The SMSR values under lower-frequency side mode injection-locked of DFB LD1 at different wavelength detuning (Lu et al., 2008).
\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
\r\n\r\n\tThis edited book aims to provide the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of crude oil downstream processing which include the primary and secondary upgrading or treating processes covering desulfurization, denitrogenation, demetallation, and evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-681-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-680-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-682-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"808b0ddfb3b92e0636ae44a83ef7dbd9",bookSignature:"Dr. Ching Thian Tye",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11542.jpg",keywords:"Crude Oil Properties, Hydrocracking, Catalytic Cracking, Coking, Visbreaking, Thermal Cracking, Hydroprocessing, Hydrodesulfurization, Desulfurization, Denitrogenation, Demetallation, Dearomatization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia and dedicated researcher in fuel-related catalytic process and chemical reaction engineering. Dr. Tye serves on a review panel for international and national refereed journals, scientific proceedings as well as international grants.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"304947",title:"Dr.",name:"Ching Thian",middleName:null,surname:"Tye",slug:"ching-thian-tye",fullName:"Ching Thian Tye",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304947/images/system/304947.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tye is an associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia. She received her doctoral degree at The University of British Columbia, Canada. She is working in the area of chemical reaction engineering and catalysis. She has been involved in projects to improve catalysis activities, system efficiency, as well as products quality via different upgrading and treating paths that are related to petroleum and unconventional oil such as heavy oil, used motor oil, spent tire pyrolysis oils as well as renewable resources like palm oil. She serves as a review panel for international & national refereed journals, scientific proceedings as well as international grants.",institutionString:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",doi:"10.5772/39534",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",body:'\n\t\tIn an optical CATV system, the signal was directly or externally modulated with lightwave before communicates. Directly modulating signal with LD is an economic method, but the transmission distance and performance are significantly limited by laser chirping issues. In another hand, the externally modulation schemes have been proofed to provide better outcomes by eliminating the laser chirping issue. Nevertheless, an expensive externally modulated transmitter is required causing an increased capital expenditures. In order to provide an economic structure with advanced transmission performance as in external modulation system, direct modulation method is often combined with other techniques or components to compose higher performance and lower cost CATV system. The split-band techniques for example have been proofed as a powerful assistant for direct modulation CATV systems. In this structure, the full channel loading is shared by additional LDs causing a wider optical linewidth to eliminate the SBS degradation. In addition, by increasing the wavelength numbers, major parts of CSO distortions from each transmission band are automatically removed from each channel. These outstanding techniques and impressive outcomes are consequently analyzed and discussed as parts of this chapter.
\n\t\t\tIn parallel with the effective of the SBS degradation, the CNR is in direct proportion to the optical power, as well as the second-order harmonic distortion-to-carrier ratio (HD2/C) and the third-order inter-modulation distortion-to-carrier ratio (IMD3/C) values are in inverse proportion to the laser resonance frequency. Improving the utilized LD characteristic is therefore another useful methodology to upgrade the optical CATV system. External light-injection and optoelectronic feedback techniques in particularly have been experimentally proofed as efficient methods to enhance laser output power and laser resonance frequency (Lee et al., 2007, Lu et al., 2008). As a result, the CNR value will be proportionally increased with the enhanced LD intensity, as well as the HD2/C and IMD3/C will be proportionally reduced with the improved laser resonance frequency. The reduced HD2/C and IMD3/C values are subsequently leading to an improvement in CSO/CTB values.
\n\t\t\tFollowing with the modifications of modulation schemes and lightwave characteristics, compensating fiber dispersions is another research direction to promote fiber optical CATV systems. Numbers of compensation methodologies such as eliminating parts of optical dispersion by optical filter and cascading systems with negative dispersion fibers are demonstrated as useful techniques to upgrade system performance. Since there is no modulating information in the optical carrier, putting an optical filter to eliminate the redundant spectra not only can increase spectra efficiency by reducing the spectral linewidth but also can ameliorate the CSO/CTB performance by reducing frequency dispersion. Similarly, cascading a section of negative dispersion fiber with CATV systems is also an efficient method to eliminate the fiber chromatic dispersion. By combining a negative dispersion fiber with single mode fiber (SMF), the total fiber dispersion is able to be removed to improve the system performance. Consequently, the relative fiber dispersion compensation techniques as well as the possible extensions and the future directions of the CATV systems are also discussed in this chapter.
\n\t\tLong-distance transmission of fiber AM-VSB 80-channel CATV systems has been widely spread throughout the cable industry. Nevertheless, the maximum transmission distance of such systems is still limited by RF parameters and it is difficult to obtain good CNR, CSO, and CTB performances due to full channel loading (Lu & Lee, 1998). In order to provide an economic structure with advanced transmission performance as in external modulation system, direct modulation method is often combined with other techniques or components to compose higher performance and lower cost CATV system. The split-band techniques for example have been proofed as a powerful assistant for direct modulation CATV systems. In this structure, the full channel loading is shared by additional LDs causing a wider optical linewidth to eliminate the SBS degradation (Lee et al., 2007). In addition, by increasing the wavelength numbers, major parts of CSO distortions from each communication band are automatically removed from each communication channel.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFig. 1 shows two AM-VSB 80-channel fiber optical CATV systems with two cascaded EDFA’s (Lu & Lee, 1998). Fig. 1 (a) (referred to as system I) shows the conventional 80-channel fully loaded externally modulated system. Fig. 1 (b) (referred to as system II) shows a half-split-band directly modulated WDM system with 40 channels per transmitter.
