Conversion from radar into seismic scale.
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide the reader with a comprehensive state-of-the-art in artificial neural networks, collecting many of the core concepts and cutting-edge application behind neural networks and deep learning.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-375-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-374-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-376-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cc6cd7972551be6cfc4d3c87bf8fb5c",bookSignature:"Dr. Pier Luigi Mazzeo and Dr. Paolo Spagnolo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10390.jpg",keywords:"Recurrent, Recursive Nets, Face Recognition, Crowd Analysis, Different Applications, Object Detection, Classification, Visual Tracking, Speech Recognition, Grams, Reinforcement Learning, 3-D Map",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Author and co-author of more than 80 works in national and international journals, conference proceedings, and book chapters, with Ph.D. in Computer Science Engineering.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Spagnolo received the engineering degree in computer science from the University of Lecce, Italy. Since 2002 he has been with the Italian National Research Council. His work includes more than 80 publications on AI.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"17191",title:"Dr.",name:"Pier Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Mazzeo",slug:"pier-luigi-mazzeo",fullName:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17191/images/system/17191.jpeg",biography:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo received the engineering degree in computer science from the University of Lecce, Lecce, Italy, in 2001. \nSince 2015 he has been with Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems of the Italian National Research Council, Lecce, Italy. The most relevant topics, in which he is currently involved, include algorithms for video object tracking , face detection and recognition, facial expression recognition, deep neural network (CNN) and machine learning.\nHe has taken part in several national and international projects and he acts as a reviewer for several international journals and for some book publishers. He has been regularly invited to take part in the Scientific Committees of national and international conferences. \nDr. Mazzeo is author and co-author of more then 80 works in national and international journals, conference proceedings and book chapters.",institutionString:"Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems (CNR)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Institute of Applied Science and Intelligent Systems",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"20192",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Spagnolo",slug:"paolo-spagnolo",fullName:"Paolo Spagnolo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20192/images/system/20192.jpg",biography:"Paolo Spagnolo received the engineering degree in computer science from the University of Lecce, Lecce, Italy, in 2002.\nSince then he has been with the Italian National Research Council.\nHe has been working on several research topics regarding Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision studying techniques and methodologies for multidimensional digital signal processing; linear and non-linear signal characterization; signal features extraction; supervised and unsupervised classification of signals; deep neural network (CNN).\nDr. Spagnolo is an author of over 80 papers on Artificial Intelligence. He also acts as a reviewer for several international journals.\nHe has also participated in a number of international projects in the area of image and video analysis and has been regularly invited to take part in the Scientific Committees of national and international conferences.",institutionString:"Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems (CNR)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Institute of Applied Science and Intelligent Systems",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8725",title:"Visual Object Tracking with Deep Neural Networks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e0ba384ed4b4e61f042d5147c97ab168",slug:"visual-object-tracking-with-deep-neural-networks",bookSignature:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo, Srinivasan Ramakrishnan and Paolo Spagnolo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8725.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17191",title:"Dr.",name:"Pier Luigi",surname:"Mazzeo",slug:"pier-luigi-mazzeo",fullName:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66566",title:"Identification of Active Faults in Landslide-Prone Regions Using Ground-Penetrating Radar: A Case Study from Bandung, Indonesia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85397",slug:"identification-of-active-faults-in-landslide-prone-regions-using-ground-penetrating-radar-a-case-stu",body:'\nGeoradar method is commonly used for engineering and archeology since 1980 [1]. The target of this method usually is to image shallow/near surface. The method promises to give a better resolution and accuracy specially to detect the fault system and other subsurface structures in detail. Georadar is based on electromagnetic wave which detects the contrast of dielectric properties of medium. Due to the high frequency, georadar is able to effectively identify the shallow objects with a high resolution.
\nThe instrument of georadar is equipped with transmitter and receiver antennas which has the ability to transmit and receive electromagnetic wave into and from the earth at certain frequency ranges. Data are recorded as time series in two-way time (TWT) manner which after processing can be converted into depth domain by adding the velocity model during processing. Figure 1 shows the georadar instrument and example of recorded data.
\n(a) Georadar instrument [2], (b) example of recorded subsurface data.
Due to the ability of detecting shallow object with high resolution, georadar has been applied in many fields with various objectives. Georadar is able to distinguish two different objects based on different electrical properties; hence, georadar are commonly used in various field such as environment study, mining, ground water, ancient artifact, and others. Not only able to detect the electrical properties contrast of material, but also georadar is able to detect the subsurface structure like faults and folds. Hence, the application of georadar for detecting the subsurface structures and monitoring of active faults for mitigation purposes are promising, especially for unstable area in the urban/suburban area with high population where other active source is prohibited.
