Boundary conditions.
\r\n\t(1) Sustainable Waste Management;
\r\n\t(2) Micro(nano)plastics in the Environments;
\r\n\t(3) Electronic Waste and Circular Economy;
\r\n\t(4) Reducing, Recycling and Recovery of Agricultural and Food Waste;
\r\n\t(5) Biomass Valorization: Waste to Resources;
\r\n\t(6) Governmental Policy on Waste Management and Valorization.
\r\n\tThis book will offer a timely opportunity for knowledge exchange of sustainable management agenda for biological waste and remediation of soil, water and air in the local context, which satisfies the environmental compatibility, financial feasibility and social needs. It will deliberate on state-of-the-art treatment technologies, advanced management strategies, and political issues pertaining to recycling and recovery of organic waste.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-913-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-912-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-914-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4ef7ac85e87a3131afb9b858b79aa870",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Tao Zhang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11256.jpg",keywords:"Waste Management, Microplastics, Nanoplastics, Electronic Waste, Agricultural Waste, Food Waste, Recycling, Recovery, Biomass, Resources, Governmental Policy, Environmental Protection",numberOfDownloads:64,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 10th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 26th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Dr. Zhang was a visiting scholar at Arizona State University in 2014 and at the University of Hohenheim in 2017. He is the director of the Circular Economy Committee of the Chinese Society for Environmental Sciences and Water Treatment and Recycling Committee of the Chinese Society for Environmental Sciences. He has been authorized 17 invention patents in China and has won the Chinese prize for the "Outstanding Young Scientist” in 2019.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"185487",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"tao-zhang",fullName:"Tao Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185487/images/system/185487.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tao Zhang is an Associate Professor and Ph.D. Supervisor at the College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, China. His academic background covers waste management, wastewater treatment, utilization of agricultural waste. He is awarded the Scientific Chinese - Outstanding Young Scientist Award, the Innovation Award for Industry-University-Research Cooperation of China, the Character Award - Invention and Entrepreneurship Award of China Association of Inventions. His H-index is 23 (Scopus) and he has published more than 50 papers in Chemical Engineering Journal, Water Research, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Green Chemistry, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, and so on. Amongst, 11 ESI Highly Cited Paper and 4 ESI Hot Paper. He has authorized more than 20 Chinese invention patents.",institutionString:"China Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"China Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:[{id:"81303",title:"The Role of Biochar Systems in the Circular Economy: Biomass Waste Valorization and Soil Remediation",slug:"the-role-of-biochar-systems-in-the-circular-economy-biomass-waste-valorization-and-soil-remediation",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82341",title:"Circular Economy - Recent Advances in Sustainable Construction Waste Management",slug:"circular-economy-recent-advances-in-sustainable-construction-waste-management",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82278",title:"Use of Saline Waste from a Desalination Plant under the Principles of the Circular Economy for the Sustainable Development of Rural Communities",slug:"use-of-saline-waste-from-a-desalination-plant-under-the-principles-of-the-circular-economy-for-the-s",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61662",title:"The Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER2) as a Prognostic and Predictive Biomarker: Molecular Insights into HER2 Activation and Diagnostic Implications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78271",slug:"the-human-epidermal-growth-factor-receptor-2-her2-as-a-prognostic-and-predictive-biomarker-molecular",body:'\nBreast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer among women worldwide, affecting over 1.5 million women each year. In 2015, it is estimated that worldwide 500,000 women have died from this malignancy, which represents 15% of all cancer-related deaths among women [1].
\nIt is now well recognized that breast cancer comprises a heterogeneous group of diseases in term of differentiation and proliferation, prognosis and treatment. Over the past decades, microarray-based gene expression studies have allowed the identification of breast cancer intrinsic subtypes [2, 3, 4]. One of these subtypes is the so-called human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-enriched subtype. HER2 is a transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor [5]. This protein is encoded by the
HER2 plays a significant role in breast cancer pathogenesis. It is therefore essential to understand the biology of this receptor in order to better treat HER2-positive breast cancer patients. Evaluation of HER2 status in breast cancer specimens raises several technical considerations. In the last decades, several methods have been developed for HER2 assessment. In this article, we will review important aspects of the HER2 biology and its relevance in breast cancer and present the techniques that are used in clinical practice for the determination of HER2 status in breast cancer specimens.
\nThe HER2 receptor is a 185 kDa transmembrane protein that is encoded by the
HER2 belongs to the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) family. This family is composed of four HER receptors: human epidermal growth factor receptor 1 (HER1) (also termed EGFR), HER2, human epidermal growth factor receptor 3 (HER3), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 4 (HER4) [5].
\nHER family members are transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinases. Tyrosine kinases are enzymes that carry out tyrosine phosphorylation, namely the transfer of the γ phosphate of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to tyrosine residues on protein substrate [21].
\nHER receptors share a similar structure. They are composed of an extracellular domain (ECD), a transmembrane segment and an intracellular region [22]. The ECD domain is divided into four parts: domains I and III, which play a role in ligand binding, and domains II and IV, which contain several cysteine residues that are important for disulfide bond formation [23]. The transmembrane segment is composed of 19–25 amino acid residues. The intracellular region is composed of a juxtamembrane segment, a functional protein kinase domain (with the exception of HER3 that lacks tyrosine kinase activity [24] and must partner with another family member to be activated [25]), and a C-terminal tail containing multiple phosphorylation sites required for propagation of downstream signaling [23]. The catalytic domain contains the ATP binding pocket, a conserved site essential to ATP binding [26].
\nHER receptors are activated by both homo- and heterodimerization, generally induced by ligand binding [27]. This suggests that HER receptor family has evolved to provide a high degree of signal diversity [28]. The cellular outcome produced by HER receptors activation depends on the signaling pathways that are induced, as well as their magnitude and duration, which are influenced by the composition of the dimer and the identity of the ligand [28].
\nSeveral growth factor ligands interact with the HER receptors [29]. HER1 receptor is activated by six ligands: epidermal growth factor (EGF), epigen (EPG), transforming growth factor α (TGFα), amphiregulin, heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor, betacellulin and epiregulin. HER3 and HER4 receptors bind neuregulins (neuregulin-1, neuregulin-2, neuregulin-3, and neuregulin-4). HER2 is a co-receptor for many ligands and is often transactivated by EGF-like ligands, inducing the formation of HER1-HER2 heterodimers. Neuregulins induces the formation of HER2-HER3 and HER2-HER4 heterodimers [29]. However, no known ligand can promote HER2 homodimer formation, implying that no ligand can bind directly to HER2 [30].
\nThe structural basis for receptor dimerization has been elucidated in recent years through crystallographic studies [31, 32]. Dimerization is mediated by the dimerization arm, a region of the extracellular region of HER receptors. While in its inactivated state the dimerization arm of EGFR, HER3 and HER4 is hidden, ligand binding induces a receptor conformational change leading to exposure of the dimerization arm [31]. In contrast to the other three HER receptors, the dimerization arm of the HER2 receptor is permanently partially exposed, thus permitting its dimerization even if the HER2 receptor lacks ligand-binding activity [32].
