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",isbn:"978-1-80356-363-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-362-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-364-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"969d1c6315b04584c2f011e03dad69c2",bookSignature:"Dr. Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11929.jpg",keywords:"Drilling Performance, Drilling Tools, Well Design, Drilling Procedure, Rotary Drilling, Directional Drilling, Measuring-While-Drilling, Smart Well Technology, Environment Protection, Geothermal Drilling, Sustainable Drilling Fluids, Carbon Sequestration",numberOfDownloads:2,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Zoveidavianpoor has over 18 years of multidisciplinary oil and gas experience, built upon his technical, operational, and management roles in the industry and academia. He is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), the Energy Institute, UK and is registered as a chartered petroleum engineer. He has published more than 50 publications on International peer-reviewed Journals and conferences, has contributed to 5 textbooks, and served in many scientific committees.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",middleName:null,surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92105/images/system/92105.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor has over 24 years of experience, built upon his technical, operational, and management roles in the industry and academia. Mansoor holds a BSc degree in Geology, MSc, and Ph.D. degrees both in Petroleum Engineering. He was involved in different disciplines such as project management, geology, flow assurance, piping construction, artificial intelligence, environmental engineering, drilling and production engineering, He has lectured several courses at the University Technology Malaysia (UTM), Petroleum University of Technology (PUT), and Islamic Azad University (IAU). He is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and registered as a Chartered Petroleum Engineer at Energy Institute, and EIA subject specialist at DOE Malaysia. He has published more than 50 publications on International peer-reviewed Journals and conferences, has contributed to 5 textbooks, and served in many scientific committees. Currently, he is working as an Associate Professor at UTM and involved in several consultancies in petroleum engineering and energy transition. Mansoor is actively involved in multidisciplinary studies and currently, his main focus is on Energy Transition.",institutionString:"PETRONAS",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"82413",title:"Utilization of Biopolymers in Water Based Drilling Muds",slug:"utilization-of-biopolymers-in-water-based-drilling-muds",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6561",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e80257a8be3236c4d1ae37c21b7d2671",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6561.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5811",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33b7777178f4a179ba475e3e15405427",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5811.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6829",title:"Petroleum Chemicals",subtitle:"Recent Insight",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"058919afbb548d3448e70238b4637e84",slug:"petroleum-chemicals-recent-insight",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6829.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48186",title:"Are the Approximal Caries Lesions in Primary Teeth a Challenge to Deal With? — A Critical Appraisal of Recent Evidences in This Field",doi:"10.5772/59600",slug:"are-the-approximal-caries-lesions-in-primary-teeth-a-challenge-to-deal-with-a-critical-appraisal-of-",body:'Approximal surfaces have been pointed as a challenge regarding the control of caries lesions in primary teeth, specially due to the larger area of contact between adjacent teeth and limited salivary access [1, 2]. In addition, children can present less dexterity to using dental floss and depend on parent’s collaboration to remove interproximal dental plaque [3]. Therefore, poor compliance to flossing by children [4] seems to contribute to make the arrestment of approximal caries lesions more difficult. Consequently, identifying and understanding attitudes towards flossing are very important tasks to aid health professionals for flossing orientation and its incentive [4].
Several evidences have been published recently as promising alternatives in order to deal with approximal caries lesion in primary teeth and minimize the effects of poor compliance with flossing and/or repair eventual irreversible dental decay caused by caries progression.
Minimally invasive interventions have been proposed to caries lesion management, comprising early detection, preventive procedures and minimal invasion [5]. This approach also proposes to minimize the discomfort of patient [6], specially to deal with pediatric patients’ dental anxiety and fear [7]. However, even considering minimal invasive treatments, there are operational differences among them that could interfere on children’s discomfort and acceptability. Indeed, when exploring options for dental treatment, not only the efficacy/effectiveness but also the cost-efficacy/effectiveness and the patient’s discomfort/satisfaction should also be comparatively investigated for available approaches.
Based on the exposed above, this chapter aims to present the particularities of dealing with approximal caries lesions and make a critical appraisal concerning effectiveness/efficacy, applicability, utility and clinical relevance of recent published studies and their findings. In this way, we expect to permit the clinicians to choose the best option for treating initial and advanced approximal caries lesions in primary teeth basing your decision-making process on relevant scientific evidences.
Caries lesions (clinical signs of the disease) are developed on the biofilm-tooth interface [8-10] and the key factor of their formation is the presence acid-producing biofilm of the tooth surface [11]. Usually, minerals from oral fluids and tooth are in balance. However, when a tooth surface has biofilm accumulated for some period, changes in pH occur, caused by biofilm bacterial metabolism [8]. These pH fluctuations at biofilm-tooth interface may cause tooth mineral loss when the pH is decreasing (demineralization) or mineral gain when the pH is increasing (remineralization) [12]. When there is a prevalence of demineralization over remineralization, mineral loss is observed and this leads to a caries lesion [8, 13]. Thus, caries lesions start with mineral loss from the tooth surface and, if the biofilm is not removed, they progress until cavitation and tooth destruction.
Considering that the demineralization/remineralization processes occur on the biofilm-tooth interface, special attention should be given to the main biofilm stagnation areas, as occlusal surfaces, approximal surfaces and smooth surfaces along the gingival margin. These areas are relatively protected from mechanical wear by tongue, cheeks, abrasive food, and toothbrushing [13].