\nThe exact location of an active fault in urban area is very important to be known for the mitigation purposes. Hence, the potential landslide due to the unstable structure of this area can be warned early to avoid serious hazard or disaster. Many techniques have been used to monitor the stability and mitigate the potential landslide in the area around the active fault which is across the urban area. Nondestructive geophysical methods such as electrical method and electromagnetic method are commonly selected for the investigation and evaluation of the subsurface structure this area. Geo-penetrating radar (GPR) or georadar method is also a common geophysical method that is applied to understand the bedding subsurface and structure in the high-risk area in such condition.
\nLembang fault is an example for active fault across urban area with high population density in Bandung, Indonesia. In this area, there are not less than 8 million people leaving around the Lembang fault. The length of this fault itself is about 29 km from east to west part of Bandung [3] as illustrated in Figure 2. Because of the compression system in this area, it is predicted that a huge accumulated energy is concentrated in this fault and potentially can be released any time as an earthquake. The earthquake then is predicted also which leads to trigger the local landslide in this area.
\nActive fault (Lembang fault) located from west to east part of Bandung.
Due to some reasons such as soil stability and environmental concern, techniques such as seismic refraction and seismic reflection that use dynamite explosion as a source, are not allowed. Hence the use of georadar technique for identifying fault system in this area becomes more significant. This chapter discusses the example of GPR technique for detecting fault in urban area. The background theory of GPR, design survey, and data gathering, processing, and interpretation of GPR data are discussed and applied for detecting an active fault of Lembang fault in Bandung, Indonesia.
\nGeoradar technique is developed based on electromagnetic wave propagation theory. In one dimension (1D), the propagation of electromagnetic wave in z-direction is explained by Maxwell equation:
\nThe propagation of the electromagnetic wave is perpendicular to the electrical field (E) and magnetic field (H) and controlled by the velocity and attenuation of medium. The properties of medium are also related to the mineral composition and also water saturation of medium. The velocity of wave propagation in the medium depends on the velocity of electromagnetic wave in the vacuum (c = 0.3 m/ns), relative dielectric constant (\n
where \n
Recording of georadar data is based on the reflection responses of dielectric contrast of medium. If dielectric contrast in the interface between different layers is strong, the reflectors have a strong amplitude in the georadargram. The strength of reflection (reflection coefficient R) is determined by the contrast of velocity and relative dielectric of medium at the boundary. The number of reflected energy is proportional to R:
\nwhere v1 and v2 are wave velocity of georadar at first and second layers and ε1 and ε2 are relative dielectric constant at first and second layers, respectively.
\nThe energy loss during wave propagation is determined by some factors: antenna, transmission between air and soil, reduction due to the configuration or distance between transmitter and receiver, attenuation, and diffraction due to the sharp object. The energy reduction due to the wave propagation between transmitter and receiver is proportional to 1/r2, where the r is distance measured between source/antenna and receiver (another antenna), attenuation factor which defend on the dielectric properties of medium, and its magnetic and electrical field itself in the medium. Amplitude will be reduced in the depth of penetration due to the attenuation which is proportional to 1/e (about 37%) of initial energy which also called as skin depth. The skin depth depends on soil resistivity. The ratio of two different amplitudes is formulated as
\nwhere \n
Loss factor (P) = σ/ωϵ = tan D and skin depth is defined as
\nIf D < <1, \n
where σ is an electrical conductivity (mS/m).
\nIn the saturated porous medium, the loss energy is proportional to the conductivity and invers proportionally to the relative dielectric constant and frequency. The conductivity and relative dielectric constant is dominated by fluid saturant compared to the matrix itself. The bulk of relative dielectric constant (\n
The relationship between dielectric, permittivity, and conductivity of medium is governed by
\nwhere ε* is a complex permittivity, ε” is an imaginary part of permittivity, and σs is static or DC conductivity, while the complex conductivity is
\nwhere ω is angular frequency.
\nIn the porous medium material where water is a saturant, the bulk dielectric constant and porosity (ϕ) is defined as
\nwhere εm and εw are dielectric constant of matrix and water, respectively. By using a simple relation, \n
Eq. (9) shows that if velocity can be extracted, then porosity of medium can be predicted or vice versa.
\nEffectiveness and recoverable of georadar survey is determined by the configuration of the survey. At least there are two types of acquisition: monostatic mode and bistatic mode. In the monostatic mode, one antenna is used as transmitter and receiver simultaneously. While in the bistatic mode, the receiver and transmitter are separated using different antenna. Based on the target itself, the configuration of data acquisition can be performed using different ways: radar reflection profiling, wide-angle reflection and reflection (WARR) and common midpoint (CMP) sounding, and transillumination or tomography (Figure 3).
\n(A) Sounding WARR dan, (B) sounding CMP, (C) graph of time-offset (T-X) with NMO, (D) graph of relationship T2–X2 [3].