\nInteraction between the dimerization arms of two HER receptors promotes the formation of a stable receptor dimer in which the kinase regions of both receptors are closed enough to permit transphosphorylation of tyrosine residues, i.e. the transfer of a phosphate group by a protein kinase to a tyrosine residue in a different kinase molecule [33, 34]. The first member of the dimer mediates the phosphorylation of the second, and the second dimer mediates the phosphorylation of the first [23].
\nThe phosphorylation of specific tyrosine residues following HER receptor activation and the subsequent recruitment and activation of downstream signaling proteins leads to activation of downstream signaling pathways promoting cell proliferation, survival, migration, adhesion, angiogenesis and differentiation [35]. The Phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway and the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK pathway (also known as extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK/MAPK) pathway) are the two most important and most extensively studied downstream signaling pathways that are activated by the HER receptors [5, 36]. These downstream signaling cascades control cell cycle, cell growth and survival, apoptosis, metabolism and angiogenesis [37, 38]. Signaling from HER receptors is then terminated through the internalization of the activated receptors from the cell surface by endocytosis. Internalized receptors are then either recycled back to the plasma membrane (HER2, HER3, HER4) or degraded in lysosomes (HER1) [39, 40].
\nHER heterodimers produce more potent signal transduction than homodimers. This can be explained by the fact that heterodimerization provides additional phosphotyrosine residues necessary for the recruitment of effector proteins [28]. Heterodimerization follows a strict hierarchical principle with HER2 representing the preferred dimerization and signaling partner for all other members of the HER family [41]. HER2 seems to function mainly as a co-receptor, increasing the affinity of ligand binding to dimerized receptor complexes [42, 43]. HER2 has the strongest catalytic kinase activity [41] and HER2-containing heterodimers produce intracellular signals that are significantly stronger than signals generated from other HER heterodimers [44]. The HER2-HER3 heterodimer in particular exhibits extremely potent mitogenic activity through the stimulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway, a master regulator of cell growth and survival [45]. Furthermore, HER2 containing heterodimers have a slow rate of receptor internalization, which results in prolonged stimulation of downstream signaling pathways [28]. HER2 can also be activated by complexing with other membrane receptors, such as Insulin-like growth factor I receptor (IGF-1R) [46].
\nWhereas in normal cells the activity of tyrosine kinases is a tightly controlled mechanism, in cancer cells, alterations in tyrosine kinases—overexpression of receptor tyrosine kinase proteins, amplification or mutation in the corresponding gene, abnormal stimulation by autocrine growth factors loop or delayed degradation of activated receptor tyrosine kinase—lead to constitutive kinase activation and therefore to aberrant cellular growth and proliferation [34, 47]. Constitutive activation of HER1, HER2, HER3, IGF-1R, Fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR), c-Met, Insulin Receptor (IR), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor (VEGFR), Jak kinases and Src have been associated with human cancer [34, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52].
\nSeveral ways of aberrant activation of HER receptors have been described, including ligand binding, molecular structural alterations, lack of the phosphatase activity, or overexpression of the HER receptor [53].
\nIn HER2-positive tumors, receptor overexpression has been identified as the mechanism of HER2 activation. The increased amount of cell surface HER2 receptors associated with HER2 overexpression leads to increased receptor-receptor interactions, provoking a sustained tyrosine phosphorylation of the kinase domain and therefore constant activation of the signaling pathways. HER2 overexpression also enhances HER2 heterodimerization with HER1 and HER3 [54] resulting in an increased activation of the downstream signaling pathways. It has also been shown that HER2 overexpression leads to enhanced HER1 membrane expression and HER1 signaling activity through interference with the endocytic regulation of HER1 [54, 55, 56]. While HER1 undergoes endocytic degradation after ligand-mediated activation and homodimerization, HER1-HER2 heterodimers evade endocytic degradation in favor of the recycling pathway [57, 58], resulting in increased HER1 membrane expression and activity [55, 56, 59].
\nIt has also been reported that HER2 overexpression enhances cell proliferation through the rapid degradation of the cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitor p27 and the upregulation of factors that promote cell cycle progression, including Cdk6 and cyclins D1 and E [60].
\nSeveral methods have been developed for the assessment of HER2 status in breast cancer specimens, at the protein level, DNA level, and RNA level. Here below, we present some of the existing techniques that are used for the HER2 determination in clinical practice.
\nIHC allows the evaluation of the HER2 protein expression in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues using specific antibodies directed against the HER2 receptor protein [61]. HER2 receptor is then visualized with the chromogen 3,3′-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride (DAB) resulting in a brownish membranous staining. Several commercially available diagnostic tests for the determination of HER2 expression have been approved by the FDA: the HercepTest™ kit (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark), the InSite™ HER2/neu kit (clone CB11; BioGenex Laboratories, San Ramon, CA), the Pathway™ kit (clone 4B5; Ventana Medical Systems, Tucson, AZ), and the Bond Oracle HER2 IHC System (Leica Biosystems, Newcastle, UK).
\nBy this method, it is possible to estimate the number of cells showing membranous staining in the tissue section as well as the intensity of the staining [62]. Membranous staining in the invasive component of specimen is scored on a semi-quantitative scale. According to the American Society of Clinical oncology (ASCO) and the College of American Pathologists (CAP) recommendations for HER2 testing in breast cancer published in 2013, HER2 expression is scored as 0 (no staining or weak/incomplete membrane staining in ≤10% of tumor cells), 1+ (weak, incomplete membrane staining in >10% of tumor cells), 2+ (strong, complete membrane staining in ≤10% of tumor cells or weak/moderate and/or incomplete membrane staining in >10% of tumors cells) or 3+ (strong, complete, homogeneous membrane staining in >10% of tumor cells) [61]. In clinical practice, HER2 immunohistochemical status is evaluated as negative if the immunohistochemical score is 0 or 1+, equivocal is the score is 2+, and positive if the score is 3+. Patients with a positive HER2 status at the IHC are eligible for targeted therapy with HER2 inhibitors. The IHC 2+ category is considered borderline and confirmatory testing using an alternative assay (fluorescence
IHC is an easy and relatively inexpensive method [63]. However, this technique can be affected by numerous factors, including warm/cold ischemic time [64], delay and duration of fixation [65], and antibody used [66, 67]. Moreover, since the interpretation of results is based on semiquantitative scoring, this technique is prone to interobserver variability and therefore to substantial discrepancies in the IHC results, particularly for cases scoring 2+ [68].
\nAs mentioned before, HER2 receptor is composed of an extracellular domain (ECD), a transmembrane domain, and an intracellular domain with tyrosine kinase activity. The HER2 ECD can be cleaved from the HER2 full-length receptor through matrix metalloproteases and released into the serum [69]. HER2 ECD levels present in serum can be measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). HER2 ECD is detected using two antibodies that recognize two specific epitopes of the antigen. Several commercially available ELISA assays received FDA approval: the automated ELISA assay Immuno-1 (Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics, Tarrytown, NY), the manual ELISA assay (Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics) in 2000, and the automated ELISA assay ADVIA Centaur (Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics) in 2003 [70].