Since mechanical removal of the stagnated biofilm does not occur, the lactic acid produced by this biofilm acts on enamel and may cause demineralization. As the enamel is constituted by hydroxyapatite crystals, separated from each other by small intercrystalline spaces filled with water and organic material [14], the mineral loss due to caries results on an increase of these intercrystalline spaces, increasing the enamel porosity [15]. The mineral loss is higher in the subsurface of caries lesions and the surface layer thickness of the lesions ranged from 35 to 130 µm. The maximum mineral content in this layer corresponds to 74% to 100% of that of sound enamel [16]. This histopathological process is observed clinically as the formation of white spot lesions. The mentioned mineral loss results in the loss of translucence of the enamel and the opaque appearance of the white-spot lesion [17]. On the approximal surfaces, these lesions developed between the contact point and the gingival margin, resulting in a kidney-shaped white spot lesion (Figure 1). This area is the one most prone to biofilm accumulation on approximal surfaces (Figure 2).
Approximal caries lesions. Note the shape of this lesion, located contouring the contact point, which is the area where the biofilm usually stagnates.
Biofilm accumulation on approximal surfaces. Note other dental surfaces are clean, but the biofilm remains stagnated in approximal areas.
The progression of enamel caries takes place along the enamel prisms, and in the approximal surfaces results on a conical shape [18] (Figure 3 and 4). If the plaque stagnation on caries lesions does not succeed, the lesion may reach the dentinoenamel junction and progress into the dentin [11] (Figure 3). The progression of an enamel lesion into dentine in primary teeth is faster than the observed in permanent ones [19].
There is no consensus in the literature about how does the progression of caries lesions when it reaches the dentinoenamel junction [11, 20]. Nevertheless, it is known that in lesions that reach the dentinoenamel junction, demineralized dentine is present, as part of the progression of enamel lesions [21]. On the other hand, the level of bacterial invasion is very low [22], especially because there is no cavitation. Therefore, it is expected a lower progression compared to cavitated lesions [23]. As dentine is composed of about 50% of mineral [24], caries progression into dentine tends to be faster than in enamel. As the less demineralized areas are the intertubular dentin composed of a matrix of collagen reinforced by apatite, the demineralization process tends to follow the direction of dentine tubules, resulting in the typical histology of dentine caries lesions, as you can see in Figure 3.
Schematic diagram of approximal caries progression. Different numbers symbolize different areas observed during caries lesion progression. (1- tertiary or reparative dentine, 2 - dentine tubules, 3- affected layer of carious dentine, 4-infected layer of carious dentine 5- enamel lesion) - adapated from Fejerskov et al., 2008 [
Histological exam of an enamel caries lesion. Note its conical shape, since progression follows the interprismatic spaces.
Substantial demineralization into dentin may be observed despite the absence of cavitation [25]. Nevertheless, if caries lesion progresses continuously into dentine, demineralized enamel may collapse and the intact surface may become cavitated. Thus, bacterial invasion into enamel and proteolytic action of bacterial enzymes mainly on the collagen may occur. If the biofilm stagnation is not controlled, an increase of the cavity size and further biofilm invasion could be expected [26]. When the cavity is present, a most infected dentine could be expected [23], which contribute to faster caries progression.
Two altered zones of dentine could be found in a dentine caries lesion: a superficial infected and a deeper affected layer [27] (Figure 3). The infected dentine consists of irreversibly acid-demineralized dentine, with its collagen degraded and highly contaminated with bacteria [28]. The affected dentine is only minimally infected and has potential to repair under suitable conditions, since their collage structure is maintained [29, 30]. Clinically, the main difference between these zones is the consistency due to the amount of collagen degradation observed in each one. The infected dentine tends to be soft and easily removed with excavators, while the affected dentine is usually harder [29] (Figure 5).
Clinical aspect of infected (a) and affected dentine (b) in dentine caries lesion.
Since the progression of caries lesions is slow, the dentine may react in order to minimize the chance of occurrence of pulp exposition/inflammation. Therefore, highly mineralized peritubular dentin is secreted and reduces the tubules diameter, decreasing the dentine permeability and the chance for bacterial contamination [11]. This reaction is usually started since the caries lesion reaches the dentinoenamel junction. However, even considering the slow progression of caries lesions and pulp mechanisms for preventing pulp damage, it is not always possible to avoid the pulp exposure. When the reaction takes time to succeed, this highly mineralized dentine (Figure 6), also called as sclerotic dentine [31], is found in the bottom of the cavities, showing a hard consistency and usually a darker coloration.
Histological appearance of sclerotic dentine. Note the different appearance of dentine, evidencing the hypermineralization of peritubular dentine.
Active enamel caries on mesial surface of a second primary molar. Note characteristics usually associated with active lesions caused by biofilm stagnation in this area. Despite the absence of the adjacent primary molar, note the remained fragments that make the plaque removal and lesion arrestment more difficult.
Active dentine caries on mesial surface of a second primary molar. Note characteristics usually associated with active lesions caused by biofilm stagnation in this area. Despite the absence of the adjacent primary molar, which will permit the mechanical control of local biofilm, this lesion did not have time enough to arrest. In this situation (absence of the adjacent tooth), this lesion tend to be arrested. That is why the picture still evidences characteristics of a dentine active lesion.
