Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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For a living organism, stress within physiological limits is necessary to stay alive. But the protective effects of stress can easily be potentially harmful for the body when it is out of control. Invariably, life events and stress are combined. It is well established that chronic and excessive stress may reduce the quality and duration of life. Even though the negative health consequences of stress may be physical or psychological, it has been observed that many people still maintain a disease-free lifespan after exposure to intensive stressful conditions. It can be inferred that some people have biologically and psychologically higher resilience capacity. However, there is no doubt that management of stress may be possible and could be learned. Therefore, it is important to be aware of stress management strategies to ensure a life free from stress-related health problems and a healthy lifespan.",isbn:"978-1-78984-948-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-947-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-054-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79782",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"effects-of-stress-on-human-health",numberOfPages:156,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5539332a1f89e3c32c0d3458f250bd36",bookSignature:"Hülya Çakmur",publishedDate:"May 13th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8650.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6760,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 5th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 6th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 25th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 24th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"190636",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hülya",middleName:null,surname:"Çakmur",slug:"hulya-cakmur",fullName:"Hülya Çakmur",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190636/images/system/190636.jpeg",biography:"Hülya Çakmur graduated from medical school at the Atatürk\nUniversity in Turkey. She completed her residency training in\nFamily Medicine at the Trakya University. She has a PhD degree in Public Health from the Dokuz Eylül University. She has\n25 years of practical experience as a specialist in family medicine, including 10 years of experience in public health as a PhD\nprepared professional. She studied sleep medicine at the UPMC\nin the USA, attended narrative medicine education at the STU in Canada, studied\nvoluntarily in geriatrics, and published several studies in the field of elderly health.\nShe is an active member of the Turkish Medical Association and European Academy\nof Teachers in General Practice/Family Medicine. She has eight years of teaching experience as an associate professor at the University of Kafkas and she is the Director\nof the Department of Family Medicine. She has published more than 30 papers in\nreputed journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1052",title:"Clinical Psychology",slug:"clinical-psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"71608",title:"Introductory Chapter: How Does Stress Impact Human Body?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91984",slug:"introductory-chapter-how-does-stress-impact-human-body-",totalDownloads:866,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hülya Çakmur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71608",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71608",authors:[{id:"190636",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hülya",surname:"Çakmur",slug:"hulya-cakmur",fullName:"Hülya Çakmur"}],corrections:null},{id:"69963",title:"Chronic Fatigue Stress and Sudden Death",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88649",slug:"chronic-fatigue-stress-and-sudden-death",totalDownloads:637,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Stress refers to a series of neuroendocrine reactions, such as sympathetic nerve excitation and pituitary-adrenal cortex secretion increase, which occur when the body is stimulated by various stressors, and the changes of various functions and metabolism caused by these reactions. Chronic fatigue stress is a fatigue state caused by long-term physical and psychological stress. When the stress reaches a certain intensity or the individual is not well-tolerated, the body stability is impaired, resulting in various pathophysiological reactions leading to various diseases, such as stress hyperglycemia, stress cardiomyopathy, stress arrhythmia, stress ulcer hemorrhagic shock, or even stress ulcer hemorrhagic shock. Eventually lead to sudden death and other adverse events.",signatures:"Haiyan Zhu, Guoxin Han and Shuoshuo Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69963",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69963",authors:[{id:"293911",title:"M.D.",name:"Haiyan",surname:"Zhu",slug:"haiyan-zhu",fullName:"Haiyan Zhu"},{id:"320773",title:"Dr.",name:"Guoxin",surname:"Han",slug:"guoxin-han",fullName:"Guoxin Han"},{id:"320774",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuoshuo",surname:"Li",slug:"shuoshuo-li",fullName:"Shuoshuo Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"69893",title:"Taming Occupational Stress among Farmers in Developing Nations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89898",slug:"taming-occupational-stress-among-farmers-in-developing-nations",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Agriculture is a major sector in most developing nations of the world. The world food poverty is on the rise, with almost one in seven people around the world who are chronically hungry and lacking enough food to be healthy and lead active lives. The race is on to explore agriculture to produce enough food to feed the rapidly growing population. Consequently, there has been a change in the dimensions of agricultural health risks among farm workers in most developing countries. Occupational health-related studies are very important, yet research outputs in these regions of the world are yet to target this area extensively to stimulate appropriate policy formulations. Farm workers therefore have low adaptive capacity to workplace stress-related issues. These peculiar constraints have exposed farmers to work-related stressors affecting their well-being. In this context, farm stress occurs as a result of adverse reaction farmers’ faced including excessive pressure, seasonality, rural lifestyle, job demands or reactions to some uncertainty in their farming businesses. This chapter X-rayed the concept of farm stress in a developing nation context, providing empirical basis for the formulation of appropriate interventions to reduce farm stressors with particular focus on stress in the crop and poultry ventures.",signatures:"Toyin Samuel Olowogbon, Aaron M. Yoder, Segun B. Fakayode and Abraham O. Falola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69893",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69893",authors:[{id:"289171",title:"Dr.",name:"Toyin",surname:"Olowogbon",slug:"toyin-olowogbon",fullName:"Toyin Olowogbon"},{id:"309962",title:"Dr.",name:"Aaron",surname:"Yoder",slug:"aaron-yoder",fullName:"Aaron Yoder"},{id:"309963",title:"Dr.",name:"Segun",surname:"Fakayode",slug:"segun-fakayode",fullName:"Segun Fakayode"},{id:"309964",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraham",surname:"Falola",slug:"abraham-falola",fullName:"Abraham Falola"}],corrections:null},{id:"71768",title:"Psychosomatic Pain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91328",slug:"psychosomatic-pain",totalDownloads:1152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Disorders that are not clearly attributable to an organic disease are called somatoform disorders. Their symptoms are called psychosomatic symptoms and include insomnia, fatigue, and weakness. These disorders can also be associated with heartburn, depression, irregular heartbeat, dizziness, pain, cardiovascular problems, gastrointestinal discomfort, erectile dysfunction, a sensation of pressure in the throat, chest problems, hallucinations, and double vision. Somatoform disorders can be an expression of untreated mental pain and life experiences, resulting from serious loss, profound personal injury, or disrespect. Such symptoms occur in almost all humans, but these disorders can have a serious effect in 4–20% of the population.",signatures:"Ertuğrul Allahverdi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71768",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71768",authors:[{id:"313683",title:"Dr.",name:"Ertuğrul",surname:"Allahverdi",slug:"ertugrul-allahverdi",fullName:"Ertuğrul Allahverdi"}],corrections:null},{id:"69111",title:"Deep Diaphragmatic Breathing: A “Portable Intervention” for Stress Reduction among University Students",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86731",slug:"deep-diaphragmatic-breathing-a-portable-intervention-for-stress-reduction-among-university-students",totalDownloads:917,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Students are at risk for daily stress, often caused by an increasing load of the material to study, limited time and resources necessary to fulfill assignments, personal or family demands, high expectations, pressures, and frustrations. All these factors can create distress, decreased learning abilities, and psychosomatic disorders or diseases. To mitigate such negative biopsychosocial effects of stress, different types of relaxation techniques can be used. Addressing these issues early (e.g., among the 1st and 2nd year university students) seems particularly important, due to possible prevention of the long-term adverse health consequences of stress (compared to no intervention). To fulfill this important need, a “portable intervention,” such as stress management brief training (SMBT), focused on the reduction of the perceived stress levels among students will be briefly outlined. The SMBT consists of a short review of stress and coping approaches, followed by the instruction of a simple stress management relaxation/technique [e.g., deep diaphragmatic breathing (DDB)]. Practical considerations regarding the DDB will be highlighted. The feasibility and usefulness of the DDB training for stress management among the 1st and 2nd year university students should encourage implementation of this innovative, safe, inexpensive, and friendly technique.",signatures:"Katarzyna (Kate) Rygiel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69111",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69111",authors:[{id:"203912",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate",surname:"Rygiel",slug:"kate-rygiel",fullName:"Kate Rygiel"}],corrections:null},{id:"67049",title:"Calmness Conquers Anxiety: What Language Tells Us about Mind and Body Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86138",slug:"calmness-conquers-anxiety-what-language-tells-us-about-mind-and-body-control",totalDownloads:886,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter is fully based on linguistic data representing Early Modern and Present-day English, including early English printed books and contemporary online texts. The main bulk of the data was collected with the search term calmness. The data indicates that it is important for people to experience control of their emotions and behavior and that they understand emotional calmness in terms of the kinds of tranquility that they see in nature, for example, when the sea is still. The connection between people and nature seems therefore to be strong. However, the data also suggest that calmness does not just naturally occur in people but has to be achieved through active work and that ideas concerning the nature of such work differ from one context, period, and