\nAlthough some studies suggest that HER2 ECD levels measured in patient’s serum could be used as a biomarker for the monitoring of the disease course and the response of the patient to therapy, the clinical use of the ELISA assay for the evaluation of the HER2 ECD has not yet been widely implemented [71, 72]. This is mainly due to the fact that studies that analyzed the association between HER2 ECD levels and prognostic and predictive factors in breast cancer patients reported conflicting results, depending on which cutoff value was considered or which assay was used [71].
\nELISA is an easy and fast method. In addition, given that HER2 ECD can be measured directly in serum, ELISA can be used to monitor the dynamic changes of HER2 status following treatment or over the course of the disease progression [71]. Results obtained by ELISA, however, might not be reliable if the serum samples are from patients under treatment, as trastuzumab present in the patient’s serum might compete with the two antibodies used in the assay.
\nThe FISH technique is a cytogenetic technique that uses fluorescent probes to target specific DNA sequences in FFPE tissue samples [73]. FISH is effectuated either as a single-color assay (
The
Three FISH assay kits have been approved by the FDA for the determination of the
According to the 2013 ASCO/CAP guidelines, a case is evaluated as amplified when the mean
Although still matter of debate, several researchers consider FISH as being more accurate and reliable than IHC in the assessment of HER2 status in breast cancer specimens [77, 78, 79, 80]. In addition, given that DNA is more stable than protein, preanalytical factors have less impact on assay results compared with IHC [81]. Although the FISH technique yields results that are considered more objective and quantitative than immunohistochemical scoring [73, 82], this method is nine times more time-consuming [83] and three times more expensive compared with IHC [84]. In addition, costly equipment is required for signal detection [67]. The FISH assay can be interpreted only by well-trained personnel, as distinguishing invasive breast cancer from breast carcinoma
Moreover, fluorescence signal counting is time consuming. To overcome this limitation, image analysis software for the automated assessment of fluorescence signals has been developed. Several investigators have reported an excellent concordance between HER2/CEP17 ratios calculated through manual counting and those obtained with automated image analysis system [86, 87, 88]. Some image analysis systems has been approved by the FDA for the automated determination of
Given that FISH technology have some limitations, alternative ISH methods have been developed for the assessment of
Since visualization is achieved using other reactions than fluorescence-labeled probe, signals can be evaluated using a standard bright-field microscope, allowing the simultaneous analysis of
CISH allows the visualization of target genes in breast cancer tissue sections through peroxidase enzyme-labeled probes [90]. The single-color CISH assay (SPOT-Light HER2 CISH kit; Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA), and the dual-color CISH assay (HER2 CISH PharmDx kit; Dako) received FDA approval in 2008 and 2011, respectively [61].
\nWith the single-color CISH assay, only the absolute
The dual-color CISH assay allows the simultaneous visualization of the HER2 and CEP17 probes on the same slide [94]. HER2 probes are visualized using a chromogen (green as example), whereas CEP17 probes are visualized using another chromogen (red as example). Slides are then counterstained with hematoxylin. Results obtained by dual-color CISH are reported as dual-color FISH [61].
\nThe CISH assay is twice cheaper [72] and 1.2 times faster [82] comparatively to FISH. Furthermore, since the CISH assay allows an easier identification of the invasive component compared with FISH, evaluation of CISH signals is less time-consuming than FISH [82, 94]. In addition, tumor heterogeneity is promptly recognizable, even at low magnification [95]. Moreover, the dual-color assay can be performed on an automated slide stainer, improving the reproducibility of the assay [96]. However, the assessment of
SISH is an automated enzyme metallography assay, in which an enzyme reaction is used to selectively deposit metallic silver from solution at the reaction site to produce a black staining [97]. All steps of the assay are performed on the Ventana BenchMark XT automated slide stainer [98, 99]. HER2 and chromosome 17 analysis is performed on sequential slides [98, 99]. As previously mentioned, HER2 and CEP17 probes are visualized through the process of enzyme metallography. During the process, silver precipitation is deposited in the nucleus, and HER2 or CEP17 signals are visualized as black dots within cell nuclei [99]. Similar to the FISH assay,
Given that the SISH assay is fully automated, this technique is six times faster to perform than the FISH assay [99]. In addition, black SISH signals are easier to evaluate compared with other bright-field ISH techniques [100, 101]. However, to correct for chromosome 17 aneusomy, the hybridization of a further section is required for separate assessment of CEP17 copy number [100].
\nBright-field double ISH (BDISH) or dual-color
This technique is very pertinent especially for cases displaying chromosome 17 aneusomy or intratumoral heterogeneity, as it allows the simultaneous visualization of both HER2 and CEP17 probes on the same slide [100]. Furthermore, as the HER2 signals and CEP17 signals differ in color and size (HER2 black spots are smaller than CEP17 red spots), both signals can be distinguished from each other, even though they colocalize within cell nuclei [100]. Moreover, since this assay is completely automated, results are available within 6 h, in addition of being more reproducible, as risk of human errors are diminished [101]. The BDISH assay presents the same disadvantages as CISH and SISH.
\nRecently, new FISH assays have been developed for the evaluation of
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used for the detection of DNA samples through the exponential amplification of target DNA sequences.
\nReverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) assay allows the quantification of mRNA and can be used for the evaluation of HER2 expression in breast cancer specimens in both FFPE and frozen tissues [106, 107]. Extracted mRNA is at first reverse transcribed into complementary DNA (cDNA). cDNA is then measured by quantitative PCR (qPCR). The relative quantitation of
RT-PCR has a large dynamic range, in addition of being a quantitative method. PCR results, however, are often associated with false-negative results due to dilution of amplified tumor cells with surrounding nonamplified stromal cells [108, 109]. In addition, the evaluation of HER2 status at the mRNA level by RT-PCR using FFPE tissues can be problematic, as mRNA integrity can be damaged by several factors, including tissue fixation and storage time [110].
\nHER2 is a prognostic marker in breast cancer. HER2 overexpression and
In addition, HER2-positive status is considered a predictive marker of response to HER2-targeted drugs, including trastuzumab and lapatinib [111]. Considering the clinical and economic implications of targeted anti-HER2 treatments, reliable HER2 test results are essential. False negative results would deny the patients access to the potential benefits of trastuzumab, whereas false positive results would expose patients to the potential cardiotoxic side effects of this expensive agent without experiencing any therapeutic advantages [89].
\nAlthough several techniques have obtained FDA approval for the HER2 assessment in breast cancer specimens, the ASCO/CAP guidelines recommend performing IHC or ISH methods to determine HER2 status in breast cancer. The optimal method for evaluating HER2 status in breast cancer specimens, however, is still matter of debate, since each method is characterized by its own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, emphasis must be put on standardization of procedures and quality control assessment of already existing methods. Also, development of new accurate assays should be promoted. Moreover, large clinical trials are needed to identify the technique that most reliably predicts a positive response to HER2 inhibitors.
\nDF received doctoral fellowships from the Fonds de recherche du Québec—Santé (FRQS) and the Laval University Cancer Research. CD is a recipient of the Canadian Breast Cancer Foundation-Canadian Cancer Society Capacity Development award (award #703003) and the FRQS Research Scholar.
\nThe authors have no conflicts of interests to declare.
The authors have no other declarations.