\n\t\t\tIn system I, channel 5~78 (77.25–547.25 MHz) are fed into an external modulator as the modulation signal through an RF predistortion circuit. The interaction of the 1550 nm DFB laser light and the RF-generated electric fields leads to a phase modulation via the electrooptical effect. The phase modulation was then converted to intensity modulation within the external modulator. During this converting process, the linewidth is broadening by the phase modulation causing a reduced SBS effect. While in system II, channel 5~40 (77.25–319.25 MHz; low bands) are fed into the first directly modulated transmitter, and channel 41~78 (325.25–547.25 MHz; high bands) are fed into the second one. Channel (55.25–67.25 MHz) are removed from system II to obtain best CSO value.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFig. 2 (a) –(c)shows the measured CNR, CSO and CTB values under NTSC channel number for both system I and II respectively. Comparing with the system I, the CNR and CTB values in the system II are relatively degraded about 2 and 0.2 dB. Nevertheless, the CSO performance in the system II is much better than in system I especially at the high bands region.
\n\t\t\tThis improvement, resulted from the use of half-split-band and WDM techniques, is caused by the reduction of fiber nonlinear and dispersion effects. For example, when the carrier frequency for CH7 and CH13 is 175.25 and 211.25 MHz respectively, there will be a CSO distortion at:
\n\t\t\ta) Fully loading externally modulated transmitter system and (b) directly modulated transmitters using half-split-band techniques (
a) Measured CNR, (b) CSO and (c) CTB values for systems I and II. (
Similarly, the CSO distortion caused by CH78 and CH50 is located at:
\n\t\t\tThe above results present that the CSO distortions induced by low bands (CH5 ~ CH40) are located at high bands, and CSO distortions induced by high bands (CH41 ~ CH78) are located at low bands. The half-split-band technique is therefore can remove major part of CSO distortions in system II to improve the transmission performance.
\n\t\tIn contrast to transform the modulation techniques, boosting up LD performance is another valuable technique to be recoded in here. External light-injection techniques and optoelectronic feedback techniques in particularly have been experimentally proofed as efficient methods to improve optical fiber CATV systems (Lee et al., 2007). By externally injecting a master light source into a slave laser, the output power and laser resonance frequency of the injection-locked slave laser can be greatly enhanced (Kazubowska et al., 2002, Lee et al., 2006). The CNR value is consequently proportionally increased with the enhanced LD intensity, as well as the HD2/C and the IMD3/C are proportion reduced with the laser resonance frequency. The reduced HD2/C and IMD3/C values in the light-injection optical CATV systems will lead to an improvement in CSO/CTB performance. As a result, the light-injection techniques can notably improve the lightwave features to transmit CATV programs.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 3 shows a directly modulated transport system employing external light injection technique to improve the overall system performance (Lu et al., 2003). The central wavelengths of the two DFB laser diodes are 1550.5(1) and 1555.7(2) nm respectively.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the system, the frequency response of the DFB laser diode with and without external light injection is very different. In the free running case, the laser resonance frequency is ~5 GHz; with 3 dBm light injection, the laser resonance frequency is increased to ~15 GHz; and with 4.8 dBm light injection, the laser resonance frequency is further increased up to ~18.5 GHz. The 370% improvement in the laser resonance frequency has significantly demonstrated the advancement of the external light injection techniques to assist the fiber optical CATV systems.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 4 (a) shows the measured CNR values under NTSC channel number with and without external light injection respectively. It can be seen that the CNR values are boosted up with the increasing of the injected power level. For long-haul lightwave transmission systems, the CNR values are dominated mainly from signal-spontaneous beat noise (Way, 1998):
\n\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t
Directly modulated transport system employing external light-injection technique (
a) Measured CNR values with and without light injection. (b) The theoretical derived and experimental measured CSO and (c) CTB values.(
Pin is the EDFA optical input power, and G is the saturated gain of the EDFA. From the above equation, it is clear that the CNRsig-sp value depends critically on the optical input power Pin. When the injection power is increased, the power launched into the EDFA-I is enlarged. This is attributed by a fact that the external light injection will reduce the laser diode threshold current and then increase the optical output power of the laser diode (Kazubowska et al., 2002). As a result, the CNR performance is upgraded by the techniques.
\n\t\t\t\tIn parallel with the CNR values, the CSO and CTB values can also be improved by using half-split-band and external light injection techniques. According to the analysis in (Lu & Lee, 1998), the CSO and CTB distortions can be expressed as:
\n\t\t\t\twhere HD2 is the second order harmonic distortion, IMD3 is the third order intermodulation distortion, NCSO and NCTB are the product counts of CSO and CTB respectively. Smaller NCSO and NCTB can be obtained from the smaller channel number. Therefore, the CSO and CTB values presenting in Fig. 4 (b) and (c) can satisfy the fiber optical CATV systems’ requirements (>65/60 dB) (Lu & Lee, 1998).
\n\t\t\t\tIn addition, it also can be observed that CSO and CTB improvements of ~2 and ~3 dB have been achieved with 3 and 4.8 dBm light injection respectively. This means that the external light injection technique not only can increase the laser resonance frequency, but also can reduce the HD2/C and IMD3/C. The HD2/C and IMD3/C can be expressed as (Helms, 1991):
\n\t\t\t\twhere FR(f) is the small-signal frequency response, f1 is the modulation frequency, f0 is the laser resonance frequency, S0 is the photon density, n is the recombination lifetime of carriers, p is the photon lifetime, and ε is the gain compression parameter with respect to photon density. It is clear from Eq. 6 and 7 that both HD2/C and IMD3/C can become very small when f1<< f0. The use of external light injection technique lets the laser resonance frequency increased, and results in system with lower HD2/C and IMD3/C. Furthermore, it can be obviously seen from Eq. 4 and 5 that to reduce HD2/IMD3 will lead to CSO/CTB performance improvement. To show a more direct association among Eq. 6, 7 and the experimental results, the electrical spectra of the received signals with and without external injection are given in Fig. 5 (a) and (b). We can see that the flatness of the system with 4.8 dBm external injection is superior to that without external injection resulting in better CSO and CTB performances.
