\r\n\tThere are generally two types of masonry: brick and stone masonry. Brick masonry: a type of masonry that uses bricks. However, masonry is further divided into "clay work," which uses clay to fill various joints with bricks to build walls, and "cement masonry," the cheapest type of masonry. Masonry: this is the art of building with bricks or stone. The ability of masonry to support the load imposed by the structural elements above it is called strength. The application of loads to masonry creates internal stresses and deformations. The brand of mortar and brick, the shape and size of masonry materials, and the thickness and density of mortar joints affect the strength of masonry. The ability of masonry to maintain its position under horizontal load is called stability. This property limits the height of masonry depending on its thickness and the magnitude of wind loads. The thermal conductivity of bricks of different types (silicate, ceramic, facing, refractory) is considered. A comparison of bricks in terms of their thermal conductivity is made; the thermal conductivity coefficients of refractory bricks are presented at different temperatures - from 20 to 1700°C. The thermal conductivity depends mainly on the density and the configuration of the voids. Architecture and construction consist of various elements for building works, and masonry is the main element with which these constructions are realized. Masonry is a piece of fired clay with a rectangular shape and is used to build walls and structures. Nowadays, eco-masonry can be made of different materials that offer a variety of advantages, but all of them offer benefits at the level of the environment and sustainability; some of these utensils are plastic bottles, clay, etc. The book addresses the holistic issue of using modern masonry in construction. This book interprets masonry as an essential theme of contemporary architecture and sustainable construction. It is one of the most valuable materials in the history of mankind.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-126-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-125-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-127-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"85ef86d046d15e7d4b1988f1ec5dd750",bookSignature:"Prof. Amjad Almusaed and Prof. Asaad Almssad",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12061.jpg",keywords:"Unreinforced Masonry Buildings, Masonry in Sustainable Building, Energy Saving and Masonry, Eco-Friendly Masonry, Modern Architecture and Masonry, Masonry and Human Behavior, Esthetic and Masonry, History of Advanced Masonry, Structural Masonry, Modeling of Masonry Structures, Modern Masonry Manufacturing, Masonry Walls",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"19 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Amjad Almusaed, affiliated with Jönköping University has carried out a great deal of research and technical survey work and has performed several studies in these areas. 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\n
1. Introduction
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Sex hormones are synthesized from cholesterol mainly in the gonads and adrenal cortex. In the brain, different sex steroids can also be further metabolized to different neurosteroids or be produced anew in neurons and glial cells, with an even more potent effect on the nervous system. The mechanisms of action of the sex steroid hormones on the brain are related to both classical, intracellularly mediated effects and non-classical (non-genomic) membrane effects due to their binding to membrane receptors. Some steroids are capable of inducing rapid neurotransmitter-like effects. Sex steroids exert diverse pleiotropic effects on the nervous system: they modulate major neurotransmitter systems, promote the viability of neurons, play an important role in myelination, and influence cognitive processes. Estradiol increases neuronal survival and recovery. It protects neurons from excitotoxic damage, amyloid β (Aβ) toxicity, oxidative stress, and glucose deprivation. The defense induced by estrogens is mediated by complex mechanisms. Progestins have also been found to exert neuroprotective effects similar to those of estrogens. Androgens exhibit a wide range of neuroprotective effects in motoneurons, including supporting cell survival, axonal regeneration, and dendritic maintenance. The relationship between sex steroids and the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has garnered a growing interest due to the role BDNF plays in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.
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2. Steroidogenesis
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Sex hormones are steroid compounds synthesized from cholesterol mainly in the testes, ovaries, and adrenal cortex. The male sex hormones (androgens) and female sex hormones (estrogens and gestagens) have a common biosynthetic pathway (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
Sex steroid biosynthesis pathway. Enzymes are shown as follows: (1) P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme; (2) 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; (3) 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; (4) 5α-reductase; (5) aromatase. The dashed arrow indicates poor flux. Not all intermediate steroids, pathways, and enzymes are included (modified from Refs. [1, 55]).
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The final product of the steroidogenesis of sex hormones depends on whether or not specific metabolizing enzymes are available in the respective cell [1]. The sex steroids in human blood include androgens (testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), androstenedione, and dihydrotestosterone), estrogens (estradiol, estriol, and estrone), and gestagens (progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone). The major male hormone, testosterone, is produced by the Leydig cells in the testes. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is a potent androgen, derived from testosterone by the enzyme 5α-reductase (type 1 and type 2) in some peripheral tissues, mediating some testosterone-induced effects. This enzyme is expressed in the skin, scalp, prostate, epididymis, liver, and nervous system (neocortex, subcortical white matter, and hippocampal tissues) [2]. DHEA, DHEAS, and androstenedione are secreted mainly by the adrenal cortex in the same amounts in both sexes. DHEA and androstenedione are steroids involved in the sex hormones’ biosynthesis pathway; both are primary endogenous precursors of testosterone and estrogens. Although they are weak androgens, they are circulating steroids that can be converted into active androgens and estrogens in the peripheral tissues [1, 3].
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Estrogens are produced by aromatization of androgens, including those derived from adrenal steroidogenesis. Although the ovaries produce large amounts of androgens, they secrete little of these into the blood, while the rest are aromatized to estradiol, which is the major estrogen. The theca cells in the ovaries synthesize testosterone and androstenedione, which then diffuse into the granulosa cells of the follicles. There androstenedione is converted into testosterone, which in turn is aromatized to estradiol that enters the blood stream. A portion of the androstenedione is aromatized to estrone, which in turn is converted into estradiol. Androgen aromatization is realized under the influence of the enzyme aromatase, which is expressed in steroidogenic tissues, the brain, and nonsteroidogenic tissues, especially fat and bone. Progesterone is the major progestogen and is produced in both theca and granulosa cells, the adrenal gland, and testes [1, 3].
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The neuroactive steroids are brain-synthesized endogenous neuromodulators that rapidly alter neuronal excitability. Some of them reach the brain from adrenals and gonads and are further metabolized locally just like the aromatization of testosterone into estradiol [4]. They have been referred to as neurosteroids as they can be derived anew from cholesterol in neurons and the glial cells [5]. The synthesis of neuroactive steroids requires the translocation of cholesterol across the mitochondrial membrane [6]. This process occurs through a molecular complex formed by the translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO), the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), the voltage-dependent anion channel protein (VDAC), and the adenine nucleotide transporter protein (ANT).
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In the mitochondria, cholesterol is converted into pregnenolone by the P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc). Soluble pregnenolone diffuses into the cytosol (the endoplasmic reticulum) where it is further metabolized into various neuroactive steroids such as progesterone, 5α-dihydroprogesterone, DHEA, androstenedione, etc. The enzyme 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, required for further conversion of pregnenolone into progesterone, has been found in the brain [7]. The enzyme 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 catalyzes the oxidation of neuroactive steroids in mitochondria with NAD+ as the coenzyme. This enzyme catalyzes most effectively the oxidation of allopregnanolone and allotetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone, which is essential for the homeostasis of these neuroactive steroids [8].
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Although TSPO is highly expressed in microglia and astrocytes and is less abundant in neurons, neurosteroidogenesis occurs primarily in principal neurons of several brain areas that have the necessary set of enzymes to convert cholesterol into neuroactive steroids [9].
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3. Mechanisms of action
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The first thing a hormone does is to bind to specific receptors on the target cell. Cells without receptors for the hormone do not respond to the action. The receptors for certain hormones are localized on the cell membrane, while others are located in the cytoplasm or nucleus. After binding to the specific receptor, the hormone triggers a cascade of cellular responses that become increasingly potent with each successive stage. Thus even small concentrations of the hormone can produce a significant effect [3].
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3.1. Genomic action via steroid receptors
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According to the classic genomic theory of action, sex hormones as steroid hormones bind preferentially to specific protein receptors within the cell rather than to receptors located on the cell membrane. These hormones are fat-soluble and can easily pass through the cell membrane and bind to specific receptors in the cytoplasm. Depending on the steroid and tissue, however, unbound steroid receptors may be located in the nucleus as well. The particular distribution of the receptor between the cytoplasm and nucleus varies. When the cytoplasmic receptors bind to their specific steroid hormone ligands, they translocate to the nucleus. Depending on their mechanism of action and subcellular distribution, nuclear receptors may be classified into at least two groups [10]. Nuclear receptors that bind to steroid hormones are all classified as type I receptors. Only type I receptors have a heat shock protein (HSP) associated with the inactive receptor that will be released when the receptor interacts with the ligand. Type II nuclear receptors have no HSP and in contrast to the classical type I receptor are located in the cell nucleus. The activated hormone-receptor protein complexes then bind to a specific regulatory section of DNA, called hormone response element, by activating or inhibiting the transcription of specific genes and the formation of messenger RNA. Later on, after an extended period of time (usually from a few hours to a few days) counted from the entry of the hormone into the cell, new proteins develop in the cell and alter the cell functions.
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The complexity of the steroid action can be accounted for by the abundance of identified steroid receptors and their affinity for the hormone. The excess/deficiency of the respective sex steroid regulates the number of the active receptors (downregulation/upregulation) in the target cells. Testosterone and DHT exert their functions via binding to the androgen receptor (AR), resulting in conformational change of the receptor and translocation of the androgen/AR complex from the cytosol to the nucleus. Various AR coregulators can further modulate the transcriptional regulation of target genes [11]. AR receptors are expressed in neurons and glial cells and their expression can be regulated by injury and by circulating testosterone concentration [12, 13, 14]. AR mRNA is downregulated post-orchidectomy and after axotomy [12]. AR levels also decrease with aging, especially in the nucleus basalis of Meynert (which degenerates in Alzheimer’s disease (AD)) and the diagonal band of Broca [15].