location to another.",signatures:"Heli Tissari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67049",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67049",authors:[{id:"290181",title:"Dr.",name:"Heli",surname:"Tissari",slug:"heli-tissari",fullName:"Heli Tissari"}],corrections:null},{id:"69728",title:"Stress, Hypertension and Yoga",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88147",slug:"stress-hypertension-and-yoga",totalDownloads:832,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stress and stress-related disorders are emerging as a major health challenge. In the classical stress concept, stress can be broadly defined as an actual or anticipated disruption of homeostasis by certain physical and psychological events that are known as ‘stressors’. Prolonged exposure to stress can lead to a destructive, self-perpetuating cascade of neuroendocrine, metabolic and neuropsychological alterations that play an important role in the development and progression of cardio-vascular disease (CVD) like hypertension. Dysregulation of stress system is causally linked to pathogenesis of essential hypertension, which involves over activity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and sympathoadrenal system (SAS) and resetting of baroreceptors as the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. Evidence suggests that regular practice of yogasanas and pranayama appears to cause down-regulation of the HPA axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), increases vagal activity, improves baroreceptor sensitivity, and thereby helps to reduce blood pressure. Although the exact mechanism of beneficial effects of yoga are not known, evidence suggests that yogic intervention may be acting through multiple mechanisms simultaneously influencing diverse neural structures involved in the regulation of the neuroendocrine and the cardiovascular response to stress to cause neurohumoral modulations resulting in alleviation of stress and improvement in cardiovascular indices.",signatures:"Surendra Shripati Wadikar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69728",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69728",authors:[{id:"292765",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra",surname:"Wadikar",slug:"surendra-wadikar",fullName:"Surendra Wadikar"}],corrections:null},{id:"71112",title:"Stress 0.0. 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The Stress 0.0 program can also help you deploy your potentials and cope with the stress associated with living with the disease, chronic pain, and ailments such as arthritis, asthma, cancer, fibromyalgia, gastrointestinal disorders, cardiovascular problems, hypertension, and migraine among others many.",signatures:"José Jesús Vargas Delgado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71112",authors:[{id:"204406",title:"Dr.",name:"José Jesús",surname:"Vargas Delgado",slug:"jose-jesus-vargas-delgado",fullName:"José Jesús Vargas Delgado"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7017",title:"Obesity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d9510ee94510a6d1c8953ca9ef6e009d",slug:"obesity",bookSignature:"Hülya Çakmur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7017.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190636",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hülya",surname:"Çakmur",slug:"hulya-cakmur",fullName:"Hülya Çakmur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6704",title:"Geriatrics Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cac7767e0b34391318cd4a680ca0d68",slug:"geriatrics-health",bookSignature:"Hülya Çakmur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6704.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190636",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hülya",surname:"Çakmur",slug:"hulya-cakmur",fullName:"Hülya Çakmur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4611",title:"ADHD",subtitle:"New Directions in Diagnosis and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"051100b4ce7470b4b30df4053c560816",slug:"adhd-new-directions-in-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Jill M. 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\r\n\tThe goal of this book is to give the reader an overview of a field related to various applications in chemistry, chemical engineering, and nanotechnology. This book aims to provide information about the design of ion exchangers, their application in environmental technologies, and in biotechnology and pharmaceutical applications. This book will be written by authors in the field of experimental methods and critical reviews from multi-disciplines such as chemistry, membranes, and materials science. Among others, some of the topics covered will be Structure of ion exchangers, Synthesis of ion exchangers, Synthesis of inorganic ion exchangers, Properties of ion exchangers, Ion exchange voltammetry, Ion exchange as a separations method, Ion exchange in analytical chemistry, Ion exchange and extraction, Ion exchange membranes, Preparation of organic-inorganic hybrid ion exchangers, Application in environmental technologies, Application in biotechnology and pharmaceutical applications.
\r\n
\r\n\tIn this book, the authors will focus on recent studies, applications, and new technological developments on the fundamental properties of ion exchangers.
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1. Introduction
The history of urban sprawl is unwritten, and only a small part of the beginning work has been done. The history of urban sprawl dates back from the ancient times of the origin of cities (during what is referred to as the first phase of urbanization in the world). While Gordon and Richardson [1] define urban sprawl as leapfrog development, DiLorenzo [2] defines it as growth with cancer or virus. In the confusion in the definition of urban sprawl, Wilson et al. [3] and Galster et al. [4] state that describing would be more suitable than defining. In this long duration, what was witnessed was the growth of cities from ancestral form to small harbor/rail-based towns and to the present-day cities with skyscrapers adorning landscapes. By the end of the 20th century, urban growth was rapidly pushing cities further and further out, and the cities were expanding spatially, while in the 21st century, the automobile revolution changed the dominant form of city living. This stretched form of the city with low density at the periphery is sometimes called sprawl. Since sprawl is one name for many situations, there has been no clear consensus regarding what exactly “urban sprawl” is or how it is caused. Although many researchers tried to get bring with descriptions of the idea, the fundamental component of most descriptions and most people’s acceptance of sprawl is this: Sprawl is the spread out of an urban area, and it is suburban over more considerable for country land at the fringe of an urban area. Urban sprawl, which is asserted to be carried out for urban growth, is in fact not suitable either for urban growth or rural environments in a real sense. In this sense, since it is carried out in a disorganized and uncontrolled way, it has effects that hinder regional sustainable development [5]. This involves the exchange of open space into various land use purposes, such as housing, building industrial estates and health centers, for sustainable living purposes. Al-Kheder et al. [6] explain urban-growth modeling using multitemporal satellite images.
2. Urbanization
Urbanization is a metropolitan development that is a response to often less understood implications of technological, economic, social, and political forces and to the physical geography of an area. The pattern of urbanization in India is characterized by a continuous concentration of population and activities in large cities. Kingsley Davis used the term “over-urbanization,” “where in urban misery and rural poverty exist side by side with the result that city can hardly be called dynamic” and where inefficient, unproductive informal sector becomes increasingly apparent [7]. Another scholar, Breese, depicts urbanization in India as pseudo urbanization where people arrive in cities not due to urban pull but due to rural push [8].
The considerable economic and livelihood opportunities in urban areas and an increase in accommodating immigrating populations result in greater urbanization. It is never seen as a vulnerability to environmental growth, but it is the accidental urban area and energetic urban growth, or the sprawl that influences the land use of any area that becomes a substance of concern through its habit in the loss of major farming lands. It is very important to study and determine the information and suggestions interrelated with the problem of unexpected urban growth ensuing sprawl.
Urbanization is a global process in which most developing nations experience that has led to the rise of great metropolitans along with slums and squatter. At the same time, a notice concern is also about the exhaustion of natural resources, increasing pollution and environmental hazards apart from the development of urban-rural fringes and suburban divisions, a host of ecological and socioeconomic factors that have become remarkable challenges of the current era. Chandna highlighted these factors [9].
3. Characteristics of urbanizations
Urbanization is a universal phenomenon. It is a process of enrich growth in a country’s urban inhabitants accompanied by an even huge development in the financial, political, and cultural importance of cities associated with rural areas. In “The Origin and Growth of Urbanization in the World,” Davis explains and gives the world growth of population and the way of urbanization and growth stages.
The term “urbanization” illustrates a development in the human population associated with the development of energy and resource consumption and widespread land use. Since the rise of population becomes more enrich, the need for goods and services is often driven by addition rather than just rapid population growth. Urbanization refers to a growth in the percentage of a population living in urban areas of an exact size.
The rapid growth of the population is a result of the sparing scientific and medical knowledge and is the fundamental reason for urban growth and population. However, the rapid development of the population in urban centers is also disturbed by economic development, which is decreasing the percentage of the population engaged in agricultural areas. Structural change in employment, especially the growth of the tertiary (service) sector, has led to an improved number of employments in urban areas. Most service firms need to be central business districts (CBDs) to obtain benefits from close communication with each other.
4. Central business district
The central business district (CBD) is the main part of the city that contains the major commercial streets and main commercial buildings. Throughout history, the Central Business District has been characterized by land classification and land use changes that include residential, commercial, industrial, and administration purposes. These spatial changes have been used to support Central Business District development. However, in the wake of post war decentralization and the growth popularity of polycentric regions in both Europe and the US, much of this work has itself come under criticism. The main force of the criticism proposes that Central Business Districts are now more likely to practice for the development of suburban lifestyles. However, similar developments, such as core city regeneration, propose that CBDs are now at the heartbeat of a more extensive back to the city movement that (re)promotes the pleasant appearance of city area living through residential expansion, delightful cultural districts, and an urban cool cultural social scene.