\n\t\t\ta) The electrical spectrum of the received signals with 4.8 dBm external injection and (b) without external injection into the laser (
In this section, remote light injection technique is discussed. As presented in Fig. 6 (Lee et al., 2007), a total of 77 random phase continuous wave carriers from a multiple signal generator were used to simulate analog CATV channels (CH2-78; 6 MHz/CH), and fed into two DFB LDs. The optical power was coupled into a 50-km SMF through an optical coupler. As to the remote light injection part, 1532.76 nm (’1) and 1535.94 nm (’2) lightwaves with 8 dBm power level are accurately chosen to inject through 3-port optical circulators (OCs). At the receiver end, the power levels of two DFB LDs in the free-running case are decreased obviously due to fiber transmission loss. However, these two power levels are able to be significantly increased by 8 dBm remote light injection and the optical spectra are slightly shifted toward longer wavelengths. This is because that the optimal injection locking condition is found when the detuning between 1 (2) and the ’1 (’2) is 0.12 nm, and the chaotic phenomenon is found when the detuning between 1 (2) and the ’1 (’2) is larger than 0.26 nm.
\n\t\t\t\tRemote light-injection direct modulation fiber optical CATV transport systems (
The measured CNR, CSO and CTB values in the free running case and with 8 dBm remote light injection are presented in Fig. 7 (a), (b) and (c) respectively. It is obvious that the CNR value ( 50 dB) is increased largely as 8 dBm optical power is remotely injected. The CNR value depends critically on the received optical power level:
\n\t\t\t\twhere CNRRIN results from the LD RIN; CNRth (due to thermal noise) and CNRshot (due to shot noise) are associated with the optical receiver. The summation of CNRth and CNRshot with 8 dBm remote light injection is higher than that in the free running case. This is due to a factor that the optical power is promoted by remote light injection causing a better CNR performance in the receiver end.
\n\t\t\t\tMeasured (a) CNR (b) CSO and (c) CTB values under NTSC channel number (
As to the CNR performance, the CSO/CTB values (65/63 dB) of system with 8 dBm remote light injection are improved considerably. It can be observed from the results that large CSO and CTB improvements of about 6 and 5 dB have been achieved. The improvements are resulted from the use of the half-split-band and remote light injection techniques. CSO and CTB distortions are given by (Way, 1998):
\n\t\t\t\twhere m is the optical modulation index, D is the dispersion coefficient, \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
In the early stage of developing light-injection techniques, researchers are firstly focused their eyes on main mode injection-locked. Nevertheless, this phenomenon was changed by the publications of low-frequency side mode injection-locked techniques (Lee et al., 2006, Seo et al., 2002), because the new method illustrates a much better improvement than main mode injection technique. Table 1 presents the SMSR values under lower-frequency side mode injection-locked of DFB LD at different wavelength detuning. It can be seen that the SMSR values of 40~48 dB are achieved when the locking range is -0.07 ~ +0.32 nm. As optimal injection locking happens, with a detuning of +0.12 nm, the maximum SMSR value of 48 dB is obtained. The injection-locked range for slave laser under light injection can be expressed as (Mondal et al., 2007):
\n\t\t\t\twhere k and denote coupling coefficient between injected field and laser field; Iin and Im are injected field and laser mode field intensity, and ∆ω is the locking range. Within the locking range, the frequency of slave laser is locked nearly to that of the master laser. Furthermore, with light injection, because of the coherent summation of externally injecting and internally generated slave fields, the phase adds an additional dynamic variable. Consequently, a new resonant coupling between the field amplitude and phase appears and can dominate the laser resonance frequency.
\n\t\t\t\tWavelength Detuning (nm) / SMSR (dB) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||||
-0.07 /40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-0.04/ 41.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-0.00/ 43.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.03/ 44 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.07/ 45.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.07/ 45.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
0.1/ 46.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.12/ 48 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.15/ 46.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.18/ 45 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.23/ 43.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.25/ 42.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.29/ 41.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.32/ 40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The SMSR values under lower-frequency side mode injection-locked of DFB LD1 at different wavelength detuning (Lu et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 8 (a), (b) and (c) show the measured CNR, CSO and CTB values under NTSC channel number for free-running, with 4.8 dBm main mode injection, and with 4.8 dBm lower-frequency side mode injection, respectively. The CNR value depends critically on the optical input power, so that the increased values between the scenarios of 4.8 dBm main and side modes injection are similar. Nevertheless, the performances of the measured CSO and CTB values are very different. According to the Eq. 6 and 7, the use of lower-frequency side mode injection locking technique can further increase the resonance frequency of the slave laser resulting in smaller values of HD2/C and IMD3/C. Consequently, better CSO and CTB performances are obtained in 4.8 dBm lower-frequency side mode injection scenario.