The vertical resolution of georadar is defined by its frequency or wavelength. Each antenna of georadar is designed for certain frequency range, where the peak energy will be associated in the peak frequency of the signal. Hence the vertical resolution georadar signal is determined by wavelength divide by four (λ/4). Meanwhile, the horizontal resolution of georadar is controlled mainly by the number of traces/s (or traces/m), the beam width, the radar cross section of the reflector, and the depth where target is located [4]. The conical beam of georadar signal itself is inversely proportional to the square root of attenuation coefficient (\n
Data processing in radargram depends on the objectives; there is no standard processing workflow. However, usually the processing data is done to gain the signal which is attenuated during propagation, removing some noise by filtering, deconvolution, and diffraction reduction through migration process. For certain purposes, sometimes the conversion from time domain needs to be done to get the depth domain; in this case the velocity model is needed.
\nGain is performed to amplify the amplitude decay due to the distance of propagation. Factors affecting the amplitude decay are attenuation and spherical divergence propagation. Gain is performed by applying a gain function g(t):
\nwhere t is travel time, A is attenuation factor, B is spherical divergence factor, and C is gain constant.
\nIn the implementation on processing, programmed gain control (PGC) and automated gain control (AGC) are commonly used. In the PGC, the gain function is estimated by interpolating the amplitude at certain window sample. While in the AGC, the gain function is generated by taking root mean square (RMS) on each amplitude at certain window. The gain function g(t) is interpolated in the central of the selected window. The window length selection affects the reflector strength in the result. If the window length is too wide, the signal from deeper part will gain less, and if selected window is too small, all the reflection will be gained strongly; in this case it is difficult to distinguish strong reflector from others because all reflector will be gained strongly.
\nThe velocity analysis needs to be conducted to know the value of velocity (velocity model); hence, the true depth and slope can be estimated. Direct measurement of medium velocity can be done from wellbore or indirectly through velocity analysis during normal moveout (NMO) process. The NMO process is illustrated in Figure 4:
\nSchematic of transmitter and receiver related to the NMO process.
The function of NMO is describes as follows:
\nwhere V is velocity obtained from relation of reflection time at zero offset and offset and distance/offset.
\nGeological of Bandung area is still young and renewed because of volcanic activities around Bandung area. Based on previous study, there is a Lembang fault in Bandung area which occurred from tectonic process. This fault located in the southern part of Lembang and crossing Cisarua from east to west of Manglayang mountain. Throw of this fault is varying up to 450 m in Pulasari near to the target area. The Lembang fault was created during the Pleistosen era (about 500,000 years ago) [6].
\nIn the end of Miocene, series of mountains and folds are created in the northern part and in the southern part which become series of volcanos. In the breaking time of Pliocene era, there is no activity of volcanoes and sedimentation, and in the end of Pliocene era, series of mountains were created, and sediments in the northern part were folded and shifted into northern part of Bandung. Materials as a result of volcano eruption activities are distributed into southern part of Bandung.
\nTo detect the existence of Lembang fault, a georadar survey was conducted in this area. Sketch of data gathering in this area is shown in Figure 5. The data collection was conducted using common-offset method with 25 and 50 MHz antenna. Most of the profile was selected perpendicular to the fault.
\nGeoradar data acquisition map.
All the data are processed using Seismic Unix (SU) software by performing the scaling on the time sampling rate from nanosecond to millisecond (ms), frequency from megahertz to hertz and velocity from m/ns to m/μs. The details of conversion factor are shown in Table 1.
\nParameters | \nTrue value | \nScaled value | \n
---|---|---|
Time sampling rate | \n1.4 ns | \n1.4 ms | \n
Nyquist frequency | \n357 MHz | \n357 Hz | \n
Offset | \n1 m | \n1 m | \n
Radar speed in air | \n0.3 m/ns | \n300 m/μ | \n
Conversion from radar into seismic scale.
The processing data includes filtering using band-pass filter (10, 20, 30, 50) MHz for antenna 25 MHz and (10, 30, 70, 100) MHz for 50 Hz, AGC, and velocity analysis based on hyperbole fitting curve. The velocity obtained from hyperbole fitting curve is shown in Table 2. This velocity model was used to convert time domain into depth domain in the profile. In general, the velocity is quite high because the lithology is dominated by tuff, andesite, and breccia volcanic.
\nDepth (m) | \nVelocity (m/μs) | \n
---|---|
15.63 | \n196.17 | \n
17.16 | \n186.37 | \n
22.25 | \n180.69 | \n
Velocity model extracted from hyperbole fitting curve during velocity analysis.