The beginning of the 21st century, the Central Business District had turned into a discrete area of the metropolitan city and built-in residencies, retail shops, commercial malls, Central universities, recreational, government, financial institutions, health care centers, and culture centers. The urban area is located at workplaces or educational institutions in the CBD for regular movement. This includes students, doctors, academics, government officials and civil servants, business peoples, formers, and financiers. In the current era, the rapid development of residential expansion and the growth of shopping malls have given a new life to the Central Business District. In addition, multi residential buildings, mega-malls with theaters, Kochi Lulu international shopping mall is an example of a business district area as an entertainment and shopping center. City walk malls are also familiar in central business districts in an attempt to make the CBD a 24 × 7-hour working destination.
5. Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another place for various purposes. Immigrants go away their nation, while migrate peoples enter a country. Migration impacts two nations and places where migrants enter settle. [9] addressed urbanization, migration and economic development and explained the primary stages of urban growth based on the migration of the population and the economic development of a town.
People have so many reasons why they force to move from one nation to another nation. The reasons behind this movement are employment opportunity, economic, education, globalization, and political or environmental condition. Migration is classified as ‘push factor’ and ‘pull factor.’ Push factors force people to migrate; for example, unemployment, lack of infrastructure (such as hospital, education institutions, etc.), natural disasters (such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones, etc.), local conflicts, war, etc. The people get experience of life and move one place which gives them good life. Pull factors attract people from different places, such as better opportunities for education and employment, better health facilities, and various sources of entertainment.
6. Urban sprawl
In India, rapid population growth and migration, greater than before urban population and urbanization, is not predictable. Barnes et al. highlight sprawl development: its patterns, consequences and measures of particular cities and towns of urbanization [10]. Increasing towns and cities are developed with a change in land use along the national highways, and in the nearby surrounding area of the city, this development occurs outside urban areas such as suburban and urban fringes. Urbanization is a structure of metropolitan city growth that is the reason for social, economic, and political forces and to the physical geography of an area. Some of the reasons for the sprawl contain population growth, urban economy, settlement patterns of infrastructure activities such as the construction of bridges, metal and concrete roads and the provision WiFi using public encouraging development. The direct suggestion of such urban sprawl is the land utilization of the region. Sprawl normally infers some type of expansion with impacts such as loss of farmland, open waste space, and environmentally sensitive habitats. Additionally, sprawl is occasionally equal to the growth of towns or cities. In simple words, as a population in an urban area or a city, the border of the city expands to provide accommodation for growth [11, 12]. This extension is measured as sprawl. Generally, sprawl occurs on the sub-urban area, at the edge of an urban fringe or along the highways [13].
7. Effects, impacts and consequences of urban sprawl
The places of sprawl and the region that is impacted by it are distinct from each other [14]. Urban sprawl takes place at the edge of a town or city, and it might have a direct or indirect force on other parts of the urban area within its administrative boundary or on a nearby city. In general, two adjacent views are taken about the outcome or reflection of sprawl. Urban sprawl may have both positive and negative consequences and impacts; however, negative impacts are often more highlighted, as this is uncontrolled or uncoordinated growth, and eventually, the negative impacts obliterate the positive sides. There are some positive impacts of urban sprawl, such as an increase in economic production, an increase in opportunities for employment, better opportunities and better services creating better living conditions, and better lifestyles. Urban sprawl can extend basic services, infrastructure and social capital, such as transportation, sewer, and water, better educational facilities, and health care facilities, to a larger population. However, since it is an uncontrolled and uncoordinated growth resulting in sprawl, the positive impacts are covered up inviting focus only on the negatives [15].
During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, in developed countries, urbanization was created, and it also led to industrialization. The surplus population from the villages was motivated to make a mass movement towards cities because of new job opportunities created there. For the cities too, these migrants provided cheap labor for the newly established factories. Due to the present globalized scenario and opening up of economies, the circumstances are similar in developing countries. The huge concentration of investments in cities attracts a large number of migrants from villages who are looking for employment. This creates a large surplus labor force, and because of this, the wages remain low. Developed and developing nations of the world are different not only in the percentage of people living in urban areas but also in the way in which urban centers are taking place. Most megacities are developing worldwide, urban sprawl is a universal problem, and a significant number of city inhabitants live in slums within the city or in urban centers in poverty and polluted environments. These large settlements are frequently highly polluted due to the shortage of urban sanitation services, including drinking water, drainage, garbage pickup, electricity or paved roads. However, urban areas give life for poor people with more employment opportunities and better income to renovate their life compared to rural areas.
Some social welfare societies and environmental welfare and helpers claim that for countries such as India with large land areas, there are too large farmlands and open waste spaces to be concerned about how much land is transformed. They also strain the main benefit of sprawl, which is the delegation of employment to various places in urban areas. Most of the urban centers affected by air pollution based on car culture enable people to commute shorter distances at any time and home. Urban areas construct their own buildings or residential villa like better houses. It is not healthy for people to live in areas with increased densities and smaller meter square of space per individual. Therefore, the better suggestion is for those people to live in larger plots with their own green spaces to go away from city centers and work areas.
7.1 Ecological impacts
The percentage of open land space used by each dweller has improved in the last 25 years by two or three times.
7.2 Atmospheric pollution
The level of pollution due to motorcar needs can more easily be connected to population densities. Currently, the peoples use their own vehicles for transportation purposes to avoid common transport facilities, and the percentage of usage has rapidly increased. This kind of activity polluted the environment hour’s base movement of vehicles.
7.3 Loss of natural resources
All spread out directly to the loss of a significant partial resource that is land. Over the years, urban sprawl has openly been given to result in the poverty and decline of natural surroundings such as woodlands, swamp and wildlife habits. It has also reduced open land spaces. Natural resource use has increased. Urban Sprawl guides land-use patterns that are adverse to the development of sustainable transport and increases the use of personal cars, which in turn results in greater than before changes, traffic, rapid use in fuel utilization and air smog. It is in general a hazard to the human environment.
7.4 Impacts on ecosystem
In areas where sprawl is not controlled, the concentration of humans in residential and industrial areas of urban sprawl might directly amend urban ecosystem patterns and processes. Urban growth connected with urban sprawl not only reduces the amount of ecosystem, open farmland woodland, and open space. The arrival of urban sprawl into rural areas and land loss may also raise agricultural lands for the purpose of roads, power (tower) lines, and pipelines. This kind of activity disturbs the rural ecosystem.
7.5 Loss of farmland
Urban sprawl and urbanization contribute to the loss of farmlands and open spaces. Only in the United States is urban sprawl predicted to consume 7 million acres of farmland, 7 million acres of environmentally sensitive land, and 5 million acres of other lands during the period 2000–2025. Preferred taxation and land use policies work in sync to generate economic pressures that force farmers to sale their land to the urban developer. Builders and urban developers are forced to sell land at a low price due to the former economic crises, and the unreasonable prices of farmland often result in far more sales of their land than continuing farming. Additionally, the number of small land parcels of agricultural land is being separated off to create rural residential and industrial development. These small activities guide the loss of a large amount of dynamic farmland each year. The loss of farmland to build up urban sprawl means not only the loss of food sources but also the loss of ecosystems, since farms include plant and animal habitats in woodlots and hedgerows. The presence of farms on the rural landscape provides reimbursement such as green space, urban–rural economic stability, and protection of the traditional rural lifestyle.
7.6 Lessening of the productivity of city
It is an economic theory that productivity is much more enhanced with dense development since ideas move quickly when people are in close proximity. However, when jobs move to the suburbs, people follow them. This may reduce productivity in the city, leading to social loss. In addition, authors state that sprawl leads to creating regional imbalances, such as pulling jobs and people further away from poor communities, increasing inequality. Sprawl also creates segregation of rich and poor or social isolation in general. The problem lies not to the people who have moved to the suburbs but rather to the people who have been left behind. The low-income groups are abandoned in the downtown because they cannot afford a car-based lifestyle. The role of transport technology can explain this social fragmentation. The much congested and deteriorated central towns end up being favorable places for crime and social unrest.
7.7 Increase in temperatures: Creation of urban heat islands
Due to climatic changes, urban regions can have warmer temperatures than urban areas, resulting in urban heat land. The heat land outcome is caused by two reasons. First, dark surfaces such as road networks and building terraces efficiently absorb heat from sunlight and reradiate it as thermal infrared; these dark surfaces can reach temperatures higher than environmental air. Second, urban regions are moderately split of urban vegetation, particularly trees that would provide shadow and fresh air through ecological action. As urban sprawl, the heat land results increase, both in larger geographic extent and in intensity. This is especially true if the urban pattern and features develop extensive tree-cutting and wide road construction. Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. Satellite multisensor data analysis of urban surface temperatures and land cover.