\n\t\t\tMeasured (a) CNR, (b) CSO and (c) CTB values under NTSC channel number
In parallel with the light-injection techniques, optoelectronic feedback technique has been used in high-speed digital optical communication systems to improve bit error rate (BER) performance (Attygalle & Wen, 2006). This technique, which can greatly enhance the laser resonance frequency (Li et al., 1995), is therefore can be integrated with light-injection methods to assist the transmission of fiber optical CATV systems as presented in Fig. 9 (Lu et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\t\tExperimentally, with the assisting of main mode injection and optoelectronic feedback, the laser resonance frequency is further improved to 25.2 GHz. The laser resonance frequency, f0, is given by:
\n\t\t\t\tLocal light-injection and optoelectronic feedback techniques enhanced 100-km split-band directly modulated optical CATV system (
where g0 is the gain coefficient, S is the photon density, and p is the photon lifetime. Since \n\t\t\t\t\t
Following with the modifications of direct modulation schemes and lightwave enhancement methods in fiber optical CATV systems, fiber chromatic dispersion is still another bottleneck needed to be solved out. Cascading CATV system with optical filter or a section of negative dispersion fiber (Lu et al., 2007) for example have been developed to overcome this issue. Since there is no useful modulating information in the redundant spectra, adding an optical filter to eliminate parts of these spectra not only can increase spectra efficiency but also can ameliorate the CSO/CTB performance. Similarly, cascading a section of negative dispersion fiber with a long-haul CATV system can also promote the system by eliminating the fiber chromatic dispersion. Consequently, the relative fiber dispersion compensation techniques are recorded and discussed in the following sections.
\n\t\t\tOver a long-haul fiber transmission, fiber dispersion accumulates rapidly and leads to a worse system performance. To overcome this issue, utilizing optical filter to change the broad spectral linewidth into a narrow one has been demonstrated as a useful method in fiber optical transport systems (Lu et al., 2008). As presented in Fig. 10, the downstream optical signal was sent through a tunable optical band-pass filter (OBPF) and a Fabry-Perot (FP) etalon filter before received. The OBPF is applied to select the appropriate wavelength and the FP etalon filter is employed to narrow down the spectral linewidth as well as to compensate fiber dispersion.
\n\t\t\t\tEmploying split-band technique and Fabry-Perot etalon filter to improve directly modulated fiber optical CATV system (
By eliminating the redundant spectra of optical signal, the spectral efficiency is enhanced and the dispersion is ameliorated resulting in better CSO/CTB performance. This optical filter is then worth deployed due to excellent optical characteristics such as sharp cutoff in the transmission spectrum. However, the wavelength misalignment between the selected optical wavelength and the optical filter will change optical power level launched into the fiber and degrade system performances. To avoid the wavelength misaligned by thermal effect, the filter needs to be utilized in a thermal package.
\n\t\t\tDifferent with cascading an optical filter to cut off optical spectral linewidth, adding a span of negative dispersion fibers, such as photonic crystal fiber (PCF), chirp fiber grating (CFG) and dispersion compensation fiber (DCF), into an optical CATV systems is experimentally demonstrated as another efficient method to compensate fiber dispersion (Ni et al., 2004). Fig. 11 for example demonstrates a 100-km optically amplified AM-VSB transmission system cascading with a span (3.6-km) of PCF disperion compensation fiber.
\n\t\t\t\tA 100-km optically amplified AM-VSB transmission system with a length of PCF disperion compensation fiber (
In this system, the optical link with a transmission length of 100-km SMF has a total positive dispersion of 1700 ps/nm (17 ps/nm/km × 100 km). However, a length of 3.6-km PCF has a negative dispersion of -1710 ps/nm (-475 ps/nm/km × 3.6 km). By combining these two pieces together, the total dispersion is nearly eliminated (-10 ps/nm) leading to lower fiber-induced distortion and better CSO/CTB performance.
\n\t\t\tFollowing with an assistance of numerous techniques, the CATV service providers are able to offer high quality of CATV programs by cost effective optical fiber connection. Nevertheless, the potential of optical fiber is not fully utilized yet. Integrating other services, such as Internet access, WiMAX services and HDTV programs, with CATV transport systems would be quite useful to share the cost of deploying and maintaining optical fiber (Ying et al., 2007). Recently, passive optical networks (PONs) are promising way to obtain low cost and high capacity optical Internet access. DWDM in combination with PON has received considerable attentions due to its large capacity, network security, easy management, and upgrade- ability (Choi et al., 2005, Hann et al., 2004, Khanal et al., 2005). In parallel with the PON systems, radio-over-fiber (ROF) transport systems also present a potential to offer significant network flexibility, large transmission capacity and economic advantage to satisfy the increasing demand in wireless broadband services such as WiMAX (Masella & Zhang, 2006). Due to low attenuation and broad bandwidth characteristics of optical fiber, combining ROF and Internet access with CATV systems has subsequently attracted much attention to fully utilize the potential of optical fiber and to provide triple play services for clients. Fig. 12 for example presents a bidirectional HDTV/Gigabit Ethernet/CATV over DWDM-PON system. Services with 129 HDTV channels, 1.25 Gb/s Gigabit Ethernet connection, and 77 CATV channels were successfully demonstrated over 40 km SMF links. Good performance of BER, CNR and CSO/CTB were achieved in this system.
