-neural-signal-processing",bookSignature:"Ramana Vinjamuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8751",title:"Somatosensory and Motor Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86191c18f06e524e0f97a5534fdb2b4c",slug:"somatosensory-and-motor-research",bookSignature:"Toshiaki Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70872",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"toshiaki-suzuki",fullName:"Toshiaki Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9347",title:"Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Multimodal and Network Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8938",title:"Inhibitory Control Training",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd82354f3bba4af5421337cd42052f86",slug:"inhibitory-control-training-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Massimo Bartoli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8938.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:65,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5886,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.