7.8 Deterioration in the air quality
Atash [12] highlighted the deterioration of urban environments in developing countries. The lifestyle need on automobiles for transportation especially cars forced by sprawl guide to increase in fossil fuel utilization and emissions of greenhouse gases Urban sprawl create to poor air quality by accepting more automobile use, thereby adding more air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, volatile organic carbons, ground-level ozone, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and microscopic particles. These pollutants can slow plant growth, create air smog and acid rain, cause global warming, and cause serious human health issues.
8. Conclusions
A new growth be it intended or unexpected could begin on waste land or on land that was before used for some other agricultural purpose. In most cases, however, whenever the need arises, it is the outer edge of the city that provides for “boundless” open land because urban areas are usually unbroken. Urban sprawl is a dynamic process. This results in changes and the transformation of urban areas. Urban sprawl means the migration of people from urban rural areas to suburban or urban fringes. It also defined a small village’s conversion into a town and city. In India, urban settlement is defined as places having minimum inhabitants of 5000, with at least 75% of male employees being occupied in secondary and tertiary activities, and the density of the population should be 400 inhabitants per sq.km. Urban sprawl means unexpected, uncontrolled spreading of urban growth into rural areas sharing the border with the outer edge of a city. Urban migration and dwellers have changed the urban environment due to the overpopulation. If the population increases the need for transportation and space for living, all other needs to be provided. The overpopulation and development of unexpected urban settlements have risen to change the urban environment. Different situations are observed to cause sprawl. In almost all cases, the rise in population plays a major role as a main cause. Urban sprawl has been recognized as a problematic aspect of metropolitan growth and development worldwide. The growing concern about the issue is shared among planners, policy makers, environmentalists and people in general.
\n',keywords:"town and city, migration, growth, sprawl, urbanization",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73079.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73079.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73079",totalDownloads:570,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:32,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 12th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"August 28th 2020",datePublished:"December 16th 2020",dateFinished:"August 28th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Swift progress in urban areas can pilot to urban sprawl, where new components are urbanized around the external boundaries of urban areas, frequently taking up important farmland. Many tenants want better residence, comfortable space, and calm and safe environment, which they discover in the new suburban growth far separate from the center of the city. This kind of expansion requires the addition of utilities and the transport network, as well as the precautions of services such as education, amusement, medical facilities, and commercial services. A number of Indian cities, for example, have a “Delhi,” a “Mumbai,” and other cultural-based communities that reflect our multi-cultural people. Historical information said, many Indian immigrants who lived in these neighborhoods were poorly treated and subject to racism and discrimination by the general people. Urbanization is a truth of life in most cities in India and around the world.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73079",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73079",book:{id:"7831",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design"},signatures:"Balamurugan Paramasivam and Illanthirayan Arumugavelu",authors:[{id:"316721",title:"Dr.",name:"Balamurugan",middleName:null,surname:"Paramasivam",fullName:"Balamurugan Paramasivam",slug:"balamurugan-paramasivam",email:"balamurugan.geo@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Anna University, Chennai",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"319498",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugavelu",middleName:null,surname:"Illanthirayan",fullName:"Arumugavelu Illanthirayan",slug:"arumugavelu-illanthirayan",email:"coast03@rediffmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Urbanization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Characteristics of urbanizations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Central business district",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Migration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Urban sprawl",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Effects, impacts and consequences of urban sprawl",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"7.1 Ecological impacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"7.2 Atmospheric pollution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"7.3 Loss of natural resources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"7.4 Impacts on ecosystem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"7.5 Loss of farmland",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.6 Lessening of the productivity of city",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.7 Increase in temperatures: Creation of urban heat islands",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"7.8 Deterioration in the air quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gordon P, Richardson Harry W. Are compact cities a desirable planning goal? American Planning Association. 1997;63(1):95-106'},{id:"B2",body:'DiLorenzo W. The myth of suburban sprawl. USA Today. 2000;128:54-56'},{id:"B3",body:'Wilson EH, Hurd JD, Civco D, Arnold CL. Development of a geospatial model to quantify, describe and map urban growth. Remote Sensing of Environment. 2003;86(3):275-285'},{id:"B4",body:'George G, Royce H, Harold W, Stephen C, Jason F. Wrestling sprawl to the ground: Defining and measuring an elusive concept. Housing Policy Debate. 2001;12(4):681-717'},{id:"B5",body:'Basudeb B. Analysis of Urban Growth and Sprawl from Remote Sensing Data. Canada: Springer; 2010'},{id:"B6",body:'Al-Kheder SAM, Wang J, Shan J. Fuzzy inference guided cellular automata urban-growth modeling using multi-temporal satellite images. International Journal of Geographical Information Science. 2008;22(11-12):1271-1293'},{id:"B7",body:'Kundu A, Basu DN, et al. Urban Development and Urban Research in India. New Delhi: Khama Publishers; 1992. p. 162'},{id:"B8",body:'Breese EL. The measurement and significance of genotype environment interactions in grasses. Heredity. 1969;24:27-44'},{id:"B9",body:'Chandna RC. Geography of Population: Concepts, Determinants and Patterns. New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers; 1996'},{id:"B10",body:'Barnes KB, Morgan JM III, Roberge MC, et al. Sprawl Development: Its Patterns, Consequences and Measurement. Towson, USA: Towson University; 2001'},{id:"B11",body:'Diddee J. Indian Medium Towns: An Appraisal of Their Role As Growth Centers. New Delhi: Rawat Publications; 1997'},{id:"B12",body:'Atash. The deterioration of urban environments in developing countries: Mitigating the air pollution crisis in Tehran. Iran Cities. 2007;24(2007):399-409'},{id:"B13",body:'Kumar et al. Monitoring urban expansion and land use/land cover changes in Rohtak city using remote sensing and GIS technique. International Journal of Advances in Remote Sensing and GIS. 2012;1(2):186-191'},{id:"B14",body:'Soffianian A et al. Mapping and analyzing urban expansion using remotely sensed imagery in Isfahan, Iran. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2010;9(12):1370-1378'},{id:"B15",body:'Weng Q. A remote sensing? GIS evaluation of urban expansion and its impact on surface temperature in the Zhujiang Delta, China. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2001;22(10):1999-2014'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Balamurugan Paramasivam",address:"balamurugan.geo@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are aimed to decrease the environmental impacts of discharging untreated wastewater into receiving bodies, but considering the need for long-term ecological sustainability, the objectives of wastewater treatment systems should include energy and resource savings and waste reduction [1].
Sewage sludge management is a management system that makes sludge recovery a central component of a wastewater treatment plant that strives to integrate it with improving the sustainability of wastewater plants. Currently, wastewater sludge production, treatment, and disposal methods vary from country to country, and the continued growth of sludge production is becoming a global problem. The sludge production rate is increasing due to the stricter legislation which is constantly solidifying for the sustainable disposal of wastewater. Nowadays, however, due to the increasing environmental awareness of the public and increasing pressure from environmental organizations, sludge management has become necessary with economic and environmentally friendly methods.
Conventional disposal methods (e.g., landfill, incineration, stabilization) have raised concerns about legislative constraints and community perception that encourage the assessment of substitute sludge management options. Sludge management requires a systematic solution combining environmental effectiveness, social acceptability, and economic affordability based on a life cycle approach. Life cycle assessment is one of the most important tools to identify and compare the environmental impact of sludge treatment technologies to ensure sustainable sludge management.
Generally, the terms biosolids and sewage sludge are used interchangeably. Biosolid includes 20% content of fat, 50% carbohydrate content, 30–40% content of organic matter, 3% total nitrogen, 1.5% total phosphorus, 0.7% total potassium content, 10–20% C/N ratio, pH of 6.5–7.0, and a specific gravity of 1.00 as reported by [2]. It is a by-product of treatment plants in large quantities varying in characteristics, containing organic and inorganic chemicals, heavy metals (iron, chromium, manganese, zinc, mercury, lead, nickel, cadmium and copper), and pathogens. It is considered as a resource due to the widespread application in biogas production, soil filling, organic fertilizer, and soil amendment.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a standardized and recognized tool to measure the overall environmental impact of providing a product or service. It is increasingly used to support commercial claims of products’ environmental performance. It is also used as the basis for European environmental legislation, including Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) and Integrated Product Policy [3].
ORWARE, SimaPro, MARTES, UMBERTO, Ecobilan, LCAiT, SiSOSTAQUA, BioWin*, STAN*, GaBi 6, WWEST, BEAM, GEMIS, and Quantis Suite are the best known commercial sludge treatment and management LCA software. Among them SimaPro is the most widely used model. Global warming, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical smog, human toxicity, ecotoxicity, depletion of abiotic resource, and terrestrial ecotoxicity are the fundamental impact categories of sludge management [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Life cycle assessment methodology is generally implemented for the main sludge management like dewatering, thickening, and anaerobic digestion [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
This chapter deals with the application of biosolids or sewage sludge, together with possible resources for sustainable development. Moreover, the life cycle assessments of sludge treatment methods were also investigated and found that sludge treatment techniques lead to major environmental impact categories such as global warming potential, human toxicity, acidification potential, and resource consumption.