\nHER2 | Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 |
GRB7 | Growth factor receptor bound protein 7 |
ESR1 | Estrogen Receptor 1 |
PGR | Progesterone Receptor |
FDA | Food and Drug Administration |
EGFR | Epidermal growth factor receptor |
IHC | Immunohistochemistry |
FISH | Fluorescence in situ hybridization |
ERBB2 | erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 2 |
HER3 | Human epidermal growth factor receptor 3 |
HER4 | Human epidermal growth factor receptor 4 |
ATP | Adenosine triphosphate |
ECD | extracellular domain |
EGF | Epidermal growth factor |
EPG | Epigen |
TGFα | Transforming growth factor α |
PI3K | Phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase |
ERK | Extracellular signal-regulated kinase |
MAPK | Mitogen-activated protein kinase |
FGFR | Fibroblast growth factor receptor |
IR | Insulin Receptor |
VEGFR | Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor |
Cdk | Cyclin-dependent kinase |
FFPE | Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded |
DAB | 3,3′-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride |
ASCO | American Society of Clinical Oncology |
CAP | College of American Pathologists |
ELISA | Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
CEP17 | Chromosome enumeration probe 17 |
DAPI | 4,6′-diamino-2-phenylindole |
ISH | in situ hybridization |
CISH | Chromogenic in situ hybridization |
SISH | Silver-enhanced in situ hybridization |
BDISH | Bright-field double ISH |
PCR | polymerase chain reaction |
RT-PCR | Reverse transcription PCR |
cDNA | Complementary DNA |
qPCR | Quantitative PCR |
Quadrotors are a special type of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), increasingly employed last years for mapping, surveillance, searching and tracking operations, in rescue missions, agriculture, traffic management, landscape film making, and others [1, 2, 3].
When quadrotors applications demand large angle attitude control and obstacle avoidance, the following areas still need to be strengthened: Aggressive maneuvering control, visual-based control, localization in indoor environments, optimizing the computational cost for complex algorithms, and fault-tolerant disturbance rejection [4]. Several controllers have been proposed for these tasks: classic techniques as PD [5] and PID [6], optimal techniques as LQR [7] and LQG [8], non-linear techniques such as Lyapunov [9] and
Research in quadrotor demand sophisticated equipment and costly laboratory. However, it can be optimized employing low cost virtual development tools. In autonomous control the path planning, path tracking and joint operation with other UAVs, can be supported by optimization techniques with support of software tools [1, 2, 12]. Published works relate the use of software such as Visual Basic, MatLab, Panda3D, Gazebo, or more open applications developed in languages as Python and C++ [2]. In [1], a UAV 3D flight environment programmed in Python and developed in Panda3D is presented. A GUI developed in LabVIEW was published in [2], and other developed on MatLab-Simulink employs quadratic linear regulator (LQR) control [13].
Gazebo is an important virtual environment for robotics. Its integration with ROS provides a powerful testbed to analyze control algorithms. In [12] works that employ Gazebo and ROS for developing simulation of UAVs are described.
Most of the cited simulation tools have a difficult start for users with little programming experience. Even open-source models can be tricky. An interesting tool depicted in [14, 15] gives support for quadrotor control development, analyzing and comparing various control strategies on challenging trajectories. It may be used by beginning users with not much knowledge in ROS, Gazebo or in programming languages such as Python or C ++. The tool easies the understanding of quadrotor dynamics and related equations, as well as the development of control strategies. The present Chapter describes this user-friendly framework, the employed techniques are described in [14, 15, 16, 17].
Section 2 presents a description of the employed model. Section 3 explains the optimal trajectory planning method. Section 4 describes the controllers available in the tool. Section 5 presents the graphical user interface developed by the tool. Section 6 presents the graphical and numerical results. In the end of the Chapter, the Section 7 emphasizes the main aspects and critical issues related.
The equations are described in the rigid body model of the quadrotor, and its displacement is related to an inertial
Main frames in a quadrotor.
The quadrotor owns 4 propellers in cross configuration. Each pair of propellers (1,3) and (2,4) rotates in opposite directions (Figure 1). Setting different rotor speeds to each pair (
Newton-Euler equations describe quadrotor dynamics and kinematics [9, 18]. The Rotation Matrix represents the rotation around the three axes in the sequence
The angle
The orientation vector is defined by
The derivative of the angles
Considering that the body is symmetrical with respect to the
Besides the force each rotor produces a moment in the rigid body perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the propeller (
Due to the forces produced by the rotors, moments are produced in the rigid body (
For simulating the measurement noise, the tool allows to add a random signal to position and orientation variables and their derivatives. A first order delay between the comands
Due to the low inertia of quadrotor it is necessary to calculate a smooth trajectory to minimize the risk of collapse. Euler–Lagrange equations are used to find the minimum
Time | Position | Velocity | Acceleration | Jerk |
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
0 | 0 | 0 |
Boundary conditions.
With this boundary conditions the equations’ coefficients for the two-points optimal desired trajectory are calculated for each coordinate of position (
Desired angles for
This procedure yields a minimum
The tool calculates the complete optimized trajectory for any set of waypoints. Desired trajectory
Some of the challenges to be overcome in quadrotor operation are: attitude stability for large angles, trajectory following, collision avoidance through aggressive maneuvers, monitoring, and others [2, 4].
The control architecture employed in the following control strategies uses two cascaded loops. The inner loop (attitude control) runs in a fast time-scale and is assumed exponentially stable. The outer loop (position control) runs in a slow time-scale, with a higher bandwidth [4]. All of them employ a feed-forward with proportional plus derivative structure (FF-PD). The tool is open to easily add more control strategies.
Small Angle control assumes an operation not too far from the hovering condition. A simple heuristic method with FF-PD control calculates the required accelerations for the desired trajectory (9).
It is assumed small deviations from zero in
After linear simplifications the equations for attitude control are defined in (11) and (12) [16].
A PD control law is used for attitude control and to calculate
At high speeds and
The axis
As we know
With the Rodrigues formula [20], the axis of rotation
A PD control law is used to calculated
Basin of attraction
Geometric Tracking Control exhibits almost global exponential attractiveness to the zero equilibrium of tracking errors [17].
With
(27) calculates the desired attitude for the quadrotor given
Attitude tracking error and angular velocity error are calculated from (29, 30). The control vector
A PSO algorithm is employed to tune the control gains. Some adjustments were performed to reduce the processing [14, 15], s. Each particle
Using a predefined set of waypoints chosen by the user, the code calculates the desired trajectory and tests each particle, calculating the RMS error. The PSO algorithm evolves in the direction of the best validated solution in each iteration, until achieving a minimum error tolerance. For faster convergence, every time a particle is evaluated, the evaluation is interrupted in the middle of the trajectory if the error increases above a predefined limit.
A user-friendly 3D animated GUI was developed in MatLab. It is able to evaluate and compare the performance of various quadrotor control strategies for any user-chosen trajectory. A few of quadrotor parameters are easily set in this interface [15].
A red vertical line indicates the upper side of the device, and a red circle the front rotor. Waypoints are represented by red markers, the desired trajectory is on dashed blue line, and the 3D interface axis limits are automatically adjusted from the waypoints (Figure 2).
Graphical user interface.
Waypoints, quadrotor parameters and simulation comands are set in th buttons on the left side of the GUI.