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The estrogen receptor-α (ERα) was characterized as an intracellular, ligand-regulated transcription factor located primarily in the nucleus [16]. Once bound to estradiol, ERα dimers were shown to regulate gene expression via interaction with estrogen response elements. Following a series of discoveries, a structurally related estrogen receptor-β (ERβ) was identified [17]. Sites of estrogen receptor expression identified in the brain comprised the hypothalamus, pituitary, and preoptic area, among others, which, based on a series of lesion and stimulation studies, were known to affect physiology and behavior related to endocrine function [18]. Apart from the great number of various isoforms, the classic intracellular receptors have also many splice variants that have been studied and characterized. For example, for estrogens besides the ERα and ERβ isoforms, multiple splice variants (e.g., ERαΔ4) can initiate signaling from the membrane [19]. Experiments demonstrated that the same protein is capable of mediating both intracellular and membrane actions of estradiol. For progesterone, a whole new class of progesterone receptors (PRs) has been identified—the membrane PRs localized on the membrane and involved in the reproductive actions of progesterone [20].
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3.2. Non-genomic action
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The classic genomic mechanism of the action of steroid hormones alone cannot account for all subsequent changes in the target cells; hence, it has been updated to include an additional (non-classic) explanation of the rapid, non-genomic, membrane-initiated action. For decades, steroid hormones have been known to induce acute changes (within minutes) in the physiological functions [21], neuronal activity [22], and behavior [23].
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Recent research demonstrated that steroids can function in a “neurotransmitter-like” way, being synthesized at precise spatial locations within neural circuits in the brain and acting within minutes as local neuromodulators that rapidly regulate cognitive functions and behavior [24, 25, 26, 27].
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Some steroids, such as progesterone, are capable of inducing rapid neurotransmitter-like effects, similar to those of dopamine or glutamate, which alter the activity of neuronal systems via multiple types of receptors [19, 25, 28]. Some of these steroid receptors have been classified as extranuclear or membrane receptors, which signal through G-proteins or other second messenger systems [29, 30]. There is recent evidence of these classical steroid receptors binding to response elements on DNA to regulate gene expression, showing that they contain palmitoylation sequences allowing them to be trafficked to the plasma membrane to quickly alter cellular activity [19, 31]. After being trafficked, these nuclear transcription factors interact with other proteins to initiate their signaling at the level of the plasma membrane. From here, intracellular signaling cascades involving effectors (e.g., the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)) are initiated via the transactivation of cell surface–bound receptors, most notably the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Subsequently, estrogen membrane–initiated signaling can in turn activate the regulatory section of DNA and trigger transcription processes.
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The modern understanding of a cell response to a steroid action is that it occurs within the same time frame as that of the G protein–coupled receptors influencing a variety of cellular functions such as gating membrane channels, increasing the intracellular calcium release, activating tyrosine-protein kinase (Src), MAPK, and others [27]. Many studies support a model of integrated signaling that couples signal transduction cascades to transcription in the nucleus, providing an integrated view of hormone signaling in the brain [32].
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Recently, extensive research focused on the rapid, non-genomic action of estrogens has raised the question of how rapidly the increase of these steroids can occur in the brain. Of course, estrogens, just like any other steroids, cannot be stored in synaptic vesicles prior to their rapid release, due to their lipophilic nature [4]. It has been suggested, therefore, that the rapid effects of estrogens require a corresponding rapid change of local steroid concentration via rapid changes in their rate of synthesis by androgen conversion [24, 33], which implies changes in aromatase activity. Changes of aromatase activity reflect changes in aromatase protein concentrations. For instance, sex steroids control the hypothalamic aromatase expression in most vertebrates: weak aromatase expression is detected in castrated male animals, while testosterone replacement increases significantly aromatase protein and enzyme activity [34, 35]. There is strong evidence suggesting that aromatase activity can be rapidly modulated via translational modifications, most notably via phosphorylation. The rapid modulation of aromatase activity by phosphorylation is a widespread mechanism present in certain tissues of various species, including humans [4]. The enzymatic changes lead to a rapid local modulation of estrogen availability and consequently to a modification of cellular estrogen-dependent processes that are not mediated by the genomic actions of these steroids. The phosphorylation/dephosphorylation processes provide a new widespread mechanism by which estrogen concentration could be rapidly altered in the brain and other tissues.
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Although most of the research on neurotransmitter-like actions of steroid hormones is focused on sex hormones and reproduction, other steroids also induce effects through non-classic mechanisms. As with estrogens and progestins, glucocorticoids can act on the membrane to alter physiology, functioning more like neurotransmitters than classical steroid hormones.
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Neurosteroids are also capable of interacting with cell surface neurotransmitter receptors to modulate neural cell physiology. Two of the endogenous neurosteroids, pregnenolone sulfate and pregnanolone sulfate, can potentiate or inhibit N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor responses [36]. GABAA receptors represent one of the most elaborate neurotransmitter receptor structures, harboring multiple binding sites for allosteric modulators, neuroactive compounds, and neuroactive steroids [37]. Allopregnanolone has been shown to promote neurogenesis in both rodent and human neuroprogenitor cells, most likely through binding to the GABAA receptor [38]. The modulation of the activity of receptors by neurochemicals such as allopregnanolone has been extensively studied in the context of neurodegenerative disorders [39].
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Another mechanism of steroid action takes effect at the level of the microtubules via a proposed receptor microtubule-associated protein of type 2 (MAP2) [40]. Neuronal microtubules play an important role in the growth and maintenance of neurites during neuronal differentiation. They are composed of tubulin and microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). MAPs determine neuronal shape and control the balance between rigidity and plasticity in neuronal processes. Neurosteroids may be involved in the formation and stabilization of microtubules and thus neuronal plasticity and function [40]. Experimental data demonstrate that progesterone treatment attenuated the injury-induced loss of MAP2 [41].
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4. Biological effects of sex hormones on the nervous system
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Testosterone and its metabolite estradiol induce numerous effects during critical periods of pre- and perinatal brain developments (organizational effects) that are necessary for brain sexual differentiation. Testosterone exposure is an essential requirement for masculinization of the brain. Nuclear volume, neuronal morphology, and astrocyte complexity are examples of the wide range of effects by which testosterone and estradiol can induce permanent changes in the function of neurons [42]. In the developing male rat, testosterone secreted from the testes is not bound by α-fetoprotein and freely enters the brain where it is locally converted into estradiol in specific nuclei. Consequently, neonatal males have more than double the levels of estradiol than females in brain regions subject to sexual differentiation [43]. High levels of the ER are concentrated in the same brain regions and ER is essential for transducing the steroid signal [44]. The gain or loss of function upon developmental estradiol exposure corresponds to the specific cellular morphological changes observed during the critical period, and the dendritic spines and astrocytes seen in each brain region retain that “memory” of early steroid exposure [42].
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4.1. Effects of female sex steroids
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It is generally accepted that estrogen acts as a conditional neuroprotectant with a complex pattern of biological actions, which are modulated by several interacting factors [45]. It has been found that administration of estradiol increases neuronal survival and recovery in adult animals and different lesion models [46, 47]. Estradiol protects neurons from excitotoxic damage due to seizures and stroke, as well as in AD [48]. One of the suggested mechanisms of this effect is the ability of estrogens to enhance neuropeptide Y (NPY) expression and release, as NPY has antiexcitatory effects [49]. In vitro estradiol was found to protect neurons from glutamate toxicity and Aβ peptide toxicity, oxidative stress, and glucose deprivation [50, 51, 52, 53]. The defense state induced by estrogen is mediated by complex mechanisms that converge upon regulation of mitochondrial function. Estrogen preserves ATP levels via increased oxidative phosphorylation and reduced ATPase activity, thereby increasing mitochondrial respiration efficiency. Estrogen increases antiapoptotic proteins, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL, which prevent formation of the permeability transition pores protecting against estrogen-induced increase in mitochondrial Ca2+ sequestration and triggering of apoptotic processes [54]. Therefore, the decreased levels of estrogen could most likely contribute to the increased risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases, especially in postmenopausal women [52, 55].
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It is suggested that in addition to having a direct effect on neurons, estrogens may affect the astrocytes by stimulating them to release protective growth factors and regulate the astrocytes genes and proteins associated with the glutamate level control. Other mechanisms implicated here may include the anti-inflammatory effect associated with suppression of microglia, inflammatory cytokines, and free radicals production, which cause inflammatory damage to the neurons, effects on endothelial cells realized by increasing the mitochondrial efficiency and stimulating angiogenesis, genomic influence on anti-apoptotic protein genes of Bcl family and reduction of apoptotic trends and effect of free radical scavenging. These are the hypothetical models of estrogen neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia and in other neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) and AD [52, 56].