2. Life cycle assessment (LCA)
Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a method of assessing the environmental impact of products and processes throughout their lives, including raw material procurement, production, use, final disposal, and all transport phases between these stages.
With this analysis, the comprehensive inventory of all energy, water, and substance inputs together with the emitted waste is evaluated together, and the possible environmental effects of the products are calculated. Unlike other narrow-scale environmental impact analyses, the LCA examines environmental issues with its “cradle-to-grave” approach [19].
Depending on the stage of the life cycle, LCA studies can be grouped as “cradle to grave,” “cradle to door,” “cradle to cradle,” and “door to door.” It is a definition used for studies examining the whole life cycles of a product or process from cradle to grave and includes all the processes to be passed from the raw material production (cradle) to the disposal of the waste (grave).
A product or process from the cradle to the door partially covers the processes from the production of the raw material (cradle) to the stage (door) to which it is delivered to the factory. This is a life cycle study which partially covers processes.
The recycling of waste during the waste disposal phase is referred to as the cradle-to-cradle approach.
“Door to door” is an approach that deals with the life cycle of a single stage of a product or a process [20].
LCA is a rapidly evolving tool designed to help environmental management in sustainable products and services in the longer term, also called “life cycle analysis,” “life cycle approach,” “cradle-to-grave analysis,” or “ecological balance.”
The standard LCA method consists of four main steps:
First step: aim and scope definition: At this stage, the objective of LCA study, target groups, basic variables, necessary data, constraints, and assumptions used are defined. Systematic and functional units are the two most important elements defining the scope and knowledge of the study, and while determining the system boundaries, the life cycle of the product is included in the analysis [21]. The functional unit refers to the unit function of the system under consideration and should be expressed clearly and in detail and should reflect the basic function of the product or system [22].
Second step: life cycle inventory analysis: At this stage, energy, water, raw material inputs, and released solid waste, wastewater, and air emissions are determined within the boundaries. In the meantime, inventory information about all unit processes in the product’s life cycle is compiled through data collection forms, and deficiencies are completed by using literature review and sectoral reports.
All collected data is rearranged according to the functional unit. It is made available for the calculation of environmental impacts. At this stage, data quality and accuracy are vital at every step.
As a result of the literature research, it was determined that UMBERTO, GEMIS, SimaPro, GLOSSARY BEAM, MARTES, Ecobilan, LCAiT, SiSOSTAQUA, BioWin, STAN, GaBi 6, and WWEST are the most preferred sludge treatment and management LCA software [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Among them SimaPro is the most widely used model. Global warming, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical smog, human toxicity, ecotoxicity, depletion of abiotic resource, and terrestrial ecotoxicity are the fundamental impact categories of sludge management. Life cycle assessment methodology is generally implemented for main sludge management like dewatering, thickening, and anaerobic digestion [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Third step: life cycle impact analysis: At this stage, environmental impact potentials are calculated using inventory data collected and compiled in the previous stage. Mandatory (classification and characterization) and voluntary (normalization and weighting) substages of the impact analysis stage are defined in [23, 24]:
At the classification stage, the individual inventory items are assigned according to the relevant environmental impact categories. For example, CO2 emissions are categorized as “global warming.” The most commonly used environmental impact categories in LCA studies are acidification, eutrophication, global warming, photochemical ozone formation, ozone depletion, ecotoxicity, and resource consumption (see Figure 1).
In the characterization stage, inventory items contributing to the same environmental problem are multiplied by the relevant coefficients and expressed over the common unit, and the aggregated impact is calculated for each environmental impact category. For example, CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions leading to global warming are expressed by an equivalent of kg CO2.
In the normalization phase, different environmental impact potentials are compared according to the common reference system using accepted normalization methods. Normalization indicates which environmental impact potential is higher.
In the weighting phase, the normalization results are multiplied by coefficients using one of the weighted methods that are accepted and based on the reduction targets for each environmental impact category. Weighting reveals which environmental impact potential is more important. LCA has a wide range of applications in the private, public, and academy sector for a wide range of products, services, and systems. LCA develops strategic planning, public policies, and performance indicators; identifies priority products and processes in production; identifies improvement opportunities; provides important inputs in product development or redesign stages, various sustainability declarations, and eco-label programs; and support and compare different production alternatives. Among these, environmental declarations and carbon and water footprint calculations are important in sustainable consumption and production.
Figure 1.
LCA impact assessment mechanism [19].
Fourth step: interpretation of results: It is the purpose of this stage to interpret the results of the inventory and environmental impact analysis stages according to the purpose and scope of the study and to present important results and recommendations for the system or product under consideration [23, 24].
The carbon footprint is an environmental indicator that measures the global climate change caused by greenhouse gases (GHG) from the life cycle of products and services. Greenhouse gases emitted at each stage are expressed in terms of the total CO2 equivalent units multiplied by the relevant coefficients. Basically carbon footprint calculation is also a life cycle approach; however, unlike LCA, it does not cover all emissions but only inputs that contribute to global warming. Principles and procedures for product carbon footprint calculation and declaration are defined in [24], ISO 14067: 2013. Here, ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 LCA standards are used for footprint calculations, and ISO 14020, ISO 14024, and ISO 14025 standards are used for declarations [24].
Water footprint calculations are likewise based on life cycle principles, and the basic rules and principles for footprint calculations of products, processes, and institutions are included in the ISO 14046: 2014 standard. With this method, in addition to direct and hence water input-outputs, air and soil emissions affecting water quality are also addressed [25].
The main uses of LCA can be summarized as follows:
Analyzing problems related to a specific product
Determining the important parameters that affect a study for product development
New product design
Choosing between similar products, processes, and services
One of the areas where LCA is used in particular is green purchasing applications. Eco-labels (where environmentally friendly products are documented) are preferred by consumers; Blue Angel is used in Germany, but in Scandinavian countries Green Swan is used.
Below are examples of other uses:
Compliance of the various packaging alternatives with the European Union’s packaging directive
Evaluating the different waste management approaches of the municipalities
Comparing different types of biomass for a particular use (e.g., obtaining electricity) to determine environmental advantages and disadvantages
Strategic comparison between alternatives in order to make a decision on a public investment, for example, evaluation of transport methods (road, rail, sea) for certain regions or a particular sector
Harmonization of the construction sector with the environment
Improving the raw material production stage by switching to sustainable raw materials in production
Reducing the carbon footprint by increasing the energy efficiency of the electronic goods produced through R&D studies
Making product shipments more efficient and reducing air emissions by making changes in product packaging
Reducing the environmental impact of the final disposal phase by designing more recyclable products
As a summary the LCA study, which covers all stages of the product value chain, evaluates the total environmental impact such as global warming, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical smog, human toxicity, ecotoxicity, depletion of abiotic resource, and terrestrial ecotoxicity which are the fundamental impact categories of sludge management [26].
3. Life cycle assessment of sewage management
A sludge management that yields the best results requires a systematic solution that combines environmental effectiveness, social acceptability, and economic affordability based on a life cycle approach. For example, it is reported in the literature that total sludge production in China increased by an average of 13% per annum from 2007 to 2013, producing 6.25 million tons of dry solids in 2013 and reaching 39.78 million tons in 2020. In the same study, more than 80% of the sludge was disposed without any process, the organic content of the sludge was around 37%, and because of this low organic matter content, anaerobic digestion was not an efficient method, and therefore storage and incineration after dewatering was the most common method [27]. With the increase in population, the urban settlement areas expanded, and many of the wastewater treatment plants in the rural areas are now located within the settlements, and the gradual improvement in socioeconomic development and living standards has led the residents to pay more attention to the quality of the living environment [1]. In addition, since the environmental awareness of the public has increased, the odors caused by treatment plants have become a new and troublesome social problem. Another study suggests that municipal waste management in China tends to incinerate instead of landfill, but it causes social conflicts as it impedes the construction of treatment plants near public land or habitats [28].
Another study reached a more striking conclusion, stating that the inhabitants of 12 Chinese cities protested the incineration projects due to environmental concerns and only three incineration projects were allowed from 2009 to 2015, while others were canceled and the disposal of sludge into the long-term storage or incineration facilities was increasingly difficult [29].