\n\t\tHDTV/Gigabit Ethernet/CATV over bidirectional hybrid DWDM-PON (
Fiber optical CATV systems are recently enhanced by the introduction of 1550 nm technology. However the maximum transmission distance of the systems is still limited by RF parameters. Literarily, numbers of techniques such as split-band schemes, light-injection methods and dispersion compensation skills have been developed to extend the bottleneck in fiber optical CATV systems. Sharing full channel load from one LD to multiple LDs in split-band schemes has been demonstrated as an efficiency way to eliminate major part of CSO distortion from each optical band. Furthermore, improving laser resonance frequency and output power by light-injection techniques as well as compensating fiber dispersion by optical filters or by negative dispersion fiber are also presenting an advanced assistance in such systems. All of these techniques make a possibility to deploy a long-haul and cost-effective CATV system by direct modulation scheme. The main problem is that such systems do not fully utilize the potential of optical fiber. There is still plenty of capacity in fiber link waiting for people to dig out. As a result, combining fiber optical CATV systems with other applications, such as Internet access and WiMAX services, are discussed popularly in literature. The applications and characteristics of the mentioned techniques as well as the future directions of directly modulated fiber optical CATV system are consequently analyzed and illustrated in this chapter.
\n\t\tOver the ages, the world has been evolving in development and resources use, and this has led to enormous waste generation of different states (solid, liquid, and gas). The waste needs to be either treated or recycled, paving ways for different techniques for different wastes to be treated or recycled. One of the important resources on earth is water. It is used for everyday activities such as domestic, industrial, and commercial purposes. This has caused reduction in freshwater quantity globally and shortage in clean water supply because of pollution of the existing sources. Hence, different techniques and approaches are still being investigated that can provide adequate and sustainable freshwater. Distillation has been a promising process of separating components by heating/boiling, which causes evaporation, and cooling, which causes condensation. Distillation is a simple technique of converting liquid to vapor by heating and subsequently condensing it back to liquid after the vapor comes in contact with a cooler surface. Simple distillation may not be efficient for certain modes of treatment; therefore, some other advanced distillations were found like the fractional distillation for petroleum refining and multi-effect distillation (MED) for desalination. Generally, distillation is meant to separate a homogenous fluid mixture using the differences in the volatility or boiling point of the mixture’s components [1].
There are three definitions of distillation relevant to desalination. (a) Distillation is a process in which a liquid sample is volatilized into vapor that is later condensed into liquid with richer volatile components of the original sample. This can be achieved by heating, reducing pressure, or both. (b) Distillation is the process of separating a mixture of fluids using the differences in their boiling point or relative volatility. (c) Distillation is the application of heat to a liquid to cause its partial vaporization, and then, a separate vessel is used to collect the condensed vapor [2].
The cost for all distillation methods varies, but they have a similar process or working principle. The temperature difference allows water to evaporate even at 40°C leaving the dissolved solids behind, which require about 300°C to volatilize [3].
Distillation has various advantages such as (i) the capacity to take care of a wide range of feed flow rate range, meaning they can handle high and low flow rates contrary to some alternative techniques. For example, facultative, stabilization, oxidation, and maturation ponds all require a high flow rate of feed; (ii) it can remove various and lots of substances from feed concentrations. Numerous alternative treatments have different stages or include varied chemicals for a particular impurity removal. For example, alum is used mainly to reduce solids through coagulation and chlorine is used only for the elimination of pathogens; so, it cannot remove suspended solids or other impurities; (iii) it can produce water of very high quality (pure); this is contrary to other techniques that partially treat or only reduce the impurity level of the feed. Distillation is a very well-known technique for purification because of its robustness and versatility [1]. One of the major issues with distillation in desalination is the high energy demand for the process. Figure 1 shows a representation of the distillation process in desalination. After feedwater is transferred to the basin, the first step is the use of energy, mostly solar energy, to heat the basin water to cause it to evaporate to produce freshwater; the byproduct remains in the basin as brine solution, which can also be extracted.
Distillation process in desalination.
The aim of this chapter is to elaborate the principles and modes of distillation in desalination and analyze their types, improvements, features, challenges, limitation, cost, gap, and future improvements needed.
Despite distillation being widely used in various disciplines lately, it was first used for desalination by the people of Babylonia in Mesopotamia, which was found on the Akkadian tablet dated c. 1200 BCE. Later, Aristotle (384–322 BC) established a hypothesis that when saltwater evaporates, it forms vapor, which becomes sweet, and the condensate is salt free. Pliny the elder (AD 23–70) explained on the purification of seawater, specifically the Red Seawater
Furthermore, evidence of baked clay retorts and receivers was found at old Indian subcontinent cities; cities such as Taxila, Charsadda, and Shaikan Dheri in modern Pakistan show evidence that during early centuries distillation was practiced there. The distillers were locally called Gandhara stills and they could only produce weak liquor because they lacked efficient means for vapor collection at low heat. However, the first distinct use of distillation specifically for water (distill water) was in 200 CE by Alexander of Aphrodisia. The process continued for other liquids in the early Byzantine Egyptian during the third century under Zosimus of Panopolis [5].
In the eighth and ninth centuries, wine distillation was attributed to Arabic work by Al-Kindi and Al-Farabi, and some were found in the 28th book of Al-Zahrawi commonly known as Abulcasis. During the centuries mentioned earlier, some Medieval chemists such as Jabir ibn Hayyan known as Geber and Abu Bakr al- Razi known as Rhazes did rigorous experiments on distillation using various substances. Later in the twelfth century, a popular recipe known as aqua ardens, which means burning water, which in turn means ethanol, was produced by distilling wine with salt and by the end of the thirteenth century, it became very common in the Western European chemists [5].