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There is growing evidence that estrogen may have a neuroprotective role in PD. Experimental studies have demonstrated that estrogen is neuroprotective in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced nigrostriatal lesions, an animal model of idiopathic PD [57, 58]. In these and other studies, 17β-estradiol was used and its effect was shown to be stereospecific. An isomer with weak estrogenic activity, 17α-estradiol, was ineffective with regard to the prevention of MPTP-induced dopamine loss [52]. What is worthy of note is that the receptors ERα and ERβ are sparsely localized in the striatum and substantia nigra of mice, and treatment with MPTP or estrogen does not change the distribution and density of the estrogen receptor. Despite the low availability of ER in these parts of the brain, estrogen has managed to induce a protective effect on the striatum against MPTP-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons [59].
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Studies in humans showed that short-term estrogen treatment in postmenopausal women increased dopamine transporter availability in the caudate putamen [60] and that women who had taken postmenopausal estrogen replacement therapy were less likely to develop PD than those who had not [61].
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There is evidence of inducing differentiation of human neural stem cells, which develop in the tyrosine hydroxylase (dopaminergic) neurons, and the effect was blocked by application of an estrogen receptor antagonist [62, 63].
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As it is supposed that oxidative stress plays an important role in the processes of neuronal degeneration in the PD, it is interesting that estrogens suppress free radical production and protect striatal neurons against oxidative stress, providing another mechanism of estrogen neuroprotection in PD [64, 65].
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Recent studies in both animals and humans have provided additional evidence supporting a potentially beneficial protective role for estrogen in AD. The mechanisms of estrogen protection in AD are not clear. At the molecular level, estrogen has been shown to enhance activation of the survival factors, protein kinase B, BDNF [66, 67], while inducing phosphorylation and deactivation of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK3B) and Bcl-2 associated agonist of cell death (BAD), involved in death signaling pathways in neurons [67, 68].
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Progestins have also been found to exert neuroprotective effects similar to those of estrogens. Progesterone stimulates the neurological and functional recovery after spinal and brain traumas [56, 69] and exerts neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia [70, 71].
\n
\n
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4.2. Effects of androgens
\n
The effects of androgens on the nervous system have been far less characterized than those produced by estrogens and progestins. Androgens also exhibit a wide array of neuroprotective effects in motoneurons, including supporting cell survival, axonal regeneration, and dendritic maintenance [72]. Testosterone influences neuroplastic changes in nuclei of the limbic system, particularly in the amygdala, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and the hippocampus [73, 74]; it exerts neuroprotective effects by stimulating neuron survival and regeneration after a nerve injury by actions mediated via the androgen receptor [75, 76]. It has been observed to have a protective effect on apoptosis in cell cultures of human neurons. This effect is mediated directly by androgen receptors, without testosterone aromatization to estradiol [77]. Testosterone replacement in gonadectomized male adult mice reverses the pathological changes in the spine morphology of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. The dendritic spines are specialized to receive synaptic inputs, and a change in spine morphology is correlated with the strength and maturity of each synapse [78]. Similar data were obtained in experimental motoneuron damage, with the use of DHT reducing the atrophy of adjacent dendrites [79]. Recent findings suggest that one of the mechanisms of the neuroprotective effects of physical training is the increased DHT production in the hippocampus providing evidence for androgenic mediation of neurogenesis by androgen receptors [80].
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Androgens may regulate the production and the levels of Aβ, by a classic genomic mechanism and rapid non-genomic signaling or via aromatization to estradiol and activation of estrogen pathways [81, 82]. Testosterone can attenuate the toxicity of Aβ in cultured hippocampal neurons via a rapid, estrogen-independent mechanism [83]. DHT increases Aβ-catabolizing enzyme neprilysin in cultured neurons by an AR-dependent mechanism, which promotes Aβ degradation, thereby decreasing Aβ levels in AD [84].
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\n
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4.3. Effects of steroid precursors
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Precursors of estrogens, progestins, and androgens (pregnenolone and DHEA) also affect neuronal functions. When administered in vivo, pregnenolone reduces histopathological changes, protects neural tissues from secondary lesions, and promotes the recovery of motor functions after spinal cord injury [85, 86]. DHEA is one of the first neurosteroids identified in rat brains. Neuroprotective effects induced by DHEA and its sulfate DHEAS, defined as primary in their biological action, have been documented [87]. Both steroids contribute to the differentiation and survival of neurons in cell cultures [88]; have a protective effect on hippocampal neurons against the toxic effects of glutamate [89]; stimulate the growth of neuritis of the cortical neurons of embryonic rat brains [90]; affect apoptosis, catecholamine synthesis, and secretion; and have exhibited anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-glucocorticoid effects [87].
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Studies suggest that these are different mechanisms for DHEA and DHEAS effects. It is assumed that DHEAS mediates its effects via GABAA receptors, probably by metabolizing DHEAS into a GABAA receptor agonist, such as androsterone or androstanediol [91]. The neuroprotective effect of DHEAS to NMDA receptor-induced cytotoxicity is probably mediated by the σ1 receptor, while DHEA inhibits NMDA-induced nitric oxide (NO) production and NO synthase activity by NMDA receptor, modulating calcium/NO signaling pathway [92]. Concentrations of DHEA and of its sulfate are also important with respect to the final effect. Low concentrations of these steroids may be neuroprotective, while high concentrations of DHEA are ineffective or neurotoxic and lead to the inhibition of complex I of the mitochondrial respiratory chain [93].
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\n
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4.4. Interaction between steroids and neurotrophins
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Recently, researchers have studied the relationship between the gonadal steroids, adrenal steroids, and BDNF focusing on intersexual differences and incidence of mental diseases [94]. BDNF belongs to the neurotrophin family and plays an important role in the survival, differentiation, and outgrowth of select peripheral and central neurons during development. BDNF impacts significantly on neuronal survival, acting in the adult brain through a variety of cell types, which include neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and endothelial cells. It is essential for the process of learning and improvement of cognitive function via activation of the TrkB receptor [95]. Our previous data demonstrated that the negative effect of the anticonvulsant lacosamide on the processes of learning and memory is related to suppressed expression of BDNF/TrkB ligand receptor system in the hippocampus of rats [96]. Sex steroid hormones and neurotrophic factors are involved in the neuroendocrine control of reproduction as well as in brain adaptation during reproductive aging. There is a great body of evidence showing the role BDNF plays in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Low post-mortem parietal cortex BDNF levels have been found in patients with mild cognitive impairment [97] and AD [97, 98].
\n
Research shows that BDNF mRNA and protein expression levels in the brain cognitive regions are affected in a region-specific manner when hormone replacement therapy is administered. BDNF mRNA levels have been reported to be significantly reduced in almost all hippocampal layers and the cortex in 28-week ovariectomized rats [99]. Estradiol replacement therapy reverses this effect in the hippocampus, suggesting a regional divergence in ovarian steroid requirements for BDNF expression. After gonadectomy, BDNF mRNA levels are significantly reduced at postnatal day 7 in male rat pups, but after treatment with estradiol benzoate, the levels were similar to those in intact animals. The authors demonstrated that ERα and BDNF were localized in the same cells (pyramidal cells of the CA3 sub-region and to a lesser extent in CA1) within the developing hippocampus [100].
\n
Estrogens have been implicated in the increase of hippocampal BDNF mRNA and protein levels in exercising animals. The exercise effect on BDNF upregulation was reduced after 7 weeks of estrogen deprivation. Exercise in combination with long-term estrogen replacement increased the BDNF protein above the effects of estrogen replacement alone [101].
\n
Androgens also have a bearing on the BDNF expression; some of their effects on the nervous system are most likely to be realized through influencing the production of this neurotrophin. Testosterone administration was shown to increase BDNF protein levels in motoneurons of spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus of castrated male rats [102]. Gonadectomy induces a significant decrease in the protein levels of BDNF and its downstream target post-synaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) in the hippocampal CA1 area, which is reversed by testosterone replacement [78]. Knowledge of the interactions between BDNF and sex steroids could be essential for the understanding of the BDNF role in brain development, adaptation during aging, and the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
The functions of the sex hormones exceed the limits of reproduction in that they regulate vital neuronal and glial features. The chronic effects of neurosteroids are due to both genomic (classical intracellular steroid receptors) and non-genomic rapid effects (ion channels and membrane receptors) in the brain.
\n
Some of the hypothetical models of estrogen neuroprotection include complex mechanisms, which converge upon regulation of mitochondria function–preserved ATP levels via increased oxidative phosphorylation and increased antiapoptotic proteins of Bcl family. Estrogen stimulates the astrocytes to release protective growth factors and has an anti-inflammatory effect associated with suppression of microglia and inflammatory cytokines. It suppresses free radical production and protects striatal neurons against oxidative stress, providing another mechanism for neuroprotection in PD. The female sex steroids promote cell survival via protein kinase B activation and BDNF upregulation; they inactivate GSK3B and BAD, involved in neuronal death signaling pathways in AD. The androgens also have neuroprotective effects in motoneurons, including supporting neuron survival, axonal regeneration, and dendritic maintenance. Testosterone can attenuate the toxicity of Aβ and decreases Aβ levels in AD.