The user may test its own control strategy just by creating the corresponding code like the following example:
The code
The tool developed in MatLab and is available in GitHub [21]. The values employed for these results are in Table 2 [3].
For simulating the measurement noise, a random signal was added to position (
Two sets of waypoints of challenging trajectories were tested, each one was simulated in three different initial conditions: Case 1 starting with an orientation angle of
The first trajectory waypoints (Table 3) describe an elliptical helix in a forward trajectory along with the
Parameter | Value | Units |
---|---|---|
Quadrotor parameters [3].
0.00 | −0.40 | 0.00 | 2.00 | 0.00 |
1.20 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.00 | 0.00 |
1.80 | 0.20 | 0.00 | 2.60 | 0.00 |
2.40 | 0.40 | 0.40 | 2.00 | 1.57 |
3.00 | 0.60 | 0.00 | 1.40 | 3.14 |
3.60 | 0.80 | −0.40 | 2.00 | 4.71 |
4.20 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 2.60 | 6.28 |
4.80 | 1.20 | 0.40 | 2.00 | 7.85 |
5.40 | 1.40 | 0.00 | 1.40 | 9.42 |
6.00 | 1.60 | −0.40 | 2.00 | 11.00 |
6.60 | 1.80 | 0.00 | 2.60 | 12.57 |
7.20 | 1.80 | 0.00 | 2.60 | 12.57 |
Waypoints test 1.
With this set it was calculated the desired optimal trajectory. Using this trajectory the PSO algorithm calculates the optimal gains for each of the three evaluated control algorithms.
With this gains the simulation was performed and validation errors in each of the four coordinates were registered. Tables 4–6 present the gains used in each case, and corresponding validation errors.
Control Strategy | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Small Angle | 17.96 | 7.11 | 0.231 | 0.16 | 1.373 | 7.763 | 6.301 | 1.0300 |
DTV | 18.91 | 10.77 | 44.920 | 23.43 | 2.112 | 4.907 | 5.300 | 0.6455 |
Geometric Tracking | 7.34 | 7.35 | 90.590 | 20.75 | 3.172 | 8.807 | 26.680 | 0.3973 |
Elliptical helix trajectory case 1,
Control Strategy | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Small Angle | 22.76 | 2.00 | 0.765 | 0.197 | 2.01 | 32.69 | 26.22 | 0.6344 |
DTV | 19.70 | 4.85 | 155.400 | 26.710 | 1.58 | 22.03 | 27.65 | 0.4949 |
Geometric Tracking | 8.24 | 5.62 | 220.200 | 27.670 | 3.17 | 35.94 | 51.57 | 0.4027 |
Elliptical helix trajectory case 2,
Control Strategy | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Small Angle | 8.180 | 2.349 | 2.45 | 0.4371 | 5.988 | 64.98 | 146.1 | 1.223 |
DTV | 7.268 | 3.434 | 236.40 | 31.4300 | 4.709 | 33.71 | 105.4 | 1.351 |
Geometric Tracking | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
Elliptical helix trajectory case 3,
When calculating the gains using PSO it was observed that the processing time increases substantially with the initial orientation angle (
Small angle control is more sensible to variations in rotational positions as observed in the results. Optimal small angle control gains are bigger than rotational (Tables 4–6). The opposite occurs for DTV and geometric tracking.
Case 3 is the most challenging since the quadrotor starts almost upside down. Geometric tracking controller is more sensitive to noise error, PSO did not succeed in finding a set of gains in Case 3.
A visual validation is possible using the tool. Graphics in Figure 3 show the performance of small angle control in Case 3. The quadrotor drops and recoverers the vertical position, and continues along with the desired trajectory. Graphics on the right supports a visual validation of position and orientation variables.
Elliptical helix trajectory case 3 small angle control,
In the graphics of propellers’ speeds of Figure 4, dashed red lines indicate the speed extremes. In extreme situations, the controller attains the propellers’ limits.
Propellers’ speeds in
Figure 5 presents the performance of DTV Control on Case 3. It is observed a faster reaction and a more accurate trajectory following.
Elliptical Helix Trajectory Case 3 DTV Control,
Near the third point the trajectory leads the quadrotor to its limits. Propellers’ speeds in Figure 6 show a more stable performance than the previous strategy.
Propellers’ speeds in
Compared with small angle, this strategy seems to be more robust and accurate.
Figure 7 presents the performance of geometric tracking control in Case 2. This strategy reacts faster to challenging situations, since it recovers in a shorter time its hovering orientation. This fast reaction makes it more sensitive to measuring noise.
Elliptical helix trajectory case 2 geometric tracking,
Propellers’ speeds in
Propellers’ speeds in Figure 8 confirm the faster command reaction of the controller compared with Figures 4 and 6. This strategy is also sensitive to nonlinear behaviour. When it reaches the propeller limits, it is highly prone to instability.
The gains calculated for the more challenging Cases were later tested on Cases 1 and 2. Despite being less optimal they displayed a stable behaviour. The performance is presented in Table 7.
Control Strategy | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Small Angle | 0° | 1.373 | 7.763 | 6.301 | 1.0300 |
Small Angle | 0° | 3.111 | 21.960 | 28.390 | 0.2430 |
Small Angle | 88° | 2.010 | 32.690 | 26.220 | 0.6344 |
Small Angle | 88° | 3.242 | 51.760 | 49.580 | 0.3378 |
DTV | 0° | 2.112 | 4.907 | 5.300 | 0.6455 |
DTV | 0° | 4.625 | 15.650 | 13.310 | 0.2350 |
DTV | 88° | 1.584 | 22.030 | 27.650 | 0.4949 |
DTV | 88° | 4.886 | 41.580 | 44.530 | 0.3509 |
Geometric Tracking | 0° | 3.172 | 8.807 | 26.680 | 0.3973 |
Geometric Tracking | 0° | 3.338 | 5.917 | 28.660 | 0.2615 |
Validation comparison for cases 1 and 2.
Graphical results of small angle control performance on Case 1, when using the optimal gains compared with the performance with the gains calculated for Case 3. The system holds the attitude performance. The same comparison was performed for DTV control. The decrease in performance is lower than with the small angle controller [15].
A second set of waypoints presented in Table 8, depicts a lemniscate shape trajectory varying the position in
0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.00 | −1.57 |
0.40 | 0.12 | −0.28 | 1.58 | −0.79 |
0.80 | 0.40 | −0.40 | 1.40 | 0.00 |
1.20 | 0.68 | −0.28 | 1.58 | 0.79 |
1.60 | 0.97 | 0.00 | 2.00 | 0.79 |
2.00 | 1.25 | 0.28 | 2.42 | 0.79 |
2.40 | 1.53 | 0.40 | 2.60 | 0.00 |
2.80 | 1.81 | 0.28 | 2.42 | −0.79 |
3.20 | 1.93 | 0.00 | 2.00 | −1.57 |
3.60 | 1.81 | −0.28 | 1.58 | −2.36 |
4.00 | 1.53 | −0.40 | 1.40 | −3.14 |
4.40 | 1.25 | −0.28 | 1.58 | −3.93 |
4.80 | 0.97 | 0.00 | 2.00 | −3.93 |
5.20 | 0.68 | 0.28 | 2.42 | −3.93 |
6.60 | 0.40 | 0.40 | 2.60 | −3.14 |
6.00 | 0.12 | 0.28 | 2.42 | −2.36 |
6.40 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.00 | −1.57 |
Waypoints test 2.