In China, distillation started during Eastern Han Dynasty between the first and the second centuries, then in Southern Song between the tenth and thirteenth centuries from archeological findings, and then later in Jin between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, although the process was predominantly related to the distillation of beverages. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in Qinglong, Hebei Province of China, distillation of beverages was common during the Yaun Dynasty [4, 5].
The trend continued and up to 1500 and a German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published a book called “The book of the Art of Distillation.” This was the first book on distillation and in 1512, the scope was expanded. In 1651, a book titled “Art of Distillation” was published by John French even though most of the work was from Hieronmus [5].
Alchemy later evolved into the science of chemistry, and local equipment such as alembic and retorts now became vessels or glassware in general terms. Until recently, some of the equipment like pot still made of different materials are still used for domestic production or in the manufacture of essential oils [4, 5].
In the modern or middle civilization, that is, during 1822, Anthony Perrier developed continuous still, which was later improved by Robert Stein in 1826. Aeneas Coffey further improved the still in 1830. His unit is referred to as the archetype of modern petrochemical unit. Ernest Solvay was the first to develop a distillation unit that specifically targeted ammonia removal (ammonia distillation) [5].
Currently in the twenty-first century, from the knowledge of the predecessors, various modifications were made to enhance the yield of the distillate. This led to the development of different types of desalination systems and an increase in their usage, especially to meet the need of providing water for workers on the sea or mining regions [6].
Distillation in water desalination is a technique Or excess salts from saline water. Other minerals and impurities are from seawater or brackish water also removed during desalination and this treatment process can be extended to wastewater, industrial water, rivers, streams, lake, pond, and groundwater/wells. These salts and minerals occurred because of salts. Two products are obtained after desalination—freshwater and brine, which is the waste or byproduct [7].
Desalination can alleviate the pressure on water resources and has the capacity to provide adequate clean water especially to coastal regions and is increasingly becoming an alternative for domestic and industrial freshwater supply. Desalination requires a large amount of energy; however, various energy types can be used for desalination, which makes it a good alternative. Figure 2 shows the different energy sources that can be used for desalination. They are categorized into nonrenewable energy sources, which include nuclear, coal, petroleum, natural gas, and hydrocarbons, while the renewable energy sources include wind, geothermal, solar, and biomass. The nonrenewable sources are sometimes expensive or in some cases, not environmentally friendly. On the other hand, renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal can replace the renewable energy and are abundant and cost efficient to harness, particularly, solar energy that can be used even in rural areas [7].
Energy sources for desalination.
Globally, there are about 21,000 desalination plants, particularly in Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Israel [8]. In the desalination field, distillation can occur as membrane desalination and nonmembrane (thermal) desalination. The membrane desalination is the type that is not a complete thermal process; that is, a membrane is needed to complete the process unlike the thermal (nonmembrane) process, which does not require such medium but undergoes complete thermal process. The membrane is a porous material with a thin film, which allows water molecules to pass through, while at the same time preventing salts, larger molecule, pathogens, and metals to pass through. The most common type of distillation in desalination is the membrane distillation. Membrane distillation majorly targets seawater and brackish water [9].
The membrane desalination process includes electrodialysis (ED) and reverse osmosis (RO), which are two major desalinations used recently. They are reverse osmosis and thermal desalination systems, which account for 63.7% and 34.2% of total capacity produced, respectively. The thermal desalination includes multi-effect desalination, multi-stage flash (MSF) desalination, humidification-dehumidification, vapor compression desalination (VCD), and solar still [9].
Distillation is an ancient method of desalination. It is a phase change process where the liquid known as feedwater, which is mostly seawater or brackish water, is heated to the gaseous state known as vapor and then condensed back to liquid. The condensed water is separated leaving behind brine (byproduct) during the process of evaporation and condensation. There are different distillation types in desalination, namely, solar distillation, multi-effect distillation, multi-stage flash distillation, vapor compression distillation, and membrane distillation.
Solar distillation imitates the natural hydrological cycle in which solar energy heats the water, causes it to evaporate, and the vapor upon encountering cool surface condenses (Figure 3). The condensate is mostly referred to as distillate, which is the freshwater produced, while the impurities left behind is called the brine, which is the byproduct [8]. The first solar distiller was built by Carlos Wilson in Las Salinas in Chile in the year 1872. The distillation principle in this method is that the sun heats the feedwater in the basin and the water molecule evaporates. When the evaporated water molecule (vapor) touches the still cover, which is usually cooler than the vapor, it then condenses to form droplets on the cover. The droplets keep increasing in size until they reach a size that they can slide down
Schematic diagram of solar distillation.
The major advantage of solar distillation is the free energy sources, which is the solar energy. There are other numerous advantages of this process such as design simplicity, low cost of fabrication, and maintenance. However, the major disadvantage of this process is the limitation of the sun at night and during cloudy or rainy times. The scale can easily corrode the basin as well. Sometimes, they do not adequately treat nutrient pollutants. In addition, the distillation rate is slow, and the yield is usually small in quantity compared to the other techniques. The average volume of water produced from conventional solar still is 0.8 liters per hour of sun per meter square. [10]. In 2014, globally the cost of freshwater from solar distiller ranged between 0.019$/m3 and 0.02$/m3 depending on the shape of the still [11].
This process is like a continuous process for solar distillation. In this process, the feedwater is first pretreated; it then gets heated and evaporated in the first chamber or stage and the released energy from the condensation is used to heat the water in the second stage and continuously to the last stage after which post-treatment occurs and freshwater is obtained (Figure 4). This means that each flash process uses the energy from the previous vapor [8]. The process has several series of flash chambers. Unlike multi-effect distillation in multi-stage flash distillation, heating and boiling occur in the same vessel. The estimated unit cost of freshwater produced from MSF is 1.40$/m3 as of 2018 [12].