\n
Despite the growing amount of research on sex hormones and neurosteroids in recent years and the ongoing discovery of biochemical mechanisms of action, their role in neurodegenerative processes remains uncertain. Further elucidation of the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for the effects of neurosteroids on the normal function of neuronal and glial cells would provide important insights related to the development of new therapeutic strategies aimed at delaying the onset and slowing the progression of cognitive dysfunctions and neurodegenerative diseases.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"sex hormones, neurosteroids, genomic effects, non-genomic effects, neuroprotection, neurodegenerative diseases",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57255.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57255.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57255",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57255",totalDownloads:1457,totalViews:513,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:82,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"January 12th 2017",dateReviewed:"September 21st 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"May 2nd 2018",dateFinished:"October 19th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The mechanisms of the action of sex steroid hormones on the nervous system are related to both classical, intracellularly mediated effects and non-classical membrane effects due to binding to membrane receptors. Some steroids are capable of inducing rapid neurotransmitter-like effects, similar to those of dopamine or glutamate that alter the activity of neuronal systems via different types of receptors. The neuroactive steroids are endogenous neuromodulators synthesized in the brain and rapidly affecting neuronal excitability. Sex steroids exert many pleiotropic effects in the nervous system: they modulate main neurotransmitter systems, promote the viability of neurons, play an important role in myelination, and influence cognitive processes. Estradiol protects neurons from excitotoxic damage and increases neuronal survival. Progesterone stimulates neurological and functional recovery. Androgens also exhibit a wide array of neuroprotective effects in motoneurons, including supporting cell survival, axonal regeneration, and dendritic maintenance. Despite the considerable increase of sex hormones and neurosteroids research in recent years and the ongoing discovery of biochemical mechanisms of action, their role in neurodegenerative processes remains not well determined.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57255",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57255",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases"},signatures:"Slavi Delchev and Katerina Georgieva",authors:[{id:"204757",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Slavi",middleName:"Dimitrov",surname:"Delchev",fullName:"Slavi Delchev",slug:"slavi-delchev",email:"sldel@abv.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"205070",title:"Prof.",name:"Katerina",middleName:null,surname:"Georgieva",fullName:"Katerina Georgieva",slug:"katerina-georgieva",email:"kng@plov.net",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Steroidogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Mechanisms of action",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Genomic action via steroid receptors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Non-genomic action",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Biological effects of sex hormones on the nervous system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Effects of female sex steroids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Effects of androgens",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3. Effects of steroid precursors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4. Interaction between steroids and neurotrophins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Miller WL, Auchus RJ. The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders. Endocrine Reviews. 2011;32:81-151\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Stoffel-Wagner B. Neuroactive steroid metabolism in the human brain. 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Progesterone is neuroprotective after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in male rats. Brain Research. 1996;735:101-107\n'},{id:"B71",body:'Wali B, Ishrat T, Stein DG, Sayeed I. Progesterone improves long-term functional and histological outcomes after permanent stroke in older rats. Behavioural Brain Research. 2016;305:46-56\n'},{id:"B72",body:'Little CM, Coons KD, Sengelaub DR. Neuroprotective effects of testosterone on the morphology and function of somatic motoneurons following the death of neighbouring motoneurons. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 2009;20:359-372\n'},{id:"B73",body:'De Vries GJ, Wang Z, Bullock NA, Numan S. Sex differences in the effects of testosterone and its metabolites on vasopressin messenger RNA levels in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis of rats. The Journal of Neuroscience. 1994;14:1789-1794\n'},{id:"B74",body:'McHenry J, Carrier N, Hull E, Kabbaj M. Sex differences in anxiety and depression: Role of testosterone. 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Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate is neuroprotective in a reversible spinal cord ischemia model: Possible involvement of GABA(A) receptors. Stroke. 2000;31:1953-1956\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Kurata K, Takebayashi M, Morinobu S, Yamawaki S. beta-estradiol, dehydroepiandrosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate protect against N-methyl-daspartate-induced neurotoxicity in rat hippocampal neurons by different mechanisms. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 2004;311:237-245\n'},{id:"B93",body:'Safiulina D, Peet N, Seppet E, Zharkovsky A, Kaasik A. Dehydroepiandrosterone inhibits complex I of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and is neurotoxic in vitro and in vivo at high concentrations. Toxicological Sciences. 2006;93:348-356\n'},{id:"B94",body:'Pluchino N, Russo M, Santoro AN, Litta P, Cela V, Genazzani AR. Steroid hormones and BDNF. Neuroscience. 2013;239:271-279\n'},{id:"B95",body:'Sohrabji F, Lewis DK. Estrogen-BDNF interactions: Implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 2006;27:404-414\n'},{id:"B96",body:'Shishmanova M, Koeva Y, Peychev L, Georgieva K. Suspected role of BDNF in the suppressive effects of lacosamide on cognitive functions in rats. Eur Neurophychopharmacol. 2016;26:S245-S246\n'},{id:"B97",body:'Peng S, Wuu J, Mufson EJ, Fahnestock M. Precursor form of brain derived neurotrophic factor and mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor are decreased in the pre-clinical stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neurochemistry. 2005;93:1412-1421\n'},{id:"B98",body:'Michalski B, Fahnestock M. Pro-brain-derived neurotrophic factor is decreased in parietal cortex in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research. 2003;111:148-154\n'},{id:"B99",body:'Singh M, Meyer EM, Simpkins JW. The effect of ovariectomy and estradiol replacement on brain-derived neurotrophic factor messenger ribonucleic acid expression in cortical and hippocampal brain regions of female Sprague-Dawley rats. Endocrinology. 1995;136:2320-2324\n'},{id:"B100",body:'Solum DT, Handa RJ. Estrogen regulates the development of brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA and protein in the rat hippocampus. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2002;22(7):2650-2659\n'},{id:"B101",body:'Berchtold NC, Kesslak JP, Pike CJ, Adlard PA, Cotman CW. Estrogen and exercise interact to regulate brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA and protein expression in the hippocampus. The European Journal of Neuroscience. 2001;14:1992-2002\n'},{id:"B102",body:'Verhovshek T, Cai Y, Osborne MC, Sengelaub DR. Androgen regulates brain derived neurotrophic factor in spinal motoneurons and their target musculature. Endocrinology. 2010;151:253-261\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Slavi Delchev",address:"sldel@abv.bg",affiliation:'
Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University – Plovdiv, Bulgaria
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University – Plovdiv, Bulgaria
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1. Introduction
The title chosen for the chapter is deliberately explained in a very simple yet effective manner because as a part of the global community, now we all are aware of what the word PANDEMIC means. So, let us first try to understand the term “Pandemic” and then see the effects of the COVID pandemic on the society in general and then the housewives in particular.
Pandemic. Pandemic defined by the dictionary as a disease that spreads over the whole world or a whole country. In the remarkable year 2019, the whole world found itself waking up to this brand-new pandemic – COVID.
COVID-19 has been one of the most widespread diseases the world has ever witnessed in the past century. This pandemic stretched its arms wide across the world, people died in every corner, some even very untimely, but in addition to all the visible destructions due to COVID, there were numerous invisible effects of this pandemic as well.
Usually, when we talk about the negative or destructive impact of such an event, we consider only economic losses, decline in GDP of the country, poverty etc. Although, these impacts are also heart-breaking and pathetic, but what we often forget to pay heed to is the mental breakdown people have who suffer from such problems.
People commit suicides, relationships fail miserably, families break down and depressed minds and increased struggles snatch the mental peace bit by bit with each passing day. Now when we consider all these impacts which relate to the psychology of a person, we do not usually see it as a visible difference to the society overall, but if people who institute any society are not fit mentally, then what good can be extracted from such a societal sect?
This is a question which is vital for all of us to understand but unfortunately, many of us fail to even comprehend this as a serious matter and people do not consider mental or psychological impacts as harmful as any other visible impact.
What people usually fail to understand is that if a person is mentally unfit or mentally in a bad state, then he or she will not be able to perform any task assigned to him efficiently. But generally, people do not promote mental health and fitness as much as they appreciate physical fitness.
Physical fitness is required to perform any task physically, but mental health and fitness is equally necessary to ignite motivation to do any task – waking up after a nap, taking off shoes after coming home, cleaning dishes, washing and ironing clothes and even the toughest of jobs like reading a book, talking to a friend or playing with a child.
The latter are also not very difficult to perform, but just when someone is mentally depressed or anxious, when the person cannot breathe or when it feels like the heart is somewhere breaking into pieces inside, these easy jobs also appear very difficult and complicated. People forget how to talk to others, how to read a good book or watch a good movie. People are unable to cherish the smile of a toothless milk-dipped lips of a child. Depression does not have anything to do with a gender in particular, but when it exists in someone, then it makes people wonder and question their existence. People often suffer from existential crisis and this indeed makes them neurotic.
2. The stature of housewives in the society
The concept of housewives is quite twisted in our society. Any woman who nurtures a family is a home-maker and not a housewife. Whether or not the woman is working professionally somewhere or handling her household entirely, the psychological impact of these things is equal on both. But if we critically examine the psychology of both the categories, then we can clearly gather that both of them have their own battles to fight.
Majority housewives suffer from this kind of abuse on daily basis and become a victim of their husband’s anger and frustrations. All these episodes, even if they occur just once, leave a dark and negative imprint on the mind of a woman.
3. Impetus behind the problem
The emphasis by this study is on the shifting psychological stability of a woman. Many working women who were tied up at home during the COVID phase were also facing the same issues as those women who were not working and were totally dedicated to their households. In addition, the newly married women also faced the many issues because of which their relationships suffered from crisis. We cannot consider using the phrase ‘the main problems were …’ because there were so many issues and all of them were equally complicated.