Despite the stage of caries lesion, the presence of biofilm at the tooth surface determines caries progression [32]. Since this biofilm may be controlled, the lesion may be arrested. Therefore, both for non-cavitated and cavitated lesions, the inactivation of caries lesions would be possible, when the control of the biofilm is possible [33]. Since the biofilm control is achieved, the redeposition of mineral is facilitated. This mineral gain tend to reduce enamel porosities [34, 35]. Therefore, active lesions generally exhibits a more porous surface layer than the inactive lesions [16]. In addition, the surface wear/polishing may occur and differences in enamel surface roughness may occur [34, 35]. Due to that, active and inactive lesions tend to be different due to enamel porosity and surfaces wear/polishing (Figure 7). Besides, dentine caries may also be arrested. In these cases, there is an increase in the mineral content in the surface layer of the dentine lesions. The arrested dentine caries lesion presents more mineralized dentine, the surface is not always infected surface layer and may present sclerotic, harder consistency and, usually, dark colour [36] (Figure 8). Changes observed in inactive dentine lesions may be detected after 6 months. However, hard consistency is usually observed after total arrestment of the lesion, which generally takes years [36].On the other hand, it is worth to state that due to difficulties in controlling the biofilm on approximal lesions, few assessed lesions present the characteristic above, as we are going to discuss in further sections of this chapter (Figures 7 and 8).
Approximal surfaces of primary molars present some particularities that expose them to a greater risk of developing caries [1, 37], and, consequently, it is a challenge when controlling caries lesion is needed.
Firstly, approximal surfaces in primary teeth present a large area of contact between them, favoring stagnation of carbohydrates and hindering biofilm removing [1, 2]. Moreover, the salivary access is limited, which contributes to further reduction of the biofilm pH compared to more accessible surfaces, promoting a more acidogenic environment and propitious to the development of caries lesions [1]. In addition, the limited salivary access reduces the exposition of these surfaces to fluorides.
Despite young children usually present wider approximal spaces [38], in most children, the anatomical conditions do not allow that approximal surfaces are cleaned only with brushing, requiring the use of dental floss to remove the biofilm. Besides, the patients’ adherence to using dental floss seems to be low [39], mainly regarding children, since they could present less dexterity to flossing and depend on parent’s collaboration to remove interproximal biofilm [3, 40]. In fact, a systematic review showed that interproximal caries risk decrease when children’s flossing is performed by professional. However, authors suggest these findings cannot be extrapolated, since flossing has only failed when used by the children by themselves [41]. A recent study of our group showed motivational issues are more associated with non compliance with flossing by children (Figure 9).
Child using dental floss. Sometimes, children present difficulties in dexterity for flossing. However, motivation is often the biggest problem.
The challenge becomes even greater when the initial lesion progresses to cavitated lesion (Figure 10). In addition, the biofilm accumulates inside the lesion and it is not possible to be removed by flossing. Consequently, the dentine inside this cavity tend to become more infected [23] and caries progression is faster. Indeed, the inactivation of cavitated lesions (only by self-removal of biofilm) is usually more observed in smooth or occlusal surfaces. We usually observe that in very small cavities or very large decays, for example. On approximal surfaces, most cavitated caries lesions hardly ever present favorable conditions to be arrested (Figure 10).
Cavitated lesion on distal surface of the first primary molar. Note the plaque stagnation inside the cavity, which makes difficult the control of such lesions.
For all these reasons the approximal surfaces of primary molars are the most affected by caries lesions in some populations [1, 42]. Even in regions where this is not occurring, controlling interproximal caries lesions is still a challenge, especially due to the difficulty of the mechanical control of biofilm on such surfaces. That is why many approximal lesions are active lesions, although other surfaces have presented higher rates of caries progression [43]. In fact, smooth surfaces are cleaned easily [43] and lesions are easier to be controlled [44]. Besides, the occlusal surfaces, despite their morphology, are favored by the attrition [43]. In the Figure 2, it is possible to notice the remained biofilm on approximal surface, despite presenting smooth and occlusal surfaces with absence of visible plaque, complicating the control of approximal caries, even in initial stages.
Rates ranging from 70% to 90% of approximal caries progression have been shown for primary teeth after 1 or 2-year-follow-up [45, 46]. These figures have been superior to rates found for permanent teeth [47], that is comprehensible since a faster progression is expected in these teeth [48].
Based on the rationale detailed above, it is evident that controlling approximal caries lesions is really an actual challenge in pediatric clinic. Further, we will discuss about important aspects concerning detection and management of approximal caries lesions in primary teeth.
Detection of approximal caries lesions has not been a simple task. The simplest and most accepted method for caries detection among children is the visual inspection [49]. On the other hand, it is obvious that the contact between adjacent teeth makes caries detection by visual inspection more difficult. Ideally, approximal surfaces should be examined after cleaning by dental floss (Figure 11). When assessing approximal surfaces looking for caries lesions, it is important to examine, firstly, by an occlusal view. In this view, the dentist will observe the integrity and appearance of the marginal ridge. If a caries lesion is present (usually more advanced ones), cavities (Figure 10) or shadows (Figure 12) may be seen in this area. Further, the surface should be examined by buccal and lingual/palatal view. If caries lesion reaches these areas, it may be also detected by visual inspection (Figure 13). The direct examination of this surface is rare and may only occur when the adjacent tooth is not present (Figure 14).