Figure 9 depicts the second trajectory.
Lemniscate shape trajectory.
As with the to previous trajectory, the small angle control compensates its limitations with lower gains to guarantee stability, gains are bigger for position control than for attitude.
DTV Control is again the best validated strategy. Geometric tracking presents a lower performance due to its sensitivity to noise and nonlinear operation conditions. The DTV control had presented the best validation even in the most challenging conditions.
Detailed results and analysis of this trajectory are available in [15].
Using the tool the graphical and numerical analysis was easier. Not much programming knowledge was necessary for using and configuration, just basic MatLab programming. Access to quadrotor parameters of the analyzed device, analyzing the influence of measurements noise, and comparing and simulating different control strategies is easier than with other visual platforms. Graphical and numerical simulation results are easily available with the interface buttons.
Quadrotor control is a fascinating research area, but the equations involved and programming skills requirements can be arduous for initiating students. It is a worth to develop motivational appliances for beginners. This was the motivation to present a beginner-friendly visual interface tool for the development of quadrotor control strategies. It is easy to understand, device characteristics are simple to configure, and control algorithms can be implemented and analyzed with not much effort. It is not necessary to have a deep knowledge in programming languages, and may be an introduction to this field of research.
This tool uses RMS and basin of attraction for numerical validation, and the GUI may help to evaluate stability, robustness, and accuracy. It integrates these criteria in a unique interface and helps to measure and visualize details and requirements that may not be so clear using other visual tools.
Baseline controllers are offered so students may compare performance, and is open to easily introduce other strategies for comparison. A trajectory planning based on minimum
The tool makes easier and faster to realize critical quadrotor requirements and limitations for challenging applications. These requirements may be related with the complexity of a defined trajectory, the weakness of a control strategy, or the improvements that may be carried out in the quadrotor (size, weight, propeller power, etc.) to accomplish the desired results.
Other controllers can be studied and compared using this tool, such as
ROS | |
PSO | |
DTV | |
RMS | |
GUI | |
UAV | |
PD | |
PID | |
LQR | |
LQG | |
FF-PD |
I | |
V | |
B | |
ωi | |
Mi | |
Fi | |
ϕ | |
θ | |
ψ | |
ϕ̇ | |
θ̇ | |
ψ̇ | |
sϕ,sθ,sψ | Sine of angles ϕ, θ and ψ |
cϕ,cθ,cψ | Cosine of angles ϕ, θ and ψ |
RXY | |
p | |
q | |
r | |
ṗ | |
q̇ | |
ṙ | |
η | |
r | |
r¨ | |
ν | |
T | |
L | |
J | |
x | |
y | |
z | |
er | |
er | |
Kp | |
Kd | |
m | |
g | |
KR | |
Kν | |
t | |
bi | |
I3x3 | |
v | |
β | |
eR | |
eν | |
Ψ | |
α | |
k | |
b | |
τ |
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
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Heat stress decreases the secretion of luteinizing hormone and estradiol resulting in reduced length and intensity of estrus expression, increased incidence of anoestrus and silent heat in farm animals. Oocytes exposed to thermal stress lose its competence for fertilization and development into the blastocyst stage, which results in decreased fertility because of the production of poor quality oocytes and embryos. Furthermore, low progesterone secretion limits the endometrial functions, and subsequently embryo development. In addition, the increased secretion of endometrial prostaglandin F2 alpha during heat stress threatens the maintenance of pregnancy. In general, the percentage of conception rate was found to be reduced by 4.6% for each unit increase in temperature humidity index (THI) above 70, and heat stress during pregnancy further slows down the growth of the foetus and results in lower birth weight. In tropical and subtropical regions, during hot days, the testicular temperature may increase and impair both the spermatogenic cycle and semen quality, which culminates in decreased bull fertility. The effects of heat stress on livestock can be minimized via adapting suitable scientific strategies comprising physical modifications of the environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress. In addition, the summer infertility may be countered through advanced reproductive technologies involving hormonal treatments, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer, which may enhance the chances for establishing pregnancy in farm animals.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Govindan Krishnan, Madiajagan Bagath, Prathap Pragna,\nMallenahally Kusha Vidya, Joy Aleena, Payyanakkal Ravindranathan\nArchana, Veerasamy Sejian and Raghavendra Bhatta",authors:[{id:"89780",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Sejian",slug:"veerasamy-sejian",fullName:"Veerasamy Sejian"},{id:"177210",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghavendra",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatta",slug:"raghavendra-bhatta",fullName:"Raghavendra Bhatta"},{id:"177220",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Bagath",slug:"m-bagath",fullName:"M Bagath"},{id:"201967",title:"Dr.",name:"Govindan",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"govindan-krishnan",fullName:"Govindan Krishnan"},{id:"201968",title:"Ms.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Pr",slug:"archana-pr",fullName:"Archana Pr"},{id:"201969",title:"Ms.",name:"Pragna",middleName:null,surname:"Prathap",slug:"pragna-prathap",fullName:"Pragna Prathap"},{id:"201970",title:"Ms.",name:"Aleena",middleName:null,surname:"Joy",slug:"aleena-joy",fullName:"Aleena Joy"},{id:"201971",title:"Dr.",name:"Vidya",middleName:null,surname:"Mk",slug:"vidya-mk",fullName:"Vidya Mk"}]},{id:"55006",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68650",title:"Immunocastration as Alternative to Surgical Castration in Pigs",slug:"immunocastration-as-alternative-to-surgical-castration-in-pigs",totalDownloads:1904,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Surgical castration of piglets is a routine practice in pig production used to prevent the incidence of boar taint of pig meat, which may develop in entire male pigs as they reach puberty. This practice is being presently questioned in the European Union, and there is a strong initiative to end it. The initiative is presently voluntary; however, key stakeholders of European pig production sector have signed a declaration, and the actions undertaken by them already affect the business. Before such new concepts in pig production can be implemented, alternative solutions are needed, one of them being immunocastration. The present chapter will thus focus on the presentation of immunocastration as one of the promising alternatives to surgical castration. Theoretical and practical aspects of immunocastration in pig production will be described, and the advantages and disadvantages of this alternative will be summarised. Physiological principles of immunocastration and impacts on metabolism, growth performance, body composition and meat quality will be described and aspects of public acceptability reviewed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Marjeta Čandek-Potokar, Martin Škrlep and Galia Zamaratskaia",authors:[{id:"23161",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjeta",middleName:null,surname:"Čandek-Potokar",slug:"marjeta-candek-potokar",fullName:"Marjeta Čandek-Potokar"},{id:"198220",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Škrlep",slug:"martin-skrlep",fullName:"Martin Škrlep"},{id:"198221",title:"Prof.",name:"Galia",middleName:null,surname:"Zamaratskaia",slug:"galia-zamaratskaia",fullName:"Galia Zamaratskaia"}]},{id:"55696",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69444",title:"Estrus Cycle Monitoring in Wild Mammals: Challenges and Perspectives",slug:"estrus-cycle-monitoring-in-wild-mammals-challenges-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1874,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The knowledge of reproductive physiology is of paramount importance to guide reproductive management and to make possible future application of assisted reproduction techniques (ARTs) aiming ex situ conservation of wild mammals. Nevertheless, information on the basic reproductive aspects of wild mammals remain scarce, and appropriate management practices have not yet been developed for all the species. This chapter discusses the methods most currently used for reproductive monitoring in wild females. Additionally, the difficulties regarding their use in different species and the possibilities of these procedures in captivity or in free-living mammals are addressed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Alexandre R. Silva, Nei Moreira, Alexsandra F. Pereira, Gislayne C.X.