3.1 Shortage/decrement in the total family income
The difference between the ratios of the income of the household and the expenses of the household increased to such an extent that it became very difficult to supplement the basic needs of the family. All this led to an additional burden on the housewives as they had to adjust with the scarcity of money, look after the basic needs of the family members like food and medicines, and most importantly, handle the educational expenses of children and to handle their tantrums. Obviously, the prime responsibility of handling the financial matters mostly lies in the hands of the husband, but handling and managing the children, especially the young ones who are not established enough to take care of themselves and rely entirely on parents is a rather more difficult job. Women who are totally soaked up in house chores are relatively more vulnerable to depression and anxiety because of the fact that their life revolves around just this one aspect – family and family members.
In most traditional families, who are deeply rooted into the quagmire of cliché societal rules mostly see housewives as the thread which binds the family members together. And for this one reason, whatever happens within a family becomes the prime responsibility of a housewife. If the man of the family loses his job or earns inadequately, it becomes the responsibility of the housewife to manage the expense and feed everyone according to that [1].
In fact, housewives are burdened with so many responsibilities that they hardly get any time to look after themselves or pay attention to their mental wellness even in normal conditions. Topping that, the lockdown period during the pandemic was like a cherry on the top of a cake.
The loss of jobs and massive fall in the economy during the pandemic resulted in the shortage of money due to which many families started quarreling within themselves.
The basic expenses of the household like groceries, medical expenses and various other incidentals like electricity, water and rent were also too much and the restricted income of the family was a big concern for the housewives during the pandemic.
3.2 Housewives: victims of domestic violence
In various households, the housewives also fell prey to the frustrations and aggression of their male counterparts. The frustration and foiling mindset of husbands, especially those who were out of jobs were incited to behave violently and become aggressive and misbehave with their female counterparts [2].
Many cases were reported where husbands beat their wives ruthlessly and even many children became witness to this at a very young and tender age. Usually, this behavior arises from the ruined psychological process of the various men who believe that feeding their families is their primary job and somewhere deep within they knew they are lacking in it. But, keeping in mind the egoistic characteristic of the male mindset, they reciprocated this frustration on their wives and blamed them for spending too much and not being able to survive in tough conditions [3].
3.3 Burden of nurturing the entire family
During this pandemic, the world witnessed exponential deaths and fatalities, families were infected and as a measure for safety, people were maintaining physical distances from one another and constantly sanitizing and so much more. But distances were increasing at a rapid pace not just physically, but also mentally. Another reason why housewives suffered psychological stress during the pandemic was that all the members of the family came under one roof [4, 5].
Now, prima face if we consider, this should be a good thing. But the case was not so appealing in most families. When joint families came together, in-laws came under one roof, most of them could not adjust with each other.
In addition to this, housewives were expected to bear the responsibility to make peace with the in-laws no matter how tortured they felt from within.
This perpetual burden of keeping the family tied up together along with bearing the financial issues and still keeping the family happy together by taking care of all the members of the family – husbands as well as the in-laws was a very challenging task for housewives.
If we talk about Indian families, the psychological ill-impacts on housewives were even worse. In Indian families, it is believed that joint families stay happy and family members should stay together as much as possible and because of this notion of a “happy family”, many families end up “unhappily”. Many such cases prevail where if we observe, women are not happy with their in-laws and are victimized badly – both physically and mentally.
Additionally, women faced issues with in-laws in terms of dominance also. Women who were working from home needed to spare time for working as well as for doing house chores. But with families living together under the same roof, division of work was not equal and all the pressure was on the shoulders of housewives.
4. The effects of migration on housewives
In addition to all this, there was one more issue we witnessed – MASS MOVEMENT. Now when we hear the word mass movement, we picture migration. But this migration is of a different kind altogether. During the pandemic, there were thousands of people who had to move to their home towns i.e., they had to shift from the place they worked at to their home towns or villages due to work from home policy and decreased income and increased expenses [6, 7].
Those who were unmarried, were a bit safe from the household problems, but those who are married, especially married women, faced a lot of difficulties in adjusting in their home towns and villages again.
The main issue was that women belonging to a village first adapted themselves with the ambience and lifestyle of the cities due to their husbands’ jobs in the cities. Now, when they were finally settled there, away from the daily hustles of in-laws and neighborhood, they were again compelled to shift to their native hometowns or villages.
Now going back there and adjusting with the same old typical conservatism and living up to the expectations of in-laws and society was one hell of a challenge for housewives during pandemic. Husbands could still comparatively adjust because they were living in their own family environment which wasn’t new for them. But housewives faced difficulties because most of them were not treated as a part of the family but as a DAUGHTER-IN-LAW who will work and contribute towards the family’s well-being in every way.
The husbands also did not understand their wives’ conditions and the negative psychological impact on their minds as they were too much involved in other things like job and income.
All these factors led to a massive mental breakdown and negatively propagated the emotional dissatisfactions within families.
5. Sexual deprivation in housewives
Apart from all this tedious house-job, there was a perpetually rising tension of sexual dissatisfaction between husband and wife.
According to some researchers who conducted research in this area, 70% Indian women do not have orgasm during sexual intercourse. Sexual dissatisfaction leads to many mental disorders like neurosis and even Oedipus complex sometimes in worse cases. In a novel called Cry, the peacock by Anita Desai, the protagonist Maya suffers from psychosis and a grave neurotic disorder. This leads her to madness and results in heinous crime. Maya ends up murdering her husband Gautam and killing herself soon after [8].
Many women who were exhausted by their day’s labour during pandemic and wanted some relief looked up to their male counterparts for sexual pleasures and satisfaction. But 7 out of 10 men do not pay heed to a woman’s sexual satisfaction. During pandemic, women were mentally exhausted due to many reasons and the only mode of pleasure or relief was sexual intimacy. But housewives suffered from sexual disharmony also [2].
So, if we consider all these factors and reasons, we can easily imply that women were psychologically affected to an extremely disastrous degree. The psychological impact on housewives during the pandemic was so traumatic and serious, that it affected the overall functioning and mental makeup of women, especially housewives.
6. The cause-and-effect theory
Now, when we consider such reasons and the consequent effects of these, we can acknowledge very well how the conditions of the housewives would’ve been like during the pandemic. While we acknowledge and come to terms with these conditions, we realize that these were the conditions of those women who were unpregnant (Table 1) [3, 7].
Reasons
Effects on Psychology and Physical Health
1. Lack of literacy or lack of disease management knowledge.
Increased risk of getting prone to the pandemic. Increased risk of spreading or catching infection from nearby people.
2. Burden of increased house chores like cooking, cleaning, washing etc.
Excessive body aches and lethargy.
3. Forceful/undesired/unwillingness to perform sexual activity.
Decreased libido resulting in sexual dissatisfaction with the partner.
4. Irregular sleep patterns.
Insomnia, increased risk of mental disorders, irritability and heart diseases like stroke.
5. Economic/financial problems.
Inability to fulfill the basic family and self needs and increased burden of affording the essentials.
6. Lack of mental health assessment/self-judgment methods.
Depression, anxiety, mental disorders, lack of self-confidence, guilt etc.
7. Irregular emotional episodes/fluctuations due to abundance of household chores and lack of time for self-enhancement.
Fluctuations in the menstrual cycle patterns, loss of appetite and irregular mood swings.
Table 1.
Reasons and effects of common problems faced by housewives.
7. Pregnant women during pandemic
Now considering the other paradigm of femineity, i.e., when we look at those women who were pregnant during the pandemic period, we will know and we will realize that how difficult it was all the more for those women who were facing pregnancy along with the other stresses of household. In fact, there were some women who did not only go through repeated pregnancy disorders and other stressful episodes but also went through many physical as well as mental disorders which we call Post-partum Stress Disorders. This disorder results in post-partum psychosis which is usually prominent among 20–25% pregnant women [9, 10, 11].
8. Pre- and post-partum disorders
The most common symptoms of this disorder are rambling speeches, elated mood swings, erratic behavior and repeated episodes of crying over past guilt and much more. The summary is that, the longer it takes to treat them, the bigger the problem becomes. Sometimes, the stressful disorder also leads to having much serious effects that can harm the child as well as the mother herself and can be very aching for the family members as well. Now, when we talk about the treatment of such disorders, the first step which needs to be followed is to keep the woman happy during such times. But, pandemic and especially, the lock-down period was so stressful for everyone that it became very difficult and almost impossible for the family members to take care of the pregnant woman.
The financial and other crisis made the proper medication and psychiatric assistance also difficult to afford. The only method to keep the woman healthy was to keep the woman happy and the overall ambience of the family also happy but that was not possibly happening everywhere.
A similar research study conducted during the Ebola outbreak in West Africa in 2014–2015, reported that women were more likely to be infected because of their primary role as caregivers inside families and frontline health workers. The resources for reproductive and sexual health were diverted to emergency response. This led to an increase in the maternal mortality rates as well.
So, the pandemic had combined negative effects on housewives as well as women who were either pregnant or working from home.
9. Effects of pandemic on female domestic workers or house-maids
The image is taken from a leading Indian newspaper article, which captures the image of a young domestic worker who was deeply unhappy with the lockdown. She reported that the few hours she used to spend away from home was the only time she had to herself in an otherwise full day. She’d get to work early, finish the chores quickly and efficiently, and once her employer left for office, relax with a cup of tea and something to eat, and watch television (Figure 1) [12].