Cleaning the approximal surface before visual examination – note the use of dental floss.
Approximal caries lesion evidenced by the shadow we can see above the marginal bridge.
Buccal view – lesion may be detected since is extended from mesial into buccal surface.
Direct examination of an approximal caries lesion due to the absence of the adjacent tooth.
The visual inspection using a scoring visual system has shown high specificity in caries detection on approximal surfaces [50]. However, lower values of sensitivity should be expected [50]. In other words, most part of non-cavitated approximal caries, as well other several cavitated lesions, cannot be detected when visual inspection is used. Radiographs have shown to increase the sensitivity of caries detection [50, 51]. On the other hand, although some clinical guidelines have recommend taking bitewing radiographs in all children to detect caries lesions in primary molars[52], its utility has been recently questioned, since no additional benefit was observed in comparison to only the visual inspection being performed [53].
Actually, using only visual inspection may lead to higher number of false negatives (some non-evident lesions may be missed). However, these lesions may be arrested by preventive measurements. On the other hand, the radiographs may result in higher number of false positive results, what may be worse, since it might lead to unnecessary operative treatment [53]. In addition, several non-cavitated lesions may have the radiographic appearance of a cavitated lesion (Figure 15). As a consequence of radiographic examination, they might receive unnecessary operative treatment. Weighing the pros and cons of bitewing radiographs for caries detection, it seems more useful to take bitewing radiographs in order to confirm the presence of approximal caries, in cases in which visual signs have been identified (instead of detecting non-evident caries) or to help the choice for the best option for treating an approximal caries [54]. In the last situation, radiographs may help in caries depth assessment and also, in evaluation of the periapical tissue [54].
Direct visual inspection (a) and radiograph (b) of the same surface (distal surface of the second primary molar). Clinically, we can see a white spot on the approximal surface (absence of shadows in the marginal bridge) – (a). Radiographically, we evidence a radiolucid image suggestive of caries lesion in dentine. The image might also suggest the presence of cavity (b), that is definitely not evidenced in clinical examination (a). This case represents a false-positive result for caries in dentine that could occur in some radiographic examinations.
The presence of cavities has been another concern regarding approximal caries detection, since the cavitation has been considered an important point in the prognosis of these caries lesions. As mentioned, some cavities are not detected by visual examination. Besides, radiographs do not aid in this issue, as exposed before. The temporary separation using orthodontic rubbers is an available alternative [55, 56], which permit the direct visual inspection and tactile examination of the approximal surfaces (Figures 15 to 17). This technique is well-accepted by children [49]. However, it is necessary two appointments to permit the conclusion of diagnostic using this method. Even visuo-tactile assessment of approximal surface is possible; doubts in diagnosis may remain. The inderdental space created after temporary separation is around 0.8 mm [38] and may not always be large enough to guarantee there is no cavity on the surface, nor to affirm the cavity is clinically within enamel. In fact, several dentine lesions are not cavitated. Other dentine lesions may may be associated with microcavities; however, without exposing the dentine. On the other hand, we believe that some cavitations which present radiographic image into dentine may be wrongly scored as cavity clinically restricted to enamel. This is why the limited space reached after teeth separation may be not enough to the dentist being able to actually felt the bottom of these cavities, in order to confirm if he/she is felling enamel or dentine surface. These are limitations of this method. However, since there is no other available possibility to detect the presence of cavities, we have used the temporary separation when we suspect that a cavity is present, especially if dentine involvement is confirmed by visual signs or radiographs.
Temporary tooth separation using orthodontic rubbers. (a) before placing the rubber between adjacent teeth; (b) after placing the rubber; (c) after removing the rubber – note the wide space for direct examination.
Temporary tooth separation using orthodontic rubbers – visual and tactile assessment of separated surfaces (a); WHO probe (ballpoint probe) used to tactile assessment of surfaces.
The activity status is not usually a differential in caries lesions assessment, especially in children. In fact, as exposed before, most part of detected approximal lesions tend to be active [43]. It is not impossible to find inactive approximal caries. However, especially among children, the interproximal plaque control is still very deficient and make the lesions arrestment more difficult. Thus, activity assessment is not a real concern in primary teeth. In some situations, when the adjacent tooth have exfoliated, we may observe a natural process of lesion inactivation of an approximal caries due to the possibility of controlling biofilm only by toothbrushing such area (see Figures 8 and 14).
In theory, controlling dental caries in any surface is related to controlling of dental plaque over the lesion [32]. As the activity status of approximal caries is not usually a differential factor, we will not discuss it here. However, it is obvious that, if an approximal caries lesion is arrested, it would not demand any measure to be controlled. Considering this situation, we may guide the management of approximal caries lesions basically according to depth and severity, assessed during examination of caries lesions. The conceptual tree for managing caries lesions on approximal surfaces is presented below (Figure 18).