\nPeixoto, Keilla M. Maia, Lívia B. Campos and Alana A. Borges",authors:[{id:"90066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandre-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Silva"},{id:"177090",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexsandra Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"alexsandra-fernandes-pereira",fullName:"Alexsandra Fernandes Pereira"},{id:"177093",title:"MSc.",name:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto",slug:"gislayne-christianne-xavier-peixoto",fullName:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier Peixoto"},{id:"198314",title:"Prof.",name:"Nei",middleName:null,surname:"Moreira",slug:"nei-moreira",fullName:"Nei Moreira"},{id:"198315",title:"MSc.",name:"Keilla Moreira",middleName:null,surname:"Maia",slug:"keilla-moreira-maia",fullName:"Keilla Moreira Maia"},{id:"198316",title:"MSc.",name:"Lívia Batista",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"livia-batista-campos",fullName:"Lívia Batista Campos"},{id:"198317",title:"MSc.",name:"Alana Azevedo",middleName:null,surname:"Borges",slug:"alana-azevedo-borges",fullName:"Alana Azevedo Borges"}]},{id:"56522",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69549",title:"Role of Melatonin in Reproductive Seasonality in Buffaloes",slug:"role-of-melatonin-in-reproductive-seasonality-in-buffaloes",totalDownloads:1751,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Buffaloes are characterized by seasonal reproductive activity. Anestrus buffalo heifers and lactating buffaloes were used to study the effect of melatonin treatment on the resumption of ovarian activity during out-of-breeding season. Buffaloes of treated group were injected or implanted with melatonin (18 mg melatonin/50 kg body weight). Using CIDR-eCG protocol preceded with melatonin successfully achieved estrus behavior and induced conception rate during out-of-breeding season. Furthermore, the reproductive performance of buffaloes during out-of-breeding season was clearly improved by melatonin implantation in conjunction with CIDR-eCG protocol due to the luteotrophic effect of melatonin expressed as increasing diameter of CL (corpus luteum) and progesterone concentration. This improvement resulted in greater values of conception rate, in melatonin implanted compared to not implanted buffaloes. Melatonin implantation in anestrus buffalo heifers increased the diameter of largest follicles and melatonin concentration but progesterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations were decreased. In addition, melatonin implantation in anestrus lactating buffaloes increased the SOD (superoxide dismutase) enzyme activity. Sustained release of exogenous melatonin significantly protects against oxidative stress while increasing beneficial total antioxidant capacity (TAC) concentration in summer-stressed anestrus buffaloes. Melatonin implantation in conjunction with CIDR-eCG protocol successfully improved some blood metabolites, in anestrus buffalo heifers during out-of-breeding season under tropical conditions.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Tamer Awad Ramadan",authors:[{id:"197651",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamer",middleName:"Awad",surname:"Ramadan",slug:"tamer-ramadan",fullName:"Tamer Ramadan"}]},{id:"54974",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68651",title:"Markers for Sperm Freezability and Relevance of Transcriptome Studies in Semen Cryopreservation: A Review",slug:"markers-for-sperm-freezability-and-relevance-of-transcriptome-studies-in-semen-cryopreservation-a-re",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Advances in sperm assessment techniques have offered new perspectives to improve the technology of semen cryopreservation. This review addresses some recent achievements in the proteomics of seminal plasma and spermatozoa and exemplifies its importance as markers for sperm fertility following cryopreservation. Recent advances in transcriptome studies on sperm RNA-Seq data have generated new information aimed to unravel the physiological roles of RNAs in the sperm-egg fertilization processes and their associations with male fertility. The relevance of the sperm freezability markers and the potential associations of RNA-profiling sequences with the sperm biological functions have been discussed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Leyland Fraser",authors:[{id:"199650",title:"Dr.",name:"Leyland",middleName:null,surname:"Fraser",slug:"leyland-fraser",fullName:"Leyland Fraser"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55696",title:"Estrus Cycle Monitoring in Wild Mammals: Challenges and Perspectives",slug:"estrus-cycle-monitoring-in-wild-mammals-challenges-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1870,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The knowledge of reproductive physiology is of paramount importance to guide reproductive management and to make possible future application of assisted reproduction techniques (ARTs) aiming ex situ conservation of wild mammals. Nevertheless, information on the basic reproductive aspects of wild mammals remain scarce, and appropriate management practices have not yet been developed for all the species. This chapter discusses the methods most currently used for reproductive monitoring in wild females. Additionally, the difficulties regarding their use in different species and the possibilities of these procedures in captivity or in free-living mammals are addressed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Alexandre R. Silva, Nei Moreira, Alexsandra F. Pereira, Gislayne C.X.\nPeixoto, Keilla M. Maia, Lívia B. Campos and Alana A. Borges",authors:[{id:"90066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandre-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Silva"},{id:"177090",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexsandra Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"alexsandra-fernandes-pereira",fullName:"Alexsandra Fernandes Pereira"},{id:"177093",title:"MSc.",name:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto",slug:"gislayne-christianne-xavier-peixoto",fullName:"Gislayne Christianne Xavier Peixoto"},{id:"198314",title:"Prof.",name:"Nei",middleName:null,surname:"Moreira",slug:"nei-moreira",fullName:"Nei Moreira"},{id:"198315",title:"MSc.",name:"Keilla Moreira",middleName:null,surname:"Maia",slug:"keilla-moreira-maia",fullName:"Keilla Moreira Maia"},{id:"198316",title:"MSc.",name:"Lívia Batista",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"livia-batista-campos",fullName:"Lívia Batista Campos"},{id:"198317",title:"MSc.",name:"Alana Azevedo",middleName:null,surname:"Borges",slug:"alana-azevedo-borges",fullName:"Alana Azevedo Borges"}]},{id:"55491",title:"Mitigation of the Heat Stress Impact in Livestock Reproduction",slug:"mitigation-of-the-heat-stress-impact-in-livestock-reproduction",totalDownloads:4302,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Heat stress affects the fertility and reproductive livestock performance by compromising the physiology reproductive tract, through hormonal imbalance, decreased oocyte quality and poor semen quality, and decreased embryo development and survival. Heat stress decreases the secretion of luteinizing hormone and estradiol resulting in reduced length and intensity of estrus expression, increased incidence of anoestrus and silent heat in farm animals. Oocytes exposed to thermal stress lose its competence for fertilization and development into the blastocyst stage, which results in decreased fertility because of the production of poor quality oocytes and embryos. Furthermore, low progesterone secretion limits the endometrial functions, and subsequently embryo development. In addition, the increased secretion of endometrial prostaglandin F2 alpha during heat stress threatens the maintenance of pregnancy. In general, the percentage of conception rate was found to be reduced by 4.6% for each unit increase in temperature humidity index (THI) above 70, and heat stress during pregnancy further slows down the growth of the foetus and results in lower birth weight. In tropical and subtropical regions, during hot days, the testicular temperature may increase and impair both the spermatogenic cycle and semen quality, which culminates in decreased bull fertility. The effects of heat stress on livestock can be minimized via adapting suitable scientific strategies comprising physical modifications of the environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress. In addition, the summer infertility may be countered through advanced reproductive technologies involving hormonal treatments, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer, which may enhance the chances for establishing pregnancy in farm animals.