But everything changed amid lockdown in pandemic. She would stay home in a joint family all day long and the entire burden of household chores were placed on her shoulders. She had to look after, her child, husband, parents-in-law, not to mention the regular cleaning and swabbing and the ceaseless reprimand. The husband who was not violent, but like many men, apathetic and mostly uncaring.
For women who live in violent households, and those hundreds who cooped up in cramped spaces things became much more difficult during the pandemic.
It’s a fact that count and degrees of domestic violence increased during times pandemic lockdown. Men who were caught between the clutches of the State and local militia, men turn more and more to the violent abuse of their wives and children.
The knowledge of how pandemic impacted housewives is less common. The studies that exist, however, are consistent in their findings.
The signs of the negative impact of the pandemic on women are quite clear.
There are various research reports from mid-Asian countries like China, Malaysia and Indonesia show a sharp rise in domestic violence in recent months.
According to a recent case reported in China’s Jingzhou district, there was a sharp rise in domestic abuse reporting in February 2020 as compared to the previous year.
For a country like India, it’s difficult enough for women to report domestic violence in ‘normal’ times; if they wanted to do so in pandemic, how would they? Would their complaint be taken seriously? With social interaction down to nothing, there’s no alternative to compassionate neighbors, NGOs or the community.
10. The lack of proper sanitation facilities for women
Across the world, at least 75 per cent — and the figure is higher in some countries — of caregivers are women. In India, we already know that nurses are at risk; they are being thrown out of their rented accommodation, targeted in the areas they live in [8, 13].
A recent piece in The Lancet asks a question that is seldom addressed — that of women’s sanitary needs at times like this. Among the concerns for protective equipment, gloves, masks and so on, should there not be concern for menstrual supplies such as sanitary napkins?
A Chinese activist, Jiang Jing, who runs the Coronavirus Sister Support campaign, recently said, “Not many people thought that the frontline female health workers engaged in the battle against Covid-19 could need sanitary products for their health.” [4].
Another tragedy which unfolded during the pandemic was the dolefully scarce compensation packages announced by the government which were limited only to registered workers, a minuscule number in a largely unregulated situation.
The chances were that there were few women among the registered, while many were working as part of families, and many were simply uncounted.
The urgency of dealing with pandemics took away attention from what were seen as ‘smaller’ issues at the time.
Lack of attention to women’s needs and short supplies in such difficult times was one of the major casualties. It is however worth mentioning, that if it would have been done effectively, then it’d have had a long-term effect.
For example, when domestic violence went up, so did the sexual activities. In India, one sector that had been badly affected by the lockdown is the production of contraceptives. Factories have shut down as workers were unable to commute. While the contraceptive pill is manufactured in one state, for example, some of the ingredients are sourced from another. With borders closed, this too had to stop and with the global supply chain under stress, the implications were felt nationwide as well as globally.
11. Pandemic: a positive outlook
However, there were some positive aspects of the pandemic too. Many women who were physically and mentally strong enough to handle to the pressures and burden of household chores, were engaging in self-enhancement activities too like grooming themselves, exercising regularly and spending quality time with their families and friends.
Although, due to many restrictions all the clubs and other leisure-seeking places were closed down, but people still were able to host gatherings constituting limited number of people, like only family and close friends. Many women were engaging in these activities with their family members and were really bonding well with them. In fact, for those families who usually did not get enough time to spend with their families were enjoying this time period in a very well manner. For those women, who are usually always tied up at work and their husbands also busy in their offices were able to spend time with their children and bond with them well [14, 15, 16, 17].
On the other hand, some joint families having senior citizens were also able to spend time with their sons and daughters, daughters-in-law and grand-children. The reason behind this is as the schools and colleges were closed, students were studying online. So, those students who wanted to prepare for higher studies got ample time to prepare due to the decreased burden of school activities. Additionally, school-going children who are usually so burdened with the loads of home work and assignments were also relieved for some time and got to spend quality time with their parents and family members.
12. Enhancement in relationships within the family
Usually, when husbands left for work and children for schools, housewives were left with no other option than to pass their time doing house chores all the time or may be going hither and wither to keep themselves engaged. This resulted in a reduced level of bonding within the families. Weather we talk about joint or nuclear families, those women who were resilient and buoyant enough to handle their families and the changed environment due to pandemic and were constantly supported by financial aids were far away from any depressing or anxious episodes.
Many housewives after getting free from basic household work like cooking and cleaning engaged themselves in many recreational activities with their families like playing games, crafting with children and DIY home making items and much more [16].
Reportedly, The Hindu, an Indian editorial showed several pictures of children as well as parents engaging into various recreational activities which benefitted the environment as well like making best out of plastic and other wastes using social media and YouTube tutorials, planting trees and many other activities of the similar kind. Below are some pictures which evidently display the positive sides of the pandemic for those who were resilient enough to handle the situations in a robust manner (Figures 2 and 3).
Komal Narang at @myhappinesz says in the MOMS SPEAK section of The Hindu, “Earlier, my three-year-old was an outdoor kid and never had screen time. Now that I allow him to watch YouTube (mainly our family vlogs), he is taking some time to adjust to the change. Apart from his sleeping and eating schedule, which remain the same, we take each day as it comes. We’ve even started our own book club! It is restricted to six picture books or so a day. We used to read page after page, but now that we have the time, we have slowed down. We take time to look at the illustrations, I ask him what he sees … It is a more mindful way of reading.”
This testimonial statement by Komal Narang evidently proves the argument that how working women belonging from relatively well-to-do families were enjoying their quality time with children. Many mothers who otherwise were unable to spend much time with their children and family members were keenly involved and engaged in teaching their children various art of living activities and were getting to know them better.
13. Engagement of women in social activities during the pandemic
Another example of people engaging in social works is given below where we can see how women were helping the underprivileged children and families by visiting the nearby non-government organizations and donating various books and other stationary items to those children who could not afford them otherwise so that they can do something creative and can utilize the time of quarantine (Figures 4 and 5).
These images are a clear evidence of how housewives and other social workers were engaged in helping the less privileged children and people in educating and feeding them as well.
14. Research studies in support of the argument
According to a study known as ‘Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)’ which is a 21-item self-rated scale that evaluates the key symptoms of depression including mood, pessimism, sense of failure, self-dissatisfaction, guilt, punishment, self-dislike, self-accusation, suicidal ideas, crying, irritability, social withdrawal, indecisiveness, body image change, work difficulty, insomnia, fatigability, loss of appetite, weight loss, somatic preoccupation and loss of libido (Beck and Steer, 1993; Beck, Steer & Garbing, 1988), women, especially housewives suffered from extreme levels of depression and anxiety during the pandemic period [18, 19].
Another study conducted by the NPHEC in 2020 on the acute impacts of COVID on the mental health of women, psychological abuse is one of the most widely occurring reason behind depression in women [20]. The organization assessed the mental wellness of women by conducting an online survey using the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21). After this survey, the observations were that those women who had a history of mental illness and who were allegedly abused during lockdown were found to have more severe symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Around 40% of housewives reported problematic social media use. Violence against women also reportedly increased significantly during the lockdown [1, 4].
Psychological abuse was the most frequent type of violence during the pandemic which was approximately 96%. Women who had experienced abuse before the lockdown were at an increased risk of violence during the period of lockdown. It is widely accepted that women are the most affected, given that they are known to have a more anxious temperament and a higher emotional quotient. The emotional index of a woman is highly refined as compared to men and housewives are more vulnerable to any psychological impact because their time was engaged completely in their family and house chores surrounded by these situations all the time. Working women still could divert their mind for a little while but housewives had no options at all to do so.
In the above image, it is quite clear that a woman, especially the one who is designated as a HOUSEWIFE had to perform multiple tasks.
15. Conclusions
Considering the entire argument and various causes and its effects discussed above, we can summarize the entire discussion in a nutshell saying that the pandemic had a two-way effect on people around the globe, especially working women and housewives – both negatively and positively.
For those who could withstand such an unusual time and were resilient in such harsh situations came out with a neutral psychology, but for those who were not so strong and robust psychologically were impacted in a much worse way than one could ever think of. The chapter also tries to emphasize on the fact that being psychologically strong and being able to resist and withstand in such difficult times was a boon to many. Psychological strength is more important as compared to physical strength because a physical problem can be cured by medications, but a psychological disorder or imbalance lasts longer in a person’s mind than expected. This is a bit more complex in women because of their higher emotional quotient and involuntary responses towards any emotional tension. Women and especially housewives are relatively more prone to any kind of family issue because they are more inclined towards keeping the family bound together and they are usually solely responsible for nurturing the family, being given the role of the “Mother” in nature.
Hence, this chapter concludes that the effects of the pandemic were global and worldwide but had far more deeper and complex effects on women – housewives and working women. The researches or the arguments taken up for the same prove how a woman’s psychology - positively and negatively, was affected during the pandemic episode and especially during the lockdown.
Acknowledgments
This paper is based on my own experiences and somewhat on the experiences I witnessed during the pandemic and the following lockdown. I am highly grateful to my mother, Mrs. Tahira Wagla and father, Mr. Firoz Hussain who supported the family in every possible manner with their immense support and patience.
Also, I would like to thank my sister, Insiya Wagla for her calm and motivating attitude towards me and my researches.