Conceptual tree for managing approximal caries, correlating the caries detection and activity assessment based on ICDAS and clinical decision-making. (* situations in which is usually difficult to affirm caries lesions are really inactive; ** the ICDAS activity assessment always considers lesions score 4 as probably active)
Non-cavitated approximal caries lesions tend to be easier to be controlled since there is no cavity to complicate biofilm removal. Besides, if these lesions are restricted to the enamel, they have a slower progression compared to dentine [45]. Therefore, several possibilities are available in order to controlling them, from the dental flossing to the use of resin infiltration.
Cavitated enamel lesions (Figure 19) are expected to progress faster than those which present intact surface. However, most part of these lesions cannot be detected clinically, neither by visual, nor by tactile assessment. If detected by tooth separation, both non-invasive and invasive treatments would be available for such cases, but there is no strong evidence of the best option in this case. Choosing the non-invasive treatment may permit to postpone invasive interventions. Otherwise, since the presence of cavity is detected, the use of restoration as a manner to control biofilm at the lesion would be necessary [57]. On the other hand, high amount of sound tissue would be acceptable in order to restore this surface adequately. Therefore, depending on patients’ and professional’s preferences and particularities of the clinical case, both options are possible. Considering the minimal invasive philosophy, maybe, opting for the non-restorative approach would be interesting since the children’s comfort and preservation of dental structures would be maximized.
a) Cavitated caries lesion into enamel (direct examination). This cavity probably would not be seen when surface was assessed in the oral cavity due to the presence of the adjacent tooth. Using the temporary separation might help in detecting this cavity. Regarding treatment, we have to ponder if this lesion was detected and the option was operative treatment, a high amount of sound tissue would have to be removed. (b) Schematic representation of how accessing the mentioned cavity if the tooth was actually in the arch.
For approximal dentine caries lesions, the detection of cavities may be more relevant. If the cavitation is not easily visible or not felt by probing, the temporary separation could aid in seeking for cavities (see Figure 15). A dentine lesion progress faster than an enamel lesion. However, if the lesion is not cavitated, this progression is slower than for cavitated lesions [23], since the level of bacterial invasion is very low [22]. Based on that, we may argue the control of several outer non-cavitated dentine lesions would be possible. However, this is not so frequent. Actually, most dentine caries lesions in primary teeth are cavitated [58]. On the other hand, when the cavity is present, some approach that avoids the stagnation of the biofilm over the lesion seems to be indispensable. In this sense, any intervention which prevents biofilm accumulation on these lesions or facilitates is removal could be useful. Otherwise, it is important to clarify that mechanical removal of biofilm by flossing might not be a good choice in these cases, since the cavity may hide the plaque and interfere with caries lesion control.
Despite flossing is the most suitable method for mechanical removal of biofilm from the interproximal area [59, 60], controlling approximal caries just by flossing has not been shown to be effective [41], probably because its flossing by children and adolescents is not constant and adequate [4]. Controlling approximal caries by just flossing is a simple intervention, however, patient might be instructed and constantly motivated by professional [61]. Although dentist should never give up instructing and motivating to floss, choosing only this approach could be not enough for some approximal caries lesions. In fact, depending on children’s compliance with flossing this option may not succeed, especially considering problems with motivation to flossing discussed earlier in this chapter. Thus, early interventions to initial caries lesions become even more important to arrest these lesions and prevent cavitations or lesions progression into dentine.
Initial caries lesion may be managed by remineralizing agents. A recent systematic review has shown the fluorides, in its different vehicles, present the most consistent benefit in controlling progression of initial caries lesions [62]. However, this review did not include any study which had used fluorides for approximal caries lesions in primary teeth. Actually, few studies have been performed aiming to investigate the management of initial caries in primary teeth and the evidence is inconclusive when we consider the most effective vehicle to be used, the frequence of use and the cost-effectiveness of using fluorides in primary teeth[63]. The fluoride varnish reduced in 25% the caries progression on approximal caries of primary molars [45] (Figure 20). Other fluorides vehicles, as gels and foams, have been associated with caries reduction on approximal surfaces [64]. However, they were tested in permanent teeth. The use of interdental brush or dental floss dipped in fluoride gel has been also advocated to using fluorides for approximal areas [65, 66] (Figure 21).
Application of fluoride varnish on approximal surfaces which present initial caries lesions.
Use of fluoride gel on approximal initial caries lesions. (a) dental floss dipped in fluoride gel. (b) interdental toothbrush dipped in fluoride gel. (c) interdental toothbrush (note some natural space/separation is need for its introduction into approximal areas.
Another option tested for the same purpose was an association AgF followed by SnF2, resulting in a arrestment of 74% of approximal caries lesions [46]. At the moment, our group is testing the use of the silver diamine fluoride (SDF) to control approximal caries in primary teeth [67] (Figure 22 and 23). A previous study of our group pointed to the possibility of using the silver diamine fluoride (SDF) in children for arrestment of enamel caries lesions on occlusal surfaces of permanent erupting molar [68]. As erupting occlusal surfaces, approximal surfaces challenge by making the mechanical control biofilm more difficult. In addition, some studies have shown that the SDF is more effective than fluoride varnish to prevent and arrest caries [69-71]. Even showing success since 1960 [69], its effectiveness had not been tested in approximal lesions of primary teeth. It is expected after SDF application, some staining may be seen on treated surfaces. The staining is probably caused by the precipitation of insoluble silver phosphates [72] (Figure 23).