Out of several profiles which were studied, profile 03 displayed the large fault in the radargram which is associated with a main Lembang fault. In the other profiles, there are some small fault systems. Based on the velocity analysis, the structure of Lembang fault is a conductive area where the velocity decreases with depth. Profile in Figure 6 which is taken perpendicular to the fault shows a normal fault system. The foot wall is located in the northern part and hanging wall in the southern part. The position of foot wall part is lower about 7–8 m compared to the hanging wall part. The structure of this area consists of basement which is indicated by a free reflection area and sediment bedding in the horizontal layer. Above the foot wall part, there is a pattern of unconformity.
\nCross section taken perpendicular to the fault.
In Figure 6, the top of basement formation is interpreted as the blue line indicates a normal fault. The folded reflection can be resulted as post fault due to the compression from the northern part; the horizontal bedding is folded as small anticline. Cracking in the shoulder of road around this profile indicates that the fault reaches the surface. Those crack lies in the west–east direction where the northern part is lower than southern part. Previous study mentioned that this active fault has a movement rate per year about 0.3–1.4 cm/year [6]. Instability of this area due to the activities of this fault especially the possible earthquake needs to be monitored further to avoid the further effect like landslide which can damage the urban and suburban area around this fault.
\nSmall faults around the main fault also recorded in other profiles. Figures 7 and 8 show the pattern of small fault systems which are still related to the activity of the main fault. Profiles 9 and 10 as shown in Figures 4 and 5 are taken perpendicular also to the main fault direction. The main fault is not recorded in these profiles. However, the diffraction pattern which indicates small fault system is appearing in this area.
\nProfile 9 taken perpendicular to the fault line.
Profile 10 taken perpendicular to the fault direction.
The subduction and compression process in the north–south direction also produces other local fault system. Because the length of this fault is only 29 km, the maximum earthquake due to the energy release in this area is predicted that the earthquake magnitude will not be more than 6 in Richter scale. Tectonic activity record in this area showed that the focus of earthquake is located in the depth of 3–7 km. The earthquake activities are also related to the continuity of three main fault in Bandung area which are Cimandiri fault, Lembang fault, and Baribis fault [6]. Even though the earthquake recorded in this area are not strong earthquakes, because this area is one of the tourism object locations in Bandung and high population around this area, the monitoring of possible hazard needs to be continued. A small earthquake is possible to activate that fault which can trigger instability of the soil mechanism in this area.
\nLembang fault which is located near the urban area with high population density is successfully imaged using georadar method. Based on radargram result, the foot wall part of Lembang fault is located in the northern part, and hanging wall is located in the southern part. The subsurface structure in this area is dominated by basement and sediment layers. Due to the location of this fault which is near the urban area with high population, further investigation to mitigate the potential of landslide, instability, and activity of this fault needs to be monitored. A CMP survey type can be proposed to be used to improve velocity information; hence, the depth of structure in the subsurface can be improved. A monitoring on the movement of this fault activity using GPS needs to be performed to monitor these activities consciously.
\nInfective endocarditis remains a serious disease that is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The overall incidence is relatively low, about 5/100,000 person-years [1]. In the current era, aggressive medical therapy and earlier surgical interventions with few exceptional circumstances have been the goal. Recent literature shows relatively stable mortality rates, despite the improvement in diagnostic and therapeutic tools including medical therapy and surgical techniques [2]. Isolated TVE overall is less common in comparison to left sided endocarditis. In a study of 801 adult patients with endocarditis, tricuspid or multivalvular involvement was present in 31.2% and this was a significant risk factor of early mortality on multivariate analysis [3]. The incidence of TVE is increasing, mostly related to the growing epidemic of drug abuse. In the report by Seratnahaei et al., the incidence of tricuspid endocarditis increased from 6% between 1999 and 2000 to 36% between 2009 and 2010 [4].
\nRight-sided endocarditis occurs at lower incidence in comparison to left-sided infection due to the less common pathology that involves the right heart in addition to the lower pressures and decrease oxygen content in comparison to the left side of the heart [5].
\nRight-sided endocarditis represents 5–10% of infective endocarditis cases [6], and TVE constitutes the majority of these cases. Of all surgeries for endocarditis in North America, 4.1% involves TVE [7].
\nIsolated TVE has been reported to have a favorable prognosis and good response to medical therapy with few exceptions. Ginzton and colleagues studied 16 patients (12 had history of IVDA) with TVE to define echocardiographic criteria to help identifying those at risk for complications or need for TV surgery [8]. The authors concluded that TV vegetations tend to resolve with time, however, those with persistent infection, cardiomegaly and right heart failure are at increased risk, and no M mode or two-dimensional echocardiographic feature is a predictor of outcome.
\nThis tendency for TV vegetations to resolve overtime is different from left-sided endocarditis which tend to persist. This could be related to bacteriological cure or silent embolization to the lung overtime.
\n\n
\nIntravenous Drug Abuse (IVDA)\n
This is the most common predisposing factor for right sided endocarditis and it ranges between 2 and 5% per year.