Since, I spend most of my time away from the family, but still somehow my mother, more than my father manages to keep the family together despite of her own physical ailments and weaknesses.
This one fact motivated me a lot to contribute for this chapter and that is the sole reason why I chose to write about the plights and struggles of home-makers and women during the pandemic.
I would like to thank the Almighty for giving me such a beautiful family and the intellect to be able to write on such issues.
Lastly, I extend my gratitude towards my organization for supporting me in writing for this book, especially my beloved Aaditya M, without whom, I would not have been able to understand what guidance and support truly means.
Declaration
I, Samina Firoz Wagla Wala, hereby declare that my work entitled “The Psychological Aspects of home-makers and women during Pandemic” submitted as a chapter contribution to the book entitled “Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives” for Intech Open Publication is an original work done by me under the guidance of my family and friends. The work is submitted to be published as a research/review paper and I take complete responsibility for unfollowing any compliance(s) or protocol(s) of the publishers.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
COVID-19
Coronavirus Disease-2019
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
NGO
Non-Government Organization
DIY
Do-it-yourself
BDI
Beck Depression Inventory
DASS-21
Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales
NPHEC
Nature Public Health Emergency Collection
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Sometimes, a very normal looking person may also be a victim of mental breakdown and anxiety. He may be working out fine, laughing, smiling, talking and all, but somewhere deep inside and within, he may be crying his heart out. It just does not visibly appear so on the outside. Moreover, in the phase of COVID, this situation has aggravated a lot because of various reasons like loss of jobs, work from home, salary reductions and cost cuttings etc. The effect of these problems fell on the families overall, but the most suffered category was – THE HOMEMAKERS, or in other words, THE HOUSEWIVES. Housewives have usually higher resilience when it comes to handling problems and family issues as they have an inbuilt capacity and trait to handle and adjust themselves in any atmosphere and ambience after marriage, but this COVID period was equally tough to handle for them as well. Specifically, if we talk about housewives, the entire COVID period was difficult for them to handle because of multiple reasons which will be mentioned point by point.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76713",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76713",signatures:"Samina Firoz Wagla Wala",book:{id:"10814",type:"book",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",subtitle:"Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",publishedDate:"November 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Fabio Gabrielli and Floriana Irtelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10814.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-126-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-119-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-215-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"259407",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrielli",slug:"fabio-gabrielli",fullName:"Fabio Gabrielli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"351133",title:"Ms.",name:"Samina",middleName:"Firoz",surname:"Wagla Wala",fullName:"Samina Wagla Wala",slug:"samina-wagla-wala",email:"saminawagla@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The stature of housewives in the society",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Impetus behind the problem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Shortage/decrement in the total family income",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Housewives: victims of domestic violence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Burden of nurturing the entire family",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. The effects of migration on housewives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Sexual deprivation in housewives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. The cause-and-effect theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Pregnant women during pandemic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"8. Pre- and post-partum disorders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"9. Effects of pandemic on female domestic workers or house-maids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"10. The lack of proper sanitation facilities for women",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"11. Pandemic: a positive outlook",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"12. Enhancement in relationships within the family",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"13. Engagement of women in social activities during the pandemic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"14. Research studies in support of the argument",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"15. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Declaration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acronyms and Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Octaviani I, Sasmita D. Household Financial Management Training for Housewives Stairs during the COVID-19 Pandemic Period in Margasari Village. ABDIMAS TALENTA: Jurnal Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat. 2021 Mar 15;6(1):81-85.'},{id:"B2",body:'Gebrewahd GT, Gebremeskel GG, Tadesse DB. Intimate partner violence against reproductive age women during COVID-19 pandemic in northern Ethiopia 2020: a community-based cross-sectional study. Reproductive health. 2020 Dec;17(1):1-8.'},{id:"B3",body:'Sediri, Sabrine et al. “Women\'s mental health: acute impact of COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence.” Archives of women\'s mental health vol. 23,6 (2020): 749-756. doi:10.1007/s00737-020-01082-4'},{id:"B4",body:'Megatsari H, Laksono AD, Ibad M, Herwanto YT, Sarweni KP, Geno RA, Nugraheni E. The community psychosocial burden during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. Heliyon. 2020 Oct 1;6(10):e05136.'},{id:"B5",body:'Novitasari D, Sasono I, Asbari M. Work-family conflict and worker’s performance during Covid-19 pandemic: What is the role of readiness to change mentality. International Journal of Science and Management Studies (IJSMS). 2020;3(4):122-134.'},{id:"B6",body:'Novitasari D, Sasono I, Asbari M. Work-family conflict and worker’s performance during Covid-19 pandemic: What is the role of readiness to change mentality. International Journal of Science and Management Studies (IJSMS). 2020;3(4):122-134.'},{id:"B7",body:'Sauer KS, Jungmann SM, Witthöft M. Emotional and behavioral consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of health anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, and distress (in) tolerance. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2020 Jan;17(19):7241.'},{id:"B8",body:'Naikar B. Marital Disharmony in Anita Desai’s Novels. Indian English Literature. 2002;1:106.'},{id:"B9",body:'Ayaz R, Hocaoğlu M, Günay T, devrim Yardımcı O, Turgut A, Karateke A. Anxiety and depression symptoms in the same pregnant women before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of perinatal medicine. 2020 Nov 26;48(9):965-970.'},{id:"B10",body:'Oskovi-Kaplan ZA, Buyuk GN, Ozgu-Erdinc AS, Keskin HL, Ozbas A, Tekin OM. The effect of COVID-19 pandemic and social restrictions on depression rates and maternal attachment in immediate postpartum women: a preliminary study. Psychiatric Quarterly. 2020 Sep 4:1-8.'},{id:"B11",body:'Miaomiao Xie, Xiaoyun Wang, Jingjing Zhang, Yi Wang, Alteration in the psychologic status and family environment of pregnant women before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 10.1002/ijgo.13575, 153, 1, (71-75), (2021).'},{id:"B12",body:'https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/uterus-diaries/what-covid-19-teaches-us-about-womens-mental-health/'},{id:"B13",body:'Malik S, Naeem K. Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Women: Health, livelihoods & domestic violence.'},{id:"B14",body:'Corter C, Pelletier J. Parent and community involvement in schools: policy panacea or pandemic?. InInternational handbook of educational policy 2005 (pp. 295-327). Springer, Dordrecht.'},{id:"B15",body:'Novitasari D, Sasono I, Asbari M. Work-family conflict and worker’s performance during Covid-19 pandemic: What is the role of readiness to change mentality. International Journal of Science and Management Studies (IJSMS). 2020;3(4):122-134.'},{id:"B16",body:'Thorell LB, Skoglund C, de la Peña AG, Baeyens D, Fuermaier AB, Groom MJ, Mammarella IC, Van der Oord S, van den Hoofdakker BJ, Luman M, de Miranda DM. Parental experiences of homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic: Differences between seven European countries and between children with and without mental health conditions. European child & adolescent psychiatry. 2021 Jan 7:1-3.'},{id:"B17",body:'Kamdi PS, Deogade MS. The hidden positive effects of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2020 Mar 11;11(Special Issue 1).'},{id:"B18",body:'Beck AT, Epstein N, Brown G, Steer RA. An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology. 1988 Dec;56(6):893.'},{id:"B19",body:'Ahmed MZ, Ahmed O, Aibao Z, Hanbin S, Siyu L, Ahmad A. Epidemic of COVID-19 in China and associated psychological problems. Asian journal of psychiatry. 2020 Jun 1;51:102092.'},{id:"B20",body:'Kisana R, Shah N. ‘No one understands what we go through’: self-identification of health risks by women sanitation workers in Pune, India during the COVID-19 pandemic. Gender & Development. 2021 Jan 2;29(1):35-54.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Samina Firoz Wagla Wala",address:"saminawagla@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Techno India NJR Institute of Technology, Udaipur, India
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"58010",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72304",title:"Fourth Industrial Revolution: Current Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities",slug:"fourth-industrial-revolution-current-practices-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:6436,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:68,abstract:"The globalization and the competitiveness are forcing companies to rethink and to innovate their production processes following the so-called Industry 4.0 paradigm. It represents the integration of tools already used in the past (big data, cloud, robot, 3D printing, simulation, etc.) that are now connected into a global network by transmitting digital data. The implementation of this new paradigm represents a huge change for companies, which are faced with big investments. In order to benefit from the opportunities offered by the smart revolution, companies must have the prerequisites needed to withstand changes generated by “smart” system. In addition, new workers who face the world of work 4.0 must have new skills in automation, digitization, and information technology, without forgetting soft skills. This chapter aims to present the main good practices, challenges, and opportunities related to Industry 4.0 paradigm.",book:{id:"6291",slug:"digital-transformation-in-smart-manufacturing",title:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing"},signatures:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Raffaele Cioffi and Federico\nZomparelli",authors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"},{id:"205141",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Zomparelli",slug:"federico-zomparelli",fullName:"Federico Zomparelli"},{id:"208748",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Cioffi",slug:"raffaele-cioffi",fullName:"Raffaele Cioffi"}]},{id:"35715",doi:"10.5772/38693",title:"The Role and Importance of Cultural Tourism in Modern Tourism Industry",slug:"the-role-and-importance-of-cultural-tourism-in-modern-tourism-industry",totalDownloads:41082,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:61,abstract:null,book:{id:"2298",slug:"strategies-for-tourism-industry-micro-and-macro-perspectives",title:"Strategies for Tourism Industry",fullTitle:"Strategies for Tourism Industry - Micro and Macro Perspectives"},signatures:"Janos Csapo",authors:[{id:"118766",title:"Dr.",name:"János",middleName:null,surname:"Csapó",slug:"janos-csapo",fullName:"János Csapó"}]},{id:"38973",doi:"10.5772/51460",title:"Risk Management in Construction Projects",slug:"risk-management-in-construction-projects",totalDownloads:102555,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"2175",slug:"risk-management-current-issues-and-challenges",title:"Risk Management",fullTitle:"Risk Management - Current Issues and Challenges"},signatures:"Nerija Banaitiene and Audrius Banaitis",authors:[{id:"139414",title:"Dr.",name:"Nerija",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitiene",slug:"nerija-banaitiene",fullName:"Nerija Banaitiene"},{id:"149658",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitis",slug:"audrius-banaitis",fullName:"Audrius Banaitis"}]},{id:"40977",doi:"10.5772/53885",title:"The Emergence of Scientific Reasoning",slug:"the-emergence-of-scientific-reasoning",totalDownloads:4546,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"654",slug:"current-topics-in-children-s-learning-and-cognition",title:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition"},signatures:"Bradley J. 