Application of silver diamine fluoride (SDF) in approximal caries lesions of primary teeth. (a) 30% SDF (Cariestop 30%,Biodinâmica Química e Farmacêutica LTDA, Ibiporã, Paraná, Brazil); (b) and (c) Extra-oral and intra-oral protection of soft tissues with petroleum jelly to avoid staining and mucosal irritation [
Staining caused by the SDF application after follow-up. The staining is probably due to deposition of silver phosphate that is a insoluble salt, responsible to the dark colour when exposed to the light [
Besides the remineralizing agents, another possibility in order to treat initial caries is sealing or infiltrating caries lesions [74]. Sealants have been used for several years in prevention of dental caries [75]. However, its therapeutic effect may be more expressive than the preventive one [76]. Sealing a caries lesion avoid its contact with biofilm, permitting its arrestment. Sealants were initially devised for occlusal surfaces, which present a complex morphology and difficult mechanical plaque removal, especially in non-motivated or collaborative patients. However, the principle of sealing has been extended to other surfaces in which controlling the biofilm is a challenge, as approximal surfaces [77]. The idea is the same: preventing caries lesion progression by eliminating the direct contact between the lesion and the biofilm. A previous study showed a 25% reduction in caries progression on approximal surfaces of primary teeth when sealed (comparatively to surfaces in which patients only flossed) [42]. These findings were comprehensible since when sealants are used, the poor children’s compliance with flossing tends to be minimized.
Resin infiltration is other available option to “seal” caries lesions [78]. The infiltrant is a low-viscosity resin that promotes sealing into the lesion [78]. Differently from sealing, for infiltrating caries lesions, the superficial layer of caries lesion is removed by acid conditioning. Further, the lesion is infiltrated with a low-viscosity resin. Therefore, the barrier against biofilm would be created inside the lesions, instead of in the surface of caries lesions [79]. In addition, the tooth separation is not required for infiltrating caries lesions. On the other hand, if tooth separation is not performed, some doubts concerning diagnosis may remain. Besides, a kit for resin infiltration is sold containing all products used in the process and specifically designed applicators for approximal surfaces. (Figure 24). Despite these differences compared to the traditional sealants, we believe they exert similar roles in controlling caries lesions progression, since the contact between lesion and biofilm is avoided. Infiltration has been showed as an efficacious treatment for permanent teeth [79-81], but only one study was conducted in primary teeth [82]. In this study, resin infiltration was more efficacious than fluoride varnish in the arrestment of proximal lesions [82]. Although no study has compared sealing and infiltrating caries lesions on approximal surfaces of primary teeth, results in permanent teeth permit to guess that sealants and infiltrants tend to have similar efficacy when the deal is treating initial caries lesions [81].
Resin infiltration of an initial caries lesion – (a) direct visual inspection after tooth separation - distal surface of element 54 presented a white spot lesion without any cavity. (b) After local anesthesia and adaptation of the rubber dam, 15%hydrochloric acid was applied on the lesion for 120s, followed by washing and air-drying. (c) Dehydration using 95% ethanol, followed by air-drying. (d) Resin infiltrant application on the lesion for 120s, followed by excess removal and light-curing for 40s. Further, resin is applied for more 30s and light-cured again. (e) All products used in resin infiltration are included in a specific kit commercialized for this purpose by the manufacturers (Icon® - Dental Milestones Guaranteed – DMG, Germany).
Besides effectiveness/efficacy in controlling caries lesions, the patients’ acceptance regarding the available treatments should be considered in clinical decision-making, especially treating children. Few studies have assessed patient-centered outcomes related to enamel caries lesions treatments. Sealing using relative isolation was well-accepted by most children [42]. In this study, the non-use of rubber dam was pointed as a possible concern [42]. On the other hand, when local anesthesia and rubber dam were used for infiltrating lesions in primary teeth, children reported higher levels of discomfort than when other non-invasive approaches were used [83]. Therefore, we consider that those techniques that cause less discomfort should be preferred and considered by clinicians. In addition, patient’s and parents’ satisfaction with treatments for initial caries lesions have not been evaluated. Staining caused by inactivation of caries lesions and/or using of SDF has not been systematically assessed. That is one of our concerns when testing the SDF as a possibility to treat initial caries [67]. Based on some preliminary findings, we believe this consequence of the mentioned treatment will not impact on patient’s and parent’s perceptions, especially due to the position of the surface, which hides the effect of SDF application (see Figure 23).
Finally, cost-efficacy of the mentioned treatment should be considered. More complex treatments as sealing or infiltrating caries lesions are more time-consuming [83], which will certainly lead to higher costs. Thus, even being equally effective, simpler procedures tend to be more cost-efficacious than complex ones. This is another point to be weighed in the decision-making process. Although our investigation is ongoing, we believe the SDF may be a more cost-efficacious/effective approach to be used in treating initial caries compared to other available treatments.
In summary, the scientific evidence regarding the effectiveness for treating initial caries on approximal surfaces in primary teeth is still scarce. However, some possible alternatives may be used until stronger evidences may be available. Additionally, it is important to consider the simplest techniques are cheaper and seem to be more accepted by children. Therefore, all these properties of the technique chosen for treating enamel caries on approximal surfaces in primary teeth should be considered conjointly.