Since EU member states have to reduce the amount of biodegradable municipal waste to 35% of 1995 by 2016, they have to make the transition from a linear to circular economy where waste can be converted into resources. Therefore, like all biodegradable wastes, wastewater sludge is seen as a source of energy and material production. However, a sewage management should be considered, including the method of processing sludge, where and how the final products (e.g., fertilizer, biogas) are used, the amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the selection of the most sustainable wastewater sludge treatment technology. Composting, anaerobic digestion, incineration, chemical stabilization, and the use of fertilizer in agricultural land are the most commonly used sewage management methods. The change of sludge management methods from country to country was mentioned in the previous chapters. Portugal, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Luxembourg, and Spain use more than 75% of the sludge produced as fertilizer for agricultural land; 86% of the sludge produced in Lithuania, Finland, and Estonia is composted; the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Slovenia, Austria, and Switzerland prioritize incineration, while Malta, Romania, Italy, and Bosnia and Herzegovina mostly report the use of sludge for storage [30].
In a sludge life cycle assessment study in France, it was noted that the final combination of anaerobic digestion and land application caused the lowest emissions during operation [5]. Many researchers have indicated that, from an economic point of view only, a large-scale incineration plant or anaerobic digester may be the most effective way to treat sludge [30].
It was reported that land filling has the greatest impact (296.9 kg CO2 eq./t sludge), followed by mono-incineration (232.2 kg CO2 eq./t sludge) and carbonization (146.1 kg CO2 eq./t sludge) in terms of the emission quantity of greenhouse gases. They also stated that co-incineration with municipal solid waste has the benefit of reducing greenhouse gas emission by −15.4 kg CO2 eq./t sludge [31].
A calculator calculating the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (carbon dioxide including bio-based, methane, and nitrous oxide measured as carbon dioxide equivalents) from sewage sludge treatment methods found at the end of the comprehensive study showed that composting, anaerobic digestion, and incineration resulted in the lowest emissions of the GHG gases. If you need to elaborate further, anaerobic digestion generated the least carbon dioxide equivalent emissions among all the treatment methods studied. The second best option was incineration of sludge, while the third best was composting [31].
In another study a life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed on five common sewage sludge treatment practices, namely, dewatering of mixed sludge, lime stabilization of dewatered sludge, anaerobic digestion of mixed sludge, dewatering of anaerobically digested sludge, and incineration of dewatered anaerobically digested sludge. The sludge residues were applied on agricultural land, and it was found that the incineration of dewatered anaerobically digested sludge scenario performed better results [2].
Ten impact categories, namely, human toxicity carcinogenic effects, human toxicity non-carcinogenic effects, ecotoxicity, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, terrestrial eutrophication, terrestrial acidification, particulate matter formation, climate change, and photochemical oxidant formation, were also assessed in this study. It was concluded that in human toxicity and ecotoxicity categories, impacts were dominated by the application of zinc and copper to agricultural soil. For the freshwater eutrophication potential category, the fate of phosphorus was found to be (P) dominated, while the fate of N had a profound effect on all nontoxic impact categories other than freshwater eutrophication [2].
4. Conclusions
As a result of the literature blended in this section, it is concluded that biosolids have significant disadvantages for their use in agriculture and other applications and, therefore, sludge or biosolids should be sampled, controlled, and monitored regularly for pollutants (pathogens, heavy metals, etc.). However, it is also concluded that biosolids play an important role in energy production, and crop production. The most comprehensive sludge management studies have shown that land application is an important contribution to global warming, eutrophication, and acidification. More scientific research is needed on different aspects of biosolids or sewage sludge to be a more suitable resource for sustainable development. It is vital that the most efficient sludge management strategy should focus on economic, technological, and societal constraints.
The LCA study, which covers all stages of the product value chain, evaluates the total environmental impact such as global warming, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical smog, human toxicity, ecotoxicity, depletion of abiotic resource, and terrestrial ecotoxicity which are the fundamental impact categories of sludge management.
A literature blending in GHG showed that composting, anaerobic digestion, and incineration have the lowest emissions. Many researchers have indicated that, from an economic point of view only, a large-scale incineration plant or anaerobic digester may be the most effective way to treat sludge. A sludge management that yields the best results requires a systematic solution that combines environmental effectiveness, social acceptability, and economic affordability based on a life cycle approach.
\n',keywords:"life cycle assessment, sludge management, biosolid management, sustainability, sludge treatment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71033.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71033.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71033",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71033",totalDownloads:809,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 1st 2019",dateReviewed:"January 14th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 11th 2020",datePublished:"September 9th 2020",dateFinished:"February 11th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Sludge formation during wastewater treatment is inevitable even with proper management and treatment. However, the proper treatment and disposal of sludge are still difficult in terms of cost of treatment, the presence of new pollutants, health problems, and public acceptance. Conventional disposal methods (e.g., storage, incineration) have raised concerns about legislative constraints and community perception that encourage the assessment of substitute sludge management options. Sludge management requires a systematic solution that combines environmental effectiveness, social acceptability, and economic affordability. Life cycle assessment is one of the most important tools to identify and compare the environmental impact of sludge treatment technologies to ensure sustainable sludge management. Increased production of sludge (biosolids) increases worldwide due to population growth, urban planning, and industrial developments. The sludge needs to be properly treated and environmentally managed to reduce the negative effects of its application or disposal. This chapter deals with the application of biosolids or sewage sludge, together with possible resources for sustainable development. In this section, the life cycle assessments of sludge treatment methods were also investigated and found that sludge treatment techniques lead to major environmental impact categories such as global warming potential, human toxicity, acidification potential, and resource consumption.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71033",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71033",signatures:"Başak Kiliç Taşeli",book:{id:"8783",type:"book",title:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency",slug:"sustainable-sewage-sludge-management-and-resource-efficiency",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Başak Kiliç Taşeli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8783.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-707-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-706-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-708-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"302014",title:"Prof.",name:"Başak",middleName:null,surname:"Kılıç Taşeli",slug:"basak-kilic-taseli",fullName:"Başak Kılıç Taşeli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"302014",title:"Prof.",name:"Başak",middleName:null,surname:"Kılıç Taşeli",fullName:"Başak Kılıç Taşeli",slug:"basak-kilic-taseli",email:"basak.taseli@giresun.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302014/images/system/302014.jpg",institution:{name:"Giresun University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Life cycle assessment (LCA)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Life cycle assessment of sewage management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Xiao L, Lin T, Wang Y, Ye Z, Liao J. Comparative life cycle assessment of sludge management: A case study of Xiamen. China. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;192:354-363'},{id:"B2",body:'Kumar V, Chopra AK, Kumar A. A review on sewage sludge (biosolids) a resource for sustainable agriculture. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science. 2017;2(4):340-347'},{id:"B3",body:'Available from: https://www.eiga.eu/index.php?eID=dumpFile&t=f&f= 251&token =6df78a58d 435b481e0c692d7a2ba67cdbe9deb0b [Accessed: 26 November 2019]'},{id:"B4",body:'Wiloso EI, Heijungs R, Snoo GR. LCA of second generation bioethanol: A review and some issues to be resolved for good LCA practice. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2012;16:5295-5308'},{id:"B5",body:'Suh YJ, Rousseaux P. An LCA of alternative wastewater sludge treatment scenarios. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2002;35:191-200'},{id:"B6",body:'Gallego A, Hospido A, Moreira MT. Environmental performance of wastewater treatment plants for small populations. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2008;52:931-940'},{id:"B7",body:'Murray A, Horvath A, Nelson KL. Hybrid life-cycle environmental and cost inventory of sewage sludge treatment and end-use scenarios: A case study from China. Environmental Science and Technologies. 2008;42:3163-3169'},{id:"B8",body:'Lederer J, Rechberger H. Comparative goal-oriented assessment of conventional and alternative sewage sludge treatment options. Waste Management. 2010;30:1043-1056'},{id:"B9",body:'Sablayrolles C, Gabrielle B, Montrejaud VM. Life cycle assessment of biosolids land application and evaluation of the factors impact in human toxicity through plant uptake. Journal of Industrial Ecology. 2010;14:231-241'},{id:"B10",body:'Hospido A, Carballa M, Moreira M. Environmental assessment of anaerobically digested sludge reuse in agriculture: Potential impacts of emerging micropollutants. Water Research. 