The advantage of this system is that it minimizes the operating cost because the heat released from each stage is being reused (waste heat). The second advantage is that the strength of the feedwater does not really affect the overall freshwater quality produced because of multiple distillation process for each chamber. Finally, a large quantity of freshwater is produced. The disadvantage of this process is the scale formation during heating, although the scale remains in the brine rather than the heating surface which majorly increases the maintenance cost and frequency but do not damage the system [3]. Features of MSF include Stages (spaces), heat exchanger, distillate collector, and brine heater.
Schematic diagram of multi-stage flash distillation.
The multi-effect distillation process involves spraying the feedwater on the pipe to heat the feedwater and generate steam. The steam is utilized to heat the subsequent feedwater and evaporate it to produce freshwater and brine as byproduct (Figure 5). The energy is obtained through a solar collector. Flat plat collector and evacuated tube collector are energy sources for small-scale MED, while parabolic trough collector or any collector that concentrates solar energy is used for large scale. MED is a very ancient process, and only at the first stage, the first steam is independently generated. Subsequent stages use the vapor from the first and previous stage as energy source. There are about 8 to 16 effects for most MED. More number of effects means more efficiency [13]. The goal of MED is to use same heat to evaporate more feedwater. That is, the heat from the first stage helps in evaporation in the second stage and the heat from the second stage aids evaporation in the third. At the same time, each stage evaporator acts as a condenser for each previous stage. This way, large latent heat of vaporization is reused several times before dissipating to the surrounding, but it is significant that the temperature of the first effect is lower than the boiler heating steam [3]. These energy sources when tapped from the sun are converted to electrical energy to provide heat for the pump.
The advantages of MED include low consumption of energy in comparison with other thermal techniques; it works at low temperature and concentration to minimize scaling and corrosion. Pretreatment is not essential. It is very reliable and have low maintenance costs. The disadvantage of this distillation process is that there is heat and pressure losses at each stage because the process is not adiabatic and this can reduce the freshwater yield. There is corrosion and erosion at the contact surfaces between the brine and heat exchanging surface [13]. In 2003, it was found out that the average cost of freshwater worldwide that is produced from MED is 1.00$/m3 which is lower than MSF [12]. Features of MSF include heat source, heat sink, stage and distillate collector, and a membrane (Figure 5).
Schematic diagram of MED in two stages.
This process requires a jet stream or mechanical compressor to compress the vapor above the liquid unlike MED and MSF that require energy sources such as crude oil, wind, natural gas, and so on. The compressed vapor supplies heat to the rest of the feedwater for evaporation. Even though the process is a complex type and is mostly used for small-scale distillation, it is far more effective than MED because one effect of VCD is almost as effective as 15 to 20 effects of MED. In Figure 6, the feedwater is preheated in the heat exchanger. Later, it is transferred to the tube of the evaporator where it is boiled, and the vapor goes to the mechanical compressor. The vapor is compressed by the mechanical compressor. The hot compressed water vapor is transferred back to the evaporator, which is condensed outside the tube at the same time supplying the heating energy required for boiling feedwater. The non-condensing gases are removed with the help of a vacuum pump or ejector [3].
Schematic diagram of VCD.
The advantages of this method are low operating and maintenance cost; it has a vast temperature range for operation; it is very efficient and reliable because it has good water recovery ratio and moderate energy consumption; and it is easy to use and maintain. The huge initial cost is a major disadvantage for this process. Second, it requires pretreatment to minimize fouling and scaling, and internal scaling can occur as a result of crystals accumulation in the pore [14]. Finally, quality materials are needed to prevent corrosion [15]. The average cost of freshwater produced from vapor compression distillation is 0.93$/m3 as at 2009 findings [16].
This process uses differences in temperature across the membrane to evaporate the feedwater and condensed the freshwater leaving the impurities, salts, and other minerals in the form of brine solution. The concept of membrane distillation is microfiltration, which allows only water molecules to pass through porous hydrophobic membrane [17]. Membrane distillation can use different low-grade energy sources like the sun or wind. The water molecules move from the region of high to low vapor pressure through the membrane. There are four methods by which the vapor is recovered through the membrane. The first is through the direct contact of the liquid phase with both sides of the membrane to obtain distillate and the condensation process is controlled by the thickness of the membrane (Figure 7). Although the heat loss in this method is higher than that in other methods because of continuous contact between the membrane, the hot feed and cold permeate. This method is called the direct contact membrane distillation. The second method is vapor withdrawal by using a vacuum on the permeate region; in this method, the process is like the first but for the introduction of the condenser and the sweep gas that differentiate them (Figure 8). This is also known as the sweep gas membrane distillation. The third method is having an external condensation and in this case, the vapor is removed by using an inert gas stream (Figure 9). This method is called vacuum membrane distillation [18]. The fourth method is the addition of air gap interposed between the condensation surface and the membrane (Figure 10). This process is called the air gap membrane distillation [19].
Schematic diagram of the direct contact membrane.
Schematic diagram of the sweep gas membrane.
Schematic diagram of the vacuum membrane.
Schematic diagram of air gap membrane.
The advantages of membrane distillation include a high-rate removal of macromolecules and other substances, lower operating temperature and pressure, unadulterated interaction between the membrane and the process, and reduction in vapor spaces. The main disadvantage of membrane distillation is membrane wetting, which is caused as a result of fouling and excessive liquid entry pressure [18]. In 2004, the average cost of freshwater from membrane distillation was 0.705$/m3 [20].