As discussed earlier, the greater susceptibility to caries experience of the approximal surface [1] linked to the faster progression rate for enamel to reach the dentin in primary teeth [19] results in a high prevalence of cavitated dentin caries lesions. These lesions need procedures that allow to arrest them and, especially, to reestablish the previous anatomy.
The treatments recommended to cavitated dentin lesion in approximal surfaces can be assigned according to depth and extent of the lesions.
Initially, when observed one cavitated lesion reaching outer dentin of approximal surface in primary teeth, without breaking the marginal ridge (see Figure 15), the utilization of infiltrating technique [82] or the sealing with adhesive system [42] or fissure sealants [77] has been proposed. These materials, as discussed for initial lesions, mechanically block the biofilm accumulation over the lesion. Previous studies have shown that both treatments seem to be good option to control caries progression in outer third of dentin [42, 82]. These previous studies included cavitated caries lesions clinically into enamel (despite their radiographic extension into dentin) [42, 82]. However, as few lesions with this severity were included in the samples, we could not draw definitive conclusions on the efficacy of these techniques or dental materials for cavitated lesions.
Sealing has been proved to be an option for small occlusal cavities exposing dentine [84]. Once more, the purpose of preventing the contact with cariogenic biofilm and enabling plaque removal from the surface instead is performing operative procedure care [84]. The same approach, if used on approximal surfaces, would avoid removal of sound enamel to access small lesions into dentine with preserved marginal bridge (Figure 25). A pilot study that compared the sealing to restoration for approximal cavitated dentin lesions showed almost 70% of sealed lesions have failed after 18 months compared to 11% of the restorations [85]. Besides, 54% of sealed lesions showed progression [85]. This finding seems to be linked with the technical difficulties in performing approximal caries sealing. Since the resin-based sealant is hydrophobic, there is a need to use rubber dam; however, sometimes there is a difficulty to maintain the work area without water (saliva, fluid) contamination [85]. Moreover, inserting both acid phosphoric and resin-based sealant into approximal cavities may have been a challenge which may justify the high proportion of observed failures [85]. Thus, although resin-based sealing represents the most conservative option to control cavitated dentin lesions, until the present moment, it is still not a satisfactory option to treat approximal cavitated caries lesions.
Cavitated dentine caries lesions (a-b). To restore these lesions, sound tissues should have to be removed, as schematically drawn (c-d).
Depending on the size of the cavity and its location, it is also possible to improve the plaque removal from the cavity in order to promote caries lesions arrestment. This choice is especially interesting in areas in which restoration may be a greater challenge to deal than the mechanical control of the biofilm. Small approximal cavities in anterior primary teeth may be one indication for that, since restorations in these teeth may require sound tissue removal in order to access the cavity (Figure 26). Slicing has been also tested to approximal caries in posterior primary teeth [86]. Although, this technique seems to be a most conservative option for such cases, strongest evidences are necessary concerning it.
Small cavity on distal surface of upper primary central incisor – buccal (a) and palatal (b) view. Treatment: (c) access to the cavity to facilitate the mechanical removal of the biofilm; (d) application of fluoride varnish to enhance the remineralization. (e/f) follow-up after two weeks evidences the best control of the biofilm in the region.
A recent systematic review showed that there is no difference concerning the choice of restorative material to treat occlusoproximal dentin cavities [87]. In this study, both conventional approaches as amalgam and composite resin were compared to Atraumatic Restorative Treatment (ART) performed with high-viscous glass ionomer cement (GIC), demonstrating similar results and satisfactory options to treating these lesions in primary teeth, until 3 years of follow up. However, when we think about the minimal intervention, which has the partial caries removal as one of its concepts, there is no reason to perform the amalgam restoration. Due to that, this procedure will not be discussed in this chapter.
Worldwide, the composite resin associated to adhesive system is, in approximately 25% of cases, the material of choice for restoring primary teeth [88-90]. This material shows satisfactory efficacy when used under local anesthesia and rubber dam, regardless of the brand of composite resin [91], demonstrating a success rate around 90% on occlusal and occlusal-proximal surface of primary teeth [92]. On the other hand, when it is considered the adhesive system, a systematic review reported that both three-step etch-and-rinse and two-step self-etching adhesive system present the best clinical performances [93]. However, this systematic review only considered the clinical trials performed in permanent teeth and these results should be interpreted with caution to primary teeth.
Some specific protocols to be applied in primary teeth in order to obtain similar results that observed to permanent teeth have been suggested. One of the proposals is shortening the etching time in dentin, for etch-and-rinse adhesive systems in order to increase the bond stability of the restorations in primary teeth [94]. This protocol is based on previous studies that demonstrated the primary dentin is more reactive to acid etching [95, 96] and showed good results
One important point to be pondered is that the main reason to failure of resin composite restorations is caries around restorations [92]. Due to that, other options of restorative materials may be considered. A previous study evidenced the effect of the resin-modified GIC restoration in prevention of secondary caries when compared to resin composite [98], probably due to fluoride release and uptake of the glass ionomer cements. The resin-modified GIC may be a good alternative, since presents a similar behavior of resin composite in clinical situation [91]. Its longevity is on average 5 years in occlusoproximal cavities [99]. However, this material contains resin monomers in its composition and may increase susceptibility to the presence of humidity compared to other ionomers. This characteristic associated to the need of a light source to polymerization of the material can be pointed as disadvantages of using resin-modified GIC.