2010;44:3225-3233'},{id:"B11",body:'Bravo L, Ferrer I. Life cycle assessment of an intensive sewage treatment plant in Barcelona (Spain) with focus on energy aspects. Water Science and Technology. 2011;64(2):440-447'},{id:"B12",body:'Linderholm K, Tillman AM, Mattsson JE. Life cycle assessment of phosphorus alternative for Swedish agriculture. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2012;66:27-39'},{id:"B13",body:'Tillman AM, Svngby M, Lundstrom H. Life cycle assessment of municipal waste water systems. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 1998;3:145-157'},{id:"B14",body:'Bridle T, Skrypski-Mantle S. Assessment of sludge reuse options: A life-cycle approach. Water Science and Technology. 2000;41:131-135'},{id:"B15",body:'Lundin M, Bengtsson M, Molander S. Life cycle assessment of wastewater systems: Influence of system boundaries and scale on calculated environmental loads. Environmental Science and Technology. 2000;34:180-186'},{id:"B16",body:'Soda S, Iwai Y, Sei K. Model analysis of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of sewage sludge treatment system with different processes and scales. Water Science and Technology. 2010;61(2):365-373'},{id:"B17",body:'Brown S, Beecher N, Carpenter A. Calculator tool for determining greenhouse gas emissions for biosolid processing and end use. Environmental Science and Technology. 2010;44:9509-9515'},{id:"B18",body:'Nakakubo T, Tokai A, Ohno K. Comparative assessment of technological systems for recycling sludge and food waste at greenhouse gas emissions reduction and phosphorus recovery. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2012;32:157-172'},{id:"B19",body:'EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice. Washington, DC. EPA/600/R-06/060; 2006'},{id:"B20",body:'Jiménez-González C, Kim S, Overcash M. Methodology for developing gate-to-gate life cycle inventory information. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 2000;5:153-159'},{id:"B21",body:'Tillman AM, Ekvall T, Baumann H, Rydberg T. Choice of system boundaries in life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production. 1993;2:21-29'},{id:"B22",body:'Wiloso EI, Heijungs R, Snoo GR. LCA of second generation bioethanol: A review and some issues to be resolved for good LCA practice. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2012;16:5295-5308'},{id:"B23",body:'ISO: Environmental management–Life cycle assessment: Principles and framework. ISO 14040:2006, ISO, Geneva, Switzerland; 2006'},{id:"B24",body:'ISO: Greenhouse gases .Carbon footprint of products: Requirements and guidelines for quantification and communication. ISO/TS 14067:2013, ISO, Geneva, Switzerland; 2013'},{id:"B25",body:'ISO: Environmental management. Water footprint: Principles, requirements and guidelines. ISO 14046:2014, ISO, Geneva, Switzerland; 2014'},{id:"B26",body:'Yilmaz O, Anctil A, Karanfil T. LCA as a decision support tool for evaluation of best available techniques (BATs) for cleaner production of iron casting. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2015;105:337-347'},{id:"B27",body:'Yang G, Zhang G, Yang H. Current state of sludge production, management, treatment and disposal in China. Water Research. 2015;78:60-73'},{id:"B28",body:'Xiao LS, Wang R, Chiang PC. Comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of accelerated carbonation processes using steelmaking slag for CO2 fixation. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2014;14(3):892-904'},{id:"B29",body:'Deaton BJ, Hoehn JP. Hedonic analysis of hazardous waste sites in the presence of other urban disamenities. Environmental Science and Policy. 2004;7(6):499-508'},{id:"B30",body:'Piippo S, Lauronen M, Postila H. Greenhouse gas emissions from different sewage sludge treatment methods in north. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;177:483-492'},{id:"B31",body:'Wang N-Y, Shih C-H, Chiueh P-T, Huang Y-F. Environmental effects of sewage sludge carbonization and other treatment alternatives. Energies. 2013;6:871-883'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Başak Kiliç Taşeli",address:"basak.taseli@giresun.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey
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Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"46355",doi:"10.5772/57469",title:"Phytoremediation of Soils Contaminated with Metals and Metalloids at Mining Areas: Potential of Native Flora",slug:"phytoremediation-of-soils-contaminated-with-metals-and-metalloids-at-mining-areas-potential-of-nativ",totalDownloads:8598,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3854",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-soil-contamination",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination"},signatures:"Paulo J.C. 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With an increasing understanding of clay structure, montmorillonite is realized viable for an enhanced performance in a variety of materials and products in the areas of catalysis, food additive, antibacterial function, polymer, sorbent, etc. Significant development in the use and application of montmorillonite is seen in recent time. This chapter provides an overview of montmorillonite, structure, and properties and particularly discusses its recent utilization in important materials. Montmorillonite is introduced in terms of its natural sources, chemical structure, physical and chemical properties, and functional utilization. The important physical and chemical properties are summarized as particle and layered structure, molecular structure and cation exchange effect, barrier property, and water sorption. This is followed by the important functional utilizations of montmorillonite based on the effects of its chemical structure. The important functional utilization of montmorillonite includes food additive for health and stamina, for antibacterial activity against tooth and gum decay, as sorbent for nonionic, anionic, and cationic dyes, and the use as catalyst in organic synthesis. The environment concerns, to date, do not indicate the adversity for particles used as additive. Studies will be useful which are clearly based on any montmorillonite structure to describe environmental effects.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"46032",title:"Soil Contamination, Risk Assessment and Remediation",slug:"soil-contamination-risk-assessment-and-remediation",totalDownloads:14013,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:62,abstract:null,book:{id:"3854",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-soil-contamination",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination"},signatures:"Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf, Mohd. Jamil Maah and Ismail Yusoff",authors:[{id:"25185",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Aqeel",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-aqeel-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf"},{id:"101988",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",middleName:null,surname:"Yusoff",slug:"ismail-yusoff",fullName:"Ismail Yusoff"},{id:"169931",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Jamil",middleName:null,surname:"Maah",slug:"mohd-jamil-maah",fullName:"Mohd Jamil Maah"},{id:"169932",title:"Dr.",name:"Ng Tham",middleName:null,surname:"Fatt",slug:"ng-tham-fatt",fullName:"Ng Tham Fatt"}]},{id:"71931",title:"Open Pit Mining",slug:"open-pit-mining",totalDownloads:1744,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Open pit mining method is one of the surface mining methods that has a traditional cone-shaped excavation and is usually employed to exploit a near-surface, nonselective and low-grade zones deposits. It often results in high productivity and requires large capital investments, low operating costs, and good safety conditions. The main topics that will be discussed in this chapter will include an introduction into the general features of open pit mining, ore body characteristics and configurations, stripping ratios and stripping overburden methods, mine elements and parameters, open pit operation cycle, pit slope angle, stability of mine slopes, types of highwall failures, mine closure and reclamation, and different variants of surface mining methods including opencast mining, mountainous mining, and artisan mining.",book:{id:"8620",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",title:"Mining Techniques",fullTitle:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Awwad H. Altiti, Rami O. Alrawashdeh and Hani M. 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The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"65070",title:"Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties",slug:"biochar-a-sustainable-approach-for-improving-plant-growth-and-soil-properties",totalDownloads:6959,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:99,abstract:"Soil is the most important source and an abode for many nutrients and microflora. Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"39170",title:"Study of Impacts of Global Warming on Climate Change: Rise in Sea Level and Disaster Frequency",slug:"study-of-impacts-of-global-warming-on-climate-change-rise-in-sea-level-and-disaster-frequency",totalDownloads:6702,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"2206",slug:"global-warming-impacts-and-future-perspective",title:"Global Warming",fullTitle:"Global Warming - Impacts and Future Perspective"},signatures:"Bharat Raj Singh and Onkar Singh",authors:[{id:"26093",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bharat-raj-singh",fullName:"Bharat Raj Singh"},{id:"118426",title:"Prof.",name:"Onkar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"onkar-singh",fullName:"Onkar Singh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"10",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82823",title:"The Metropolitan Transformation of Ioannina City from 1940 to 2015",slug:"the-metropolitan-transformation-of-ioannina-city-from-1940-to-2015",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105884",abstract:"The chapter presents the urban and regional changes in the city of Ioannina, Greece. This city is located in the periphery of Epirus, which is in the western Balkans, Eastern Europe. The chapter examines, with the tools of aerial photos and QGIS software, the spatial transformation of Ioannina city from 1940 to 2015. Map science is a field through which the users could observe and compare maps from past to future. The plans and the planning were formed under the values, standards, and fundamentals of the mosaic of politics, good practices, urban rules, and citizen level. The urban space has already changed until nowadays. The chapter examines the reasons for urban politics and social–economic moments that became the epitome of these urban and regional changes. The results show the comparative spatial study from each historical period.",book:{id:"11488",title:"GIS and Spatial Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11488.jpg"},signatures:"Efthymios-Spyridon