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Govindan Krishnan, Madiajagan Bagath, Prathap Pragna,\nMallenahally Kusha Vidya, Joy Aleena, Payyanakkal Ravindranathan\nArchana, Veerasamy Sejian and Raghavendra Bhatta",authors:[{id:"89780",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Sejian",slug:"veerasamy-sejian",fullName:"Veerasamy Sejian"},{id:"177210",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghavendra",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatta",slug:"raghavendra-bhatta",fullName:"Raghavendra Bhatta"},{id:"177220",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Bagath",slug:"m-bagath",fullName:"M Bagath"},{id:"201967",title:"Dr.",name:"Govindan",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"govindan-krishnan",fullName:"Govindan Krishnan"},{id:"201968",title:"Ms.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Pr",slug:"archana-pr",fullName:"Archana Pr"},{id:"201969",title:"Ms.",name:"Pragna",middleName:null,surname:"Prathap",slug:"pragna-prathap",fullName:"Pragna Prathap"},{id:"201970",title:"Ms.",name:"Aleena",middleName:null,surname:"Joy",slug:"aleena-joy",fullName:"Aleena Joy"},{id:"201971",title:"Dr.",name:"Vidya",middleName:null,surname:"Mk",slug:"vidya-mk",fullName:"Vidya Mk"}]},{id:"55324",title:"The Role of Androgens in Ovarian Follicular Development: From Fertility to Ovarian Cancer",slug:"the-role-of-androgens-in-ovarian-follicular-development-from-fertility-to-ovarian-cancer",totalDownloads:1771,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Androgens, steroid hormones produced by follicular cells, play a crucial role in the regulation of ovarian function. They affect folliculogenesis directly through androgen receptors (ARs) or indirectly through aromatization to estrogens. Androgens are thought to be primarily involved in preantral follicle growth and prevention of follicular atresia. It also seems possible that they are involved in the activation of primordial follicles. According to the World Health Organization, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are substances that alter hormonal signaling. EDCs comprise a wide variety of synthetic or natural chemicals arising from anthropogenic, industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources. EDCs interfere with natural regulation of the endocrine system by either mimicking or blocking the function of endogenous hormones as well as acting directly on gene expression or through epigenetic modifications. Disruptions in ovarian processes caused by EDCs may originate adverse outcomes such as anovulation, infertility, or premature ovarian failure. In this chapter, we aim to point out a possible involvement of androgen excess or deficiency in the regulation of ovarian function. We will summarize the effects of EDCs expressing antiandrogenic or androgenic activity on female physiology. Continuous exposition to even small concentration of such compounds can initiate oncogenesis within the ovary.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Malgorzata Duda, Kamil Wartalski, Zbigniew Tabarowski and\nGabriela Gorczyca",authors:[{id:"177042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Malgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Duda",slug:"malgorzata-duda",fullName:"Malgorzata Duda"},{id:"177918",title:"Dr.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Tabarowski",slug:"zbigniew-tabarowski",fullName:"Zbigniew Tabarowski"},{id:"205391",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamil",middleName:null,surname:"Wartalski",slug:"kamil-wartalski",fullName:"Kamil Wartalski"},{id:"205392",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Gorczyca",slug:"gabriela-gorczyca",fullName:"Gabriela Gorczyca"}]},{id:"56522",title:"Role of Melatonin in Reproductive Seasonality in Buffaloes",slug:"role-of-melatonin-in-reproductive-seasonality-in-buffaloes",totalDownloads:1747,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Buffaloes are characterized by seasonal reproductive activity. Anestrus buffalo heifers and lactating buffaloes were used to study the effect of melatonin treatment on the resumption of ovarian activity during out-of-breeding season. Buffaloes of treated group were injected or implanted with melatonin (18 mg melatonin/50 kg body weight). Using CIDR-eCG protocol preceded with melatonin successfully achieved estrus behavior and induced conception rate during out-of-breeding season. Furthermore, the reproductive performance of buffaloes during out-of-breeding season was clearly improved by melatonin implantation in conjunction with CIDR-eCG protocol due to the luteotrophic effect of melatonin expressed as increasing diameter of CL (corpus luteum) and progesterone concentration. This improvement resulted in greater values of conception rate, in melatonin implanted compared to not implanted buffaloes. Melatonin implantation in anestrus buffalo heifers increased the diameter of largest follicles and melatonin concentration but progesterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations were decreased. In addition, melatonin implantation in anestrus lactating buffaloes increased the SOD (superoxide dismutase) enzyme activity. Sustained release of exogenous melatonin significantly protects against oxidative stress while increasing beneficial total antioxidant capacity (TAC) concentration in summer-stressed anestrus buffaloes. Melatonin implantation in conjunction with CIDR-eCG protocol successfully improved some blood metabolites, in anestrus buffalo heifers during out-of-breeding season under tropical conditions.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Tamer Awad Ramadan",authors:[{id:"197651",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamer",middleName:"Awad",surname:"Ramadan",slug:"tamer-ramadan",fullName:"Tamer Ramadan"}]},{id:"54974",title:"Markers for Sperm Freezability and Relevance of Transcriptome Studies in Semen Cryopreservation: A Review",slug:"markers-for-sperm-freezability-and-relevance-of-transcriptome-studies-in-semen-cryopreservation-a-re",totalDownloads:1602,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Advances in sperm assessment techniques have offered new perspectives to improve the technology of semen cryopreservation. This review addresses some recent achievements in the proteomics of seminal plasma and spermatozoa and exemplifies its importance as markers for sperm fertility following cryopreservation. Recent advances in transcriptome studies on sperm RNA-Seq data have generated new information aimed to unravel the physiological roles of RNAs in the sperm-egg fertilization processes and their associations with male fertility. The relevance of the sperm freezability markers and the potential associations of RNA-profiling sequences with the sperm biological functions have been discussed.",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology",title:"Theriogenology",fullTitle:"Theriogenology"},signatures:"Leyland Fraser",authors:[{id:"199650",title:"Dr.",name:"Leyland",middleName:null,surname:"Fraser",slug:"leyland-fraser",fullName:"Leyland Fraser"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1384",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:739,paginationItems:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Murat Şentürk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14794/images/system/14794.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Murat Şentürk obtained a baccalaureate degree in Chemistry in 2002, a master’s degree in Biochemistry in 2006, and a doctorate degree in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/113873",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"113873"},fullPath:"/profiles/113873",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()