On the other hand, similar trend regarding the protection of the margin of restorations can be observed with ART (Figure 26), since this treatment has high-viscous GIC as the material of choice. The GIC shows results such like the RMGIC in prevention of new caries lesion [100]. Moreover, studies have considered GIC as a viable alternative due to the similar survival rates compared to others restorative materials/techniques [87]. Other proprieties of GIC may also contribute to this choice, i.e., ability to chemically bond to enamel and dentine with insignificant heat formation or shrinkage, biocompatibility with the pulp and periodontal tissues and a similar coefficient of thermal expansion to tooth structure [101].
More recently, a new advantage related to GIC in occlusoproximal restoration has been addressed. Studies have claimed the contact with an approximal cavity offers a higher risk to the adjacent surfaces developing caries lesion [1]. In these cases, GIC restoration could prevent the new lesions and even to arrest the initial ones [102]. This hypothesis has been confirmed by a practice-based research, which showed that the progression rate of caries lesion on tooth surfaces adjacent to amalgam restorations was 30%, whilst to GIC restorations was only 16% [103]. These premises associated with no need of local anesthesia and rubber dam application have contributed for indicating GIC restoration associated to partial caries removal as the best option to treat cavitated lesions in children (Figure 27).
Step-by-step of an occlusoproximal restoration based on atraumatic restorative treatment, using partial caries removal and high-visous glass ionomer cement (GIC). (a) cavity into dentine; (b) accessing the cavity using a manual instrument; (c) preparing for restoration – to restore the contact point and avoid marginal excess; (d) after inserting the GIC and using finger pressure over the material; (e) final restoration; (f) checking the occlusal contacts.
It is evident, based on topics discussed in this paper, that approximal caries lesions are an actual challenge to dentists deal with. Indeed, the detection of caries lesion on these surfaces presents a duality. On one hand, the surfaces position in oral cavity makes the direct visual inspection almost impossible. On the other hand, if additional caries detection methods are used sequentially, they may lead to overtreatment in some situations (e.g. indiscriminate use of bitewings) or result in a greater doubt regarding options for treating those lesions (e.g. temporary tooth separation), since weak scientific evidences have been found for corroborating some available for clinical decision-making for approximal cavities clinically restricted to enamel.
Even if caries detection has been an overcome stage, treating approximal caries is not a simple task. Unfortunately, few strong evidences are available to support these treatments. Therefore, clinicians should try to use the best available evidences at the occasion. Based on that, we tried to contribute to clinical decision-making process joining the description of present evidences to a critical appraisal of them. We believe the critical judgment of the published evidences is crucial to guide the better clinicians’ conduct to their patients.
Nowadays, the adoption of the minimal intervention philosophy has been a reality. Based on that, we have looked into evidences that may support our clinical decision-making not only based on effectiveness or efficacy of therapies used. We have also looked for manners of treating our children minimizing destruction/loss of healthy or reparable structures and guaranteeing higher levels of comfort and satisfaction to them. Due to that, we have insisted on situations in which treatments present similar effectiveness/efficacy, the simplest, the most cost-effective/efficacious or the most acceptable approaches should be preferable by dentists for treating their patients. We believe the conjoint critical appraisal of these requisites may be helpful when dealing with the challenge that approximal caries lesions in primary teeth represents.
Authors would like to thank the CNPq, Capes and Fapesp (Protocol 2012/50716-0 and 2014/00271-7), which have given financial support for investigations performed in this field. They were also very thankful to Dr. O´Such for English revision and to Dr. Olegario to donation of some images for illustrating this chapter.
Biometrics is the science of establishing the identity of an individual based on the physical, chemical or behavioral attributes of the person [1, 2]. Those attributes or properties of an individual are unique on the earth called as biometrics identifiers. Physical properties of the person do not vary as per time such as the face, fingerprint, retina, iris, etc. Behavioral biometrics such as voice, signature, and keystroke dynamics identification and measurement of performance of the person while the certain actions of the human through its body parts such as voice-scan and signature-scan. The element of time is essential to behavioral biometrics because it may change with time [3].
In the internet world, there are so many business companies doing their business through client–server basis in which they are authenticating the client’s request through the username and password. It may be chances of making an illegal entry in demand and request or access the private and confidential data.
When an end-user uses some additional materials or information for the authentication such as smart card, username, and passwords, some tokens or ids, passport, driving license, etc. then there is a chance of lost, stolen the things you are belonging or passwords, ids may be guessed or forget [4]. Therefore, we required a type of system in which there is no need to use such type of external resources for authentication. Fortunately, a biometric authentication system provides an alternative and robust identification system for these problems. In this system, the user should be present personally at the time of identification or verification. As per security is concerned, it uses three approaches for authentication of the person. The first approach is small text information you know such as password or pin or security questions, etc. The second approach is you are belonging with something such as key, RFID, ATM Card or Smart