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Masnick and Corinne Zimmerman",authors:[{id:"154336",title:"Prof.",name:"Bradley",middleName:null,surname:"Morris",slug:"bradley-morris",fullName:"Bradley Morris"},{id:"154337",title:"Prof.",name:"Steve",middleName:null,surname:"Croker",slug:"steve-croker",fullName:"Steve Croker"},{id:"154338",title:"Prof.",name:"Amy",middleName:null,surname:"Masnick",slug:"amy-masnick",fullName:"Amy Masnick"},{id:"154339",title:"Prof.",name:"Corinne",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"corinne-zimmerman",fullName:"Corinne Zimmerman"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:14027,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2308,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27675,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2387,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1651,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82982",title:"The Well-Being in the Children and Adolescents with ADHD: Possible Influencing Factors and How to Improve It",slug:"the-well-being-in-the-children-and-adolescents-with-adhd-possible-influencing-factors-and-how-to-imp",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106596",abstract:"In recent years, academics have increasingly emphasized the importance of research into the well-being of children and adolescents. This is because well-being plays an important role in the development of children and adolescents. The literature reports that high levels of well-being facilitate positive functioning in children and adolescents. They contribute to the overall development of the individual and are a key factor in helping children and adolescents to integrate into society. ADHD, the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder, affects more than 5% of children and adolescents, and the distress caused by its symptom can seriously undermine the well-being of children and adolescents. Therefore, this chapter discusses this noticeable issue focusing on the following key parts: An understanding of the well-being in children and adolescents, the factors that affect the well-being of children and adolescents with ADHD, and how to improve the well-being of children and adolescents with ADHD.",book:{id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg"},signatures:"Jenson Yin and Jie Luo"},{id:"82949",title:"Corruption and Deterioration of Democracy: The Brazilian Lesson",slug:"corruption-and-deterioration-of-democracy-the-brazilian-lesson",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106194",abstract:"Although it has emerged, nationally and internationally, as one of the largest investigations against political corruption, Operation Car Wash—at its peak of popular prestige—cleared the path for the political rise of Jair Bolsonaro to the Presidency of the Republic of Brazil. And by doing so, to a certain extent, it paved the way for a set of arbitrary practices that today threaten and weaken the main Brazilian democratic institutions. Brazilian democracy today pays a high price for the Judiciary’s lethargic and condescending response to the unorthodox and illegal practices of Federal Judge Sérgio Moro during the golden years of Operation Car Wash (2014–2018). The lesson that the Brazilian episode brings to the international legal community is that the constant disrespect for the rules of due criminal procedure in large cases of corruption erodes the institutional bases that support the proper confrontation of this type of crime. The pertinent fight against corruption in a democracy can only take place in strict obedience to the law.",book:{id:"11772",title:"Corruption - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg"},signatures:"Fabio Roberto D’Avila and Theodoro Balducci de Oliveira"},{id:"82867",title:"Indigenous Cultural Expressions and Methodological Frameworks: Some Thoughts",slug:"indigenous-cultural-expressions-and-methodological-frameworks-some-thoughts",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106236",abstract:"Within the contemporary global world, there appears to be an inevitable lag between the changing factual reality and the concepts and categories scholars use to analyze it, i.e., “indigenous peoples,” “traditional oral expressions,” “ethnicity,” “cultural identity,” and “cultural heritage.” But are these discrepancies insurmountable? This article delves into such mismatches, examining the relentless search for heuristic instruments to deal with the diverse indigenous artistic expressions in their socio-historical and political contexts. It presents some thoughts about the methodological frameworks used to ponder indigenous cultural expressions. The main argument is based on ethnographic research among Zoque and Mayan peoples in the states of Oaxaca and Chiapas in Southern Mexico, while establishing a dialog with ethnographies by other authors on different indigenous regions.",book:{id:"11434",title:"Indigenous Populations - Perspectives From Scholars and Practitioners in Contemporary Times",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11434.jpg"},signatures:"Marina Alonso-Bolaños"},{id:"82930",title:"Psychosocial Factors Linked to Severe Mental Disorders in a Convenience Sample of Teenage Students",slug:"psychosocial-factors-linked-to-severe-mental-disorders-in-a-convenience-sample-of-teenage-students",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104936",abstract:"Students with severe mental disorders (SMDs) are a vulnerable population with higher risks of early school dropout than the general population. Our aim has been to define psychosocial factors of students aged 12–18 years who have been diagnosed with severe mental disorders. So, we have defined the psychosocial factors of a group of students aged 12 to 18 years who have been diagnosed with a SMD. We have made the selection of the sample through an intentional nonprobability sampling. One hundred and nine cases of students were analyzed. We have analyzed the evolution of the student throughout their academic history until the moment in which they are hospitalized in serious condition by means of an exploratory factor analysis, with the application of the KMO sample adequacy of 0.776 and the significance of Bartlett’s test of sphericity p < .001, we have obtained a high correlation between the variables. The factors obtained are study limitations, symptomatology representation, study facilitators, other limitations. The results show that it is necessary to take into account the conditions that prevent them from permanence, inclusion, coexistence, and educational achievement. Likewise, symptomatic expression and family support are key elements in improving the educational process of pupils with SMD. These factors allow us to infer pedagogical practices that are more appropriate to their needs.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Cristina Sánchez Romero and Francisco Crespo Molero"},{id:"82928",title:"Utilizing Environmental Analytical Chemistry to Establish Culturally Appropriate Community Partnerships",slug:"utilizing-environmental-analytical-chemistry-to-establish-culturally-appropriate-community-partnersh",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106237",abstract:"In the United States, minority communities are disproportionately exposed to environmental contaminants due to a combination of historically discriminatory based racial policies and a lack of social political capital. American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) communities have additional factors that increase the likelihood of contaminant exposure. Some of these factors include the disparity of social, cultural, and political representation, differences in cultural understandings between AI/AN communities and western populations, and the unique history of tribal sovereignty in the US. Since the 1990s, research from both private and federal organizations have sought to increase research with AI/AN communities. However, although rooted in beneficence, the rift in cultural upbringing can lead to negative outcomes as well as further isolation and misrepresentation of AI/AN communities. Environmental analytical chemistry (EAC) is one approach that provides a means to establish productive and culturally appropriate collaborations with AI/AN populations. EAC is a more holistic approach that incorporates numerous elements and disciplines to understand underlying environmental questions, while allowing direct input from AI/AN communities. Additionally, EAC allows for a myriad of experimental approaches that can be designed for each unique tribal community, to maintain cultural respect and probe individual nuanced questions.",book:{id:"11434",title:"Indigenous Populations - Perspectives From Scholars and Practitioners in Contemporary Times",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11434.jpg"},signatures:"Jonathan Credo, Jani C. Ingram, Margaret Briehl and Francine C. Gachupin"},{id:"82845",title:"Revisiting Crisis Governance: Toward Collaborative Crisis Management",slug:"revisiting-crisis-governance-toward-collaborative-crisis-management",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106129",abstract:"This chapter attends to three main modes of crisis governance: centralization, decentralization, and collaborative crisis management (CCM). While the first two modes focus almost exclusively on government actors, CCM goes beyond them by involving private sectors and civil society. CCM is a more robust form of crisis governance since it combines knowledge and resources from multiple actors, which is a key to managing the more complex nature of modern crises. This chapter uses the case of Indonesia in dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic to show the dynamics of crisis governance. Indonesia moved from a centralized mode of crisis governance toward a more decentralized one. Simultaneously, there were several collaborative initiatives involving multiple stakeholders to deal with the crisis, such as in the case of SONJO. The case illustrates that while CCM provides a more effective response, it has some limitations as it has a smaller scale, may create internal conflict, lacks sustainability, and has a nonbinding character. The experience of Indonesia lends the lesson that for CCM to be robust crisis governance, and there needs to be a clear arrangement to boost its scale, manage internal conflict, improve sustainability, and induce a more permanent and binding framework.",book:{id:"11439",title:"Crisis Management - Principles, Roles and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11439.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriel Lele"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:276},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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