Georgiou"},{id:"83032",title:"Introductory Chapter: Solar Photovoltaic Energy",slug:"introductory-chapter-solar-photovoltaic-energy",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106259",abstract:null,book:{id:"9862",title:"Solar Radiation - Measurements, Modeling and Forecasting for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammadreza Aghaei, Amir Nedaei, Aref Eskandari and Jafar Milimonfared"},{id:"82963",title:"Evolution of Radio Source Components and the Quasar/Galaxy Unification Scheme",slug:"evolution-of-radio-source-components-and-the-quasar-galaxy-unification-scheme",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106244",abstract:"In this work, a theoretical model is developed for explanation of temporal evolution of extragalactic radio sources via beaming, orientation effects and asymmetries. Equation of the form D≈P±q1+z−m is used to account for the D ∼ P/z relation. Also, D≈D01+z−1+z1+z2 accounted properly for Ω0=1 cosmology than the Ω0=0 counterpart in linear size versus redshift of radio sources. Similarly, D=Dc1∓lnPPc1/2 model explained redshift-luminosity relationship of extragalactic radio sources. The results from the regression analyses are q = +0.003 (r = 0.04) for sources with z < 1 and q = −1.59 (r = −0.6) for all z≥1 sources. A critical linear size, Dc of 316kpc which matches the maximum theoretical linear size, Dmax of 0.15D0 at a critical redshift zc∼1 and a critical luminosity Pc=26.33WHz−1 are obtained. The indication of all these results is that the linear size of radio sources evolves up to a certain limit in D–P plane and thereafter decreases with increasing luminosity as predicted in this work.",book:{id:"11737",title:"Astronomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11737.jpg"},signatures:"Costecia Ifeoma Onah, Augustine A. Ubachukwu and Finbarr C. Odo"},{id:"82981",title:"Wood Quality and Pulping Process Efficiency of Elite Eucalyptus spp. Clones Field-Grown under Seasonal Drought Stress",slug:"wood-quality-and-pulping-process-efficiency-of-elite-eucalyptus-spp-clones-field-grown-under-seasona",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106341",abstract:"The objective of the present study is to evaluate the wood quality of five elite Eucalyptus spp. clones at 4 years of age from a clonal test installed in a region of seasonal drought stress in central-western Brazil focusing on pulp production. A total of 25 trees were systematically felled and disks and logs were obtained along the trunk. Wooden disks were used for density and fiber analyses and the logs were converted into chips for application in the pulping process. For the denser genotype, clone D (E. grandis x E. urophylla x Eucalyptus tereticornis), a thicker cell wall associated to thinner fibers results in a negative effect on the fiber quality. In contrast, clone B (Eucalyptus pellita x E. grandis), which has relatively inferior pulping performance, displayed the lowest wood density associated to wider lumen and fibers. The best growth performances in response to acclimatization and adaptation to the site strongly influences the pulp productivity, which is identified as the parameter of greatest variance between genotypes, and highlighting clone E (E. grandis x E. urophylla).",book:{id:"11840",title:"Arid Environment - Perspectives, Challenges and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11840.jpg"},signatures:"Deborah Rodrigues de Souza Santos, Camila Sarto, Rafael Fernandes dos Santos, Júlia Lôbo Ribeiro Anciotti Gil, Carlos de Melo e Silva-Neto, Regina Maria Gomes, Evandro Novaes, Carlos Roberto Sette-Junior, Mario Tomazello-Filho, Rafael Tassinari Resende and Matheus Peres Chagas"},{id:"82957",title:"The Socio-Economic Factors of the Covid-19 Pandemic in Turkey: A Spatial Perspective",slug:"the-socio-economic-factors-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-in-turkey-a-spatial-perspective",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106048",abstract:"This study investigates the role of various socioeconomic determinants and vaccination rates in the spread of Covid-19 in a spatial setting in Turkey. For this aim, we employ the 41 sub-indicators of Life Index in Provinces data provided by the Turkish Statistical Institute which is obtained based on the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Better Life Index approach. Our results indicate no global interactions in the transmission process of the disease among Turkish provinces. This means that the infection burden in the neighboring province does not significantly affect the infection burden of a given state. Yet, we show that vaccination rates and the median age of a neighboring province significantly affect the number of total cases in a given province. We find that as the vaccination rates of a neighboring province rise, the number of total cases in a given province also increases. This finding can be attributed to the “neighbor–reliant immunity” concept. It seems that people with vaccine hesitancy toward Covid-19 feel safer without a vaccine when their neighbors are mostly vaccinated. Last, people with a higher satisfaction rate with their health status are more likely to catch the disease due to underestimation of negative consequences.",book:{id:"11488",title:"GIS and Spatial Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11488.jpg"},signatures:"Sevgi Eda Tuzcu and Esra Satıcı"},{id:"82652",title:"Intra-Plate Dynamics and Active Tectonic Zones of the Indian Plate",slug:"intra-plate-dynamics-and-active-tectonic-zones-of-the-indian-plate",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105647",abstract:"The tectonic framework of the Indian Plate started to evolve since the break-up of Gondwanaland in the Late Triassic. It evolved mainly during the time between its separation from the African plate in the Early-Cretaceous and its collision with the Eurasian plate on the north in Late-Middle Eocene and with the Burmese plate in the northeast in Late-Oligocene. Present active tectonic zones, responsible for earthquake generation, were created by the collision pattern and subsequent plate motion. Continued subduction and plate motion due to ridge push and slab pull are responsible for the activation of primordial faults in the inherent structural fabric of the craton depending on the related stress field. Major tectonic zones of the Indian continental plate are related to the collision fronts and the reactivated intra-cratonic faults along the resurgent paleo-sutures between the proto-cratons. Major Tectonic Zones (TZ) are Himalayan TZ, Assam-Arakan TZ, Baluchistan- Karakoram TZ, Andaman-Nicobar TZ, and Stable Continental Region (SCR) earthquake zone. The structure of the continental margins developed during the break-up of Gondwana continental fragments. Western margin evolved during the sequential separation of Africa, Madagascar, and Seychelles since the Late-Triassic to Late Cretaceous time. The Eastern margin structure evolved during the separation of Antarctica in Mid Cretaceous. The orogenic belt circumscribing the northern margin of Indian plate is highly tectonised as the subduction of the plate continues due to northerly push from the Carlsberg Ridge in the SW and slab-pull towards northeast and east along the orogenic and island arc fronts in the NE. This stress pattern induced an anticlockwise rotatory plate motion. The back thrust from the collision front in the direction opposite to the ridge push put the plate under an overall compressive stress. This stress pattern and the plate motion are responsible for the reactivation of the major intra-cratonic faults. While the tectonised orogenic belts are the zones for earthquake nucleation, the reactivated faults are also the strained mega shear zones across the plate for earthquake generation in SCR. These faults trending WNW-ESE are apparently the transform faults that extend across the continent from Carlsberg ridge in the west to the collision zones in the northeast. As such, they are described here as the ‘trans-continental transform faults’. Three such major fault zones from north to south are (i) North Kathiawar fault - Great Boundary fault (along the Aravalli belt) zone, (ii) South Saurashtra fault (extension of Narmada fault) – SONATA-Dauki-Naga fault zone, and (iii) Tellichery-Cauvery-Eastern Ghat-T3-Hail Hakalula-Naga thrust zone. All these trans-continental faults, which are mega-shear zones, are traceable from western offshore to the northeastern orogenic belts along mega tectonic lineaments across the continent. The neotectonic movements along these faults, their relative motion, and displacement are the architect of the present geomorphic pattern and shape of the Indian craton. The overall compressive stress is responsible for strain build-up within these fault zones and consequent earthquake nucleation. The mid-continental Sonata-Dauki shear zone follows the Central Indian Suture Zone between Bundelkhand Proto Continent (BPC) and Deccan Proto Continent (DPC). With the reactivation of this shear zone, the two proto-cratonic blocks are subjected to relative movement as the plate rotates anticlockwise. The kinematics of these movements and their implications are discussed here with a special reference to the recent 2001 Bhuj earthquake.",book:{id:"11490",title:"Advances in Plate Tectonics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11490.jpg"},signatures:"Sanjib K. Biswas and Gaurav D. Chauhan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:134},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:{name:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}},{id:"82777",title:"Sustainability and Social Investment: Community Microhydropower Systems in the Dominican Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105995",signatures:"Michela Izzo, Alberto Sánchez and Rafael Fonseca",slug:"sustainability-and-social-investment-community-microhydropower-systems-in-the-dominican-republic",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82387",title:"Kept Promises? The Evolution of the EU Financial Contribution to Climate Change",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105541",signatures:"Cecilia Camporeale, Roberto Del Ciello and Mario Jorizzo",slug:"kept-promises-the-evolution-of-the-eu-financial-contribution-to-climate-change",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Mario",surname:"Jorizzo"},{name:"Cecilia",surname:"Camporeale"},{name:"ROBERTO",surname:"DEL CIELLO"}],book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82524",title:"Italy’s Small Exporting Companies: Globalization and Sustainability Issues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105542",signatures:"Roberta Pace and Francesca Mandanici",slug:"italy-s-small-exporting-companies-globalization-and-sustainability-issues",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10897",title:"Food Systems Resilience",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",slug:"food-systems-resilience",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ana I. 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