Approximately 15 opioid overdose deaths and 5 heroin overdose death per 100,000 population reported in 2016, in comparison to 6 opioid overdose deaths and one heroin overdose death per 100,000 population in 2010, according to the Centers for Disease Control data [9]. This growing epidemic of drug abuse constitutes a major risk factor for TVE. In an analysis of the Society of Thoracic Surgeons national database, isolated TV operations were performed in 1613 patients with intravenous drug-associated TV endocarditis between 2011 to 2016 [10].
Structural abnormalities of the TV have been noticed in those with chronic use of injected drugs. These abnormalities have been visualized by echocardiography and include leaflet thickening, and/or prolapse with or without regurgitation [11].
\nLong-term Indwelling Catheters\n
One of the most common complications of long-term indwelling central venous catheters that are used for long-term hemodialysis or long-term delivery of medications such as chemotherapy has been infection [12]. The incidence of this type of infection is increasing and is parallel to the increase use of indwelling central venous catheters. In the United Sates, it is estimated that about 35,000 cases of catheter-related Staphylococcus aureus infection are reported each year with 6% of them developing into endocarditis [13].
\nImplantable Cardiac Devices\n
This is a severe type of infection that is seen in patients with permanent pacemakers and defibrillators, and its incidence has been on the rise due to the increase use of these devices. In a prospective study of 2760 patients by Athan et al. [14], the incidence of cardiac device-related infection was 6.4%. Coexisting valvular involvement was present in 37.3%, of which 24.3% was TVE.
The risk of infection after pacemaker implantation is 0.5–1% in the first year after implantation and with the increase complexity of the implanted device, and the need for device replacement or revision procedures, it increases further [15].
\nCongenital Heart Defects\n
Patients with ventricular septal defect (VSD) and left-to-right shunts are at risk of endocarditis. TV involvement occurs secondary to the jet lesion against the anterior or the septal leaflets of the TV. Current guidelines do not recommend endocarditis prophylaxis anymore in those with acyanotic heart defects due to the low risk of its occurrence in this population [16].
Endocarditis in the presence of atrial septal defects is extremely rare due to the slow velocity of the shunt flow, and only few reported cases exist in the literature. An explanation of such occurrence could be related to the development of tricuspid regurgitation secondary to right ventricular volume overload which increases the risk of TV involvement [17].
The most predominant organism is Staphylococcus aureus (60–90%). In IVDA, there has been an increase in methicillin-resistance and polymicrobial infection [18]. Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus infection occurs more frequently in the presence of prosthetic valves and indwelling central catheters. Although infection with Streptococci can occur (<10%), it remains higher in left-sided endocarditis [19]. There is also increase in infection with Pseudomonas and other gram-negative bacteria. Fungal infection is not uncommon and has been associated with high mortality especially in immunocompromised patients and those with intracardiac devices [20].
\nClinical presentation may vary depending on degree of involvement/destruction of the tricuspid valve and presence or absence of complications. The most common presentation has been persistent fever, chills, anorexia, fatigue, cough, dyspnea, dizziness, cardiac murmur, and varying degrees of heart failure. Septic shock may occur in severe cases.
\nThe most common complications are related to valvular destruction with subsequent varying degrees of tricuspid regurgitation. Large vegetations can lead to valvular obstruction or recurrent septic pulmonary embolization (Figure 1(A)) and hemoptysis or pulmonary abscesses (Figure 1(B)). This repeat pulmonary embolization can result in elevation of the right-sided pressures, which in the presence of atrial level shunting, can lead to systemic embolization as well [21]. In severe cases, abscess formation is not uncommon [22], so as varying degrees of atrioventricular block. Acute diffuse glomerulonephritis secondary to immune complex formation and complement C3 deposition in the renal glomeruli resulting in acute renal failure has been reported with Staphylococcus aureus [23]. When sepsis is uncontrolled, this can lead to right heart failure, septic shock, and multiorgan failure.
\n(A and B). Preoperative computed tomography scan in a patient with isolated tricuspid valve endocarditis secondary to intravenous drug use showing: (A) multiple bilateral septic pulmonary emboli with cavitation. Notice in (B), the development of necrotic changes with possible abscess (asterisk) formation in the left lung.
Acquired VSD can occur after an episode of endocarditis. Gerbode described in 1958 [24] an acquired form of left ventricular-to-right atrial shunting with successful repair. Acquired Gerbode defect is a type of paramembranous VSD that is associated with left ventricular-to-right atrial shunting which can occur above (Type I), below (Type II) or both sides (Type III) of the septal leaflet of the TV [25].