This section will focus on the first concept of distillation in desalination, improvements made on them till date, the merits, and their demerits as well as the challenges and limitations of all the mentioned distillation desalination systems experienced so far. The first developed distillation system is known as the conventional desalination system. The first step is fabrication of a basin, which is usually made of metal material. Then, the fabrication of the cover that is mainly glass material was used. The cover generally is in a triangular shape. Afterward, the glass cover is placed on the basin to form a closed system that will allow distillation/desalination. In ancient times, they did not know how to seal the bottom edges between the glass cover and the basin because of which there were high heat losses and a low yield. Later, the system was sealed with mostly silicone gel to prevent or minimize heat loss and increase the yield. This is a simple way for conventional desalination that can be replicated anywhere in the world. Table 1 shows the different types of distillation systems, the improvisation made, current challenges, and limitations, with possible future improvements.
Distillation desalination types | References | Present improvements | Challenges/limits | Gap/feature improvement |
---|---|---|---|---|
Solar Distillation | [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28] |
|
|
|
Multi-stage flash (MSF) | [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36] |
|
|
|
Multi-effect distillation | [29, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42] |
|
|
|
Vapor compression | [43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52] |
|
|
|
Membrane | [53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62] |
|
|
|
Challenges, present improvements, and future prospective of distillation desalination types.
Distillation in desalination can occur in three different modes, although the third mode is a combination of the two independent modes. The first is the utilization of the solar irradiance directly from the sun causing heating/evaporation to the feedwater and condensation when it meets a cold surface. The second mode is the storage of the solar irradiance or any other sources of energy such as wind and geothermal to produce electricity that is used to heat and evaporate the feedwater and later condensed to obtain the distillate [18]. The third is the utilization of the solar irradiance directly and supplementing it with other energy sources that produce electricity or other forms of heating source to cause distillation.
Passive desalination or distillation is the cheapest and most used method even in rural regions. This is because of its simplicity and because it can work on its own. It uses only energy from the sun (solar irradiance) directly to heat the water leading to its evaporation, and the vapor condenses when it touches the cold surface. For this type of distillation to occur, an enclosed system is needed, which basically consists of a water basin and a transparent cover usually made of glass or plastic. It is then sealed to prevent vapor or heat loss [2].
The advantage of this process is that it has a cheap source of energy, as the energy comes directly from the sun. This energy is abundant in most regions and does not need conversion or storage. It is simple to fabricate, use, and maintain. It can produce very clean water for drinking and other purposes without the need for further treatment. However, the major disadvantage of this process is that it can operate only during the day when there is sunshine. At nighttime or rainy times, since there is no sun, it is not possible to carry out this process. Solar stills, solar chimneys, and humidification-dehumidification are examples of this process.
In active distillation, the same process is observed. In other words, there is heating, evaporation, and condensation of feedwater to obtain freshwater. It is just that in this case, the sources of energy are other sources such as wind, geothermal, or stored solar energy in photovoltaic cells, which are later converted to alternative current to supply the energy/heat for the distillation process.
Some of the advantages of this process include faster distillation, as the feedwater gets heated faster than it does in the passive method. The method can also be used either nighttime or daytime, especially during cloudy or rainy days when there is no solar radiation. Evident research carried out at Univerisiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia, shows that this method produces cleaner freshwater than passive and combined distillation. This method, however, has some challenges like more scale formation and higher and more expensive energy usage. It may require semi-skilled persons to operate some of these distillers.
Solar stills, solar chimneys, and humidification-dehumidification can also be used for this process. In addition, membrane desalination can also fall in this category, since some part of it involves phase change of the feed (distillation) with the aid of a membrane.
In the combined state, this is also operated during the daytime, where both solar irradiance and other energy sources such as photovoltaic, wind, and biomass are used simultaneously for distillation. This produces more freshwater than the first two mentioned methods because of the effect of combined efforts. This process increases the frequency of performing maintenance tasks, as corrosion and scale formation is high.
Historical evidence has shown that distillation has been an old technique for water purifications. Distillation in desalination has proven to be an effective technique for freshwater production. Various distillation types have a similar quality of distillate. However, they differ in distillate quantity. The mode of distillation can also have an impact on the quality of freshwater yield as evidently carried out in the laboratory where the active mode had cleaner water production. The distillation types in desalination have advantages and disadvantages over one another. Therefore, the quantity and quality of distillate needed determines the most appropriate distillation type to choose for the desalination process. Currently, there are numerous researches that are exploring on how to enhance the distillation process in desalination. There is still the need for technological advancement to enhance yield in the case of solar distillation and reduce cost, especially in the vapor compression desalination process. The carbon nanotube membrane has been a promising solution for membrane desalination and can be exploited further. Overall, desalination has been an effective and efficient solution to augment conventional clean water supply. If given proper attention, it can be a lasting solution for clean water supply.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The author wishes to thank Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Malaysia in collaboration with Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria for providing an enabling environment and support. The author also wishes to appreciate the YUTP-MPSS with cost centers 015LC0-215.
Special thanks to Dr. Husna Takaijudin, APDR Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh, and APDR Kamaruzaman Wan Yusof for their mentorship and guidance.
ED | Electrodialysis |
RO | Reverse osmosis |
MSF | Multi-Stage flash distillation |
MED | Multi-effect distillation |
VCD | Vapor-compression distillation |
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
",metaTitle:"Team",metaDescription:"Advancing discovery in Open Access for the scientists by the scientist",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/team",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. 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