\nDiagnosis depends on high index of suspicion and by identifying the patient’s risk factors and the occurrence of the usual manifestation of infection such as persistent fever and other signs of bacteremia. Echocardiography remains the most appropriate initial test in these patients. Both transthoracic and transesophageal modalities are important to confirm the diagnosis, identify the presence of vegetations (Figure 2; Video 1—
A large tricuspid valve vegetation (1.9 × 1.2 mm) is shown on preoperative transthoracic echocardiography. RA: Right atrium; RV: Right ventricle.
Computed tomography (CT) scan is indicated to evaluate the lung parenchyma and vasculature. Due to the difficulty in diagnosing septic pulmonary emboli, we obtain chest CT scan routinely as this may change the timing of intervention. Other relevant tests depend on presence of other systemic manifestations of infection/embolization may include other cross-sectional imaging, brain imaging etc.
\nIt is important to know that it is difficult to apply the Duke’s criteria [26] to diagnose TVE due to: (1) the unique anatomy of the structures in the right side of the heart which could simulate vegetations, (2) embolization if occurred is pulmonary rather than systemic which is difficult to diagnose until it evolves into pulmonary infarcts or abscesses, and (3) many of the radiologic findings can be mistaken for pneumonia.
\n\n
\nMedical Treatment\n
In general, right-sided endocarditis resolves with medical treatment in the majority of cases (70–85%).
\nSurgical Treatment\n
Although antibiotics remained the first line treatment for TVE, several patients may fail this line of therapy and require surgical interventions. In addition, those who have residual TV regurgitation will need either early or late reconstruction or replacement of the TV.
Indications for Surgical Intervention
The following constitutes reasonable indications for surgical intervention [27]:
Right heart failure secondary to severe tricuspid regurgitation with poor response to medical therapy.
Persistent bacteremia/sepsis (> 7 days) with poor response to antibiotics which sometimes occurs in the presence of a highly virulent bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas bacteremia), and infection with organisms that are difficult to eradicate such as fungi.
Recurrent septic pulmonary embolism with or without right heart failure.
Large TV vegetations (>20 mm) with or without right heart failure.
Abscess (more common in the presence of a prosthesis)
Timing of Surgery
While the exact timing of surgery remains unclear in many of these scenarios, it should be a team approach in decision with input from the cardiologist, cardiac surgeon, and the infectious disease specialist. In absence of urgent/emergent surgical indications (persistent sepsis, recurrent septic embolization, and heart failure), surgery is usually done on elective basis after a good duration of antibiotic therapy and appearance of negative blood cultures. This increases the chance of successful valve repair and minimize risk of recurrent infection. Decision is a bit more complicated in IVDA and in those with recurrent endocarditis.
\nOther factors that may affect the timing include: (1) the presence of infected intracardiac devices, (2) the causative organism (fungal may not respond to medical therapy), and (3) the presence of concomitant left-sided infection.
Surgical Options
The principles of surgical treatment for isolated TVE follows the same principles in endocarditis cases which include thorough debridement, vegetation removal (Figure 3), and excision of all infected non-viable tissues. The preference after that will be to minimize the use of prosthetic materials especially in patients with history of IVDA and to attempt TV repair if possible.
\nTricuspid Valvectomy\n
Intraoperative photo showing a large, excised vegetation from the posterior leaflet of the tricuspid valve. This was performed in a 16-year-old who presented with isolated tricuspid valve endocarditis secondary to intravenous drug abuse and underwent successful tricuspid valve repair after excision of the vegetations.
Excision of the TV has been proposed for those with massive valvular destruction and concerns with compliance to therapy, continued IVDA, and increased risk with repeat operations for infected prosthetic TV [28]. In the presence of low-normal pulmonary vascular resistance, this option may work as a temporary measure till sepsis is controlled.
\nThe downside of this approach is right heart failure with development of ascites, peripheral edema and low cardiac output and this should be considered as a bridge for valve replacement once infection is cleared.
\nTricuspid Valve Repair\n
TV repair should be strongly considered especially in IVDA cases to minimize the use of prosthetic materials and prosthesis that can lead to recurrent infection. The technique of valve reconstruction depends on the degree of valvular destruction:
Direct Suturing: suitable for small defects that is limited to one or two leaflets.
Patch Repair (Figure 4): our preference has been to use autologous pericardium or bovine pericardium to repair larger defects in the leaflet after excision of the vegetation and debridement of infected tissues.
Leaflet Replacement: a complete replacement of one leaflet can be performed using a variety of materials such as autologous or bovine pericardium. Multiple artificial chordae (neo-chordae) may be needed to join the newly formed leaflet with the papillary muscles of the TV and prevent prolapse.
Bicuspidization of the TV: this is suitable more when infection is localized to the posterior leaflet which can be excised, and both the anterior and septal leaflets are mobilized to form a bicuspid valve.
Annuloplasty: annuloplasty maneuvers are needed when the tricuspid annulus is dilated to support the repair and minimize recurrence of regurgitation. This varies from suture annuloplasty (Kay’s or De Vega’s) to a ring annuloplasty (Figure 5(A) and (B)). Several studies reported that ring annuloplasty is superior to suture annuloplasty in terms of recurrence of regurgitation [29].
\nTricuspid Valve Replacement\n
Intraoperative photo showing a bovine pericardial patch that is used to augment the septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve and improve coaptation in a patient who presented with severe tricuspid valve regurgitation and history of endocarditis. Notice that augmentation should be done in the belly of the leaflet and not at the free leading edge. Also notice the area of the atrioventricular node (asterisk).
(A and B). Intraoperative photos showing the technique of tricuspid valve ring annuloplasty. We prefer to use non-pledgeted prolene sutures in a horizontal mattress fashion (A) to secure the ring due to the fragility of the right atrioventricular junction. It is important to secure the ring from the anteroseptal to posteroseptal commissures. The last stitch (pledgeted) is placed within the mouth of the coronary sinus which is critical to reduce the length of the inferior annulus as most of the recurrence of regurgitation occurs due to re-dilation of the tricuspid annulus in this area.
While TV repair is preferred, TV replacement remains the most commonly performed procedure [30]. Bioprostheses have been the first choice but mechanical prostheses have been also used in these cases. In a study by Cho et al., there was no difference in long-term valve-related complications such as thromboembolic or bleeding events between mechanical and biological prostheses [31].
\nTotal autologous reconstruction of the TV using autologous/bovine pericardium or extracellular matrix reconstruct has been reported in some case reports to avoid the use of the prosthetic materials in the setting of infection [32]. We do not know the long-term outcome of such maneuvers.
\nSpecial Circumstances\n
Isolated TV Vegetations without Valvular Destruction
In some unique scenarios, large vegetations have been identified on the tricuspid valve without any evidence of valvular destruction or in some patients where the risk of surgery is quite high. Percutaneous aspiration of these large vegetations has been performed as an alternative to surgery [33]. The AngioVac system (AngioDynamics, Latham, NY) was approved in 2014 by the US Food and Drug Administration for removal of intravascular materials such as thrombi and emboli.
\nThis system consists of two percutaneous venous cannulae (reinfusing/drainage) that are connected to an extracorporeal circuit pump head and bubble trap. Thrombotic materials/vegetations are aspirated when the pump is started and then the blood is circulated through a filter prior to returning to the patient. In a study by George et al., the authors reported the outcomes of percutaneous aspiration in 33 patients with large vegetations. Most of these patients (91%) were discharged home with reduced vegetations size in two-thirds [34]. This seems to be a reasonable option especially in those with prohibitive risk of surgery and in those with recurrent infection especially IVDA.
\nThe obvious risks associated with percutaneous aspiration includes pulmonary embolization and vascular access complications.
Prosthetic Tricuspid Valve Endocarditis
In the presence of TV prosthesis, infection will be difficult to eradicate without removal of the prosthesis. This subgroup of patients may require early and aggressive surgical eradication of infection to minimize in-hospital mortality and morbidities. There is a higher risk of heart block in this subgroup of patients.
Management of Implantable Cardiac Devices/Indwelling Catheters
All infected leads and devices have to be removed. Hospital mortality is less when infected devices are identified earlier and removed promptly. Extraction of these devices by interventional cardiologist/electrophysiologist is preferred if possible, over the surgical extraction due to higher success and lower complication rates. One option, in less severe cases, is to remove these infected leads/devices, use temporary leads for pacemaker-dependent patients and continue antibiotic therapy and reevaluate the TV later, if repair or replacement is needed.
\nIn severe cases that require urgent surgery, TV repair/replacement with concomitant extraction of the infected leads/devices is a better approach. Temporary pacemaker leads can be used with subsequent endovenous implantation of a new permanent system once infection is cleared is a reasonable approach.
\nOther options for pacemaker-dependent patients is to use leadless pacemakers or trans-coronary sinus approach to avoid placing the lead through a freshly repaired TV or replaced tricuspid prosthesis. We have used epicardial permanent pacemaker system as well in some of these complex cases with limited vascular access.
\nThis is a team decision that should be discussed thoroughly between the electrophysiologist, cardiologists, cardiac surgeon, and the patient.
Concomitant Left Sided Disease (Multi-valvular Endocarditis)
Those with left sided involvement have worse outcomes in comparison with isolated TVE. These patients will require early surgical intervention to decrease mortality and improve outcomes. In a study by Musci and colleagues, 30-day survival was 96.2% for isolated right sided involvement in comparison to 72% for combined right and left-sided endocarditis [35].
Mycotic Aneurysms
Mycotic aneurysms involving the pulmonary vasculature are less common and small number of cases have been reported in the literature [36]. Staphylococcus and streptococcus species are the most common organisms involved in developing these aneurysms, but it can also occur in the settings of mycobacterial or fungal infections. Clinical manifestations are usually related to the underlying endocarditis and manifestations specific to these mycotic aneurysms are rare except when rupture occurs which can lead to catastrophic hemoptysis.
\nComputed tomography scan is the most reliable for detection of these aneurysms. Due to the high mortality associated with rupture of these aneurysms, transcatheter embolization is recommended, although successful antibiotic therapy have been documented in those with small aneurysms that are stable [37].
Concomitant Pulmonary Emboli
In patients with TV endocarditis and large vegetations, the search for evidence of pulmonary embolization is necessary especially in the presence of hemodynamic instability or acute new pulmonary manifestations. Concomitant pulmonary embolectomy at the time of TV surgery may be considered in patients with large bilateral/unilateral emboli especially if they are accessible. We have performed a retrograde pulmonary embolectomy in a recent case of TVE in an IVDA with CT evidence of bilateral pulmonary septic emboli. This technique is valuable in the presence of emboli in the distal pulmonary arterial bed that may not be accessible with the traditional pulmonary embolectomy technique [38].
Recurrent Endocarditis
The highest risk of recurrence occurs among those with IVDA [39]. In a study by Huang and colleagues, the authors followed 87 patients who survived their first episode of endocarditis and up to 25% of these patients experienced recurrence of infection within a year of the first episode [40]. Outcomes of repeat operation in this population has been poor with increased mortality. In another study by Jeganathan and colleagues, 68 patients underwent repeat TV operations with early mortality of 13.2% and higher incidence of postoperative bleeding, low cardiac output syndrome, renal failure, and stroke [41]. A debate continues regarding offering IVDA patients and those who are noncompliant, repeat surgery when infection recurs.
\nThe majority of TVE respond to medical therapy but is associated with higher risk of recurrence, specifically in IVDA.
\nThe overall prognosis of isolated TV endocarditis is better than left-sided and multivalvular infection. This may be due to younger age of patients, less occurrence of systemic embolization or development of drug-resistance, in addition to the fewer significant hemodynamic derangements that may occur from tricuspid regurgitation in contrast to aortic and/or mitral involvement.
\nThe following have been associated with poor prognosis according to several reports: (1) persistent sepsis with failure to respond to medical therapy, (2) development of right heart failure, (3) fungal infection, (4) recurrent pulmonary embolization, (5) septic shock, and (6) multivalvular involvement.
\nThe estimated operative mortality for surgery for TVE is between 6 and 10% [42]. Excision of the TV has been associated with high morbidity due to right heart failure [43], and TV replacement has been associated with increased risk of recurrent infection and need for permanent pacemaker.
\nYanagawa and colleagues reported the outcome sin 1165 patients who underwent surgery for TVE. The indications were recurrent pulmonary embolization, right heart failure, persistent sepsis and concomitant left-sided infection. TV repair was possible in 2/3 of these patients and the majority underwent TV replacement with a bioprosthesis. The authors concluded that both TV repair and replacement have good long-term survival, but repair is associated with less risk of need for pacemaker, recurrence of infection and reoperation [44].
\nDi Mauro et al. reported the surgical outcomes of isolated TVE in 157 patients (IVDA was present in 38%) of a multicenter registry. Repair was performed in 49%, while replacement with a bioprosthesis was the main procedure in 46% and a mechanical prosthesis was used in 5%. Early mortality was 11% with no difference between repair or replacement. The authors identified the following factors as predictors of poor outcomes: older age, IVDA, fungal endocarditis, repeat operation, the use of a prosthesis, and the presence of intracardiac devices [45].
\nIn a recent systemic review and metanalysis of 752 patients with TVE by Luc and colleagues, tricuspid valvectomy was performed in 14%, while 86% underwent TV replacement. There was more prolonged duration of mechanical ventilation in the valvectomy group, but there was no significant difference in early mortality, right heart failure and recurrence of endocarditis between the two groups. The authors concluded that tricuspid valvectomy is an acceptable initial therapy in those with IVDA to help identify those who will self-select as candidates for later valve replacement [46].
\nTVE has several features that are unique in comparison to left-sided infection. These include the different population demographics, etiology of infection, response to medical therapy and prognosis. High index of suspicion and use of appropriate imaging modalities facilitate early diagnosis and early initiation of appropriate therapy. Surgery remains indicated in those with failure to respond to medical therapy and in the presence of complications. The same principle of surgery for endocarditis apply which are adequate and thorough debridement of all infected materials and excision of all vegetations. Extraction of all associated infected cardiac devices is critical to ensure complete eradication of all sources of infection. Excision of the TV is associated with higher morbidity due to ongoing right heart failure, and TV repair is preferred over replacement if feasible. Debate remains ongoing in regard to offering surgery for those with recurrent infection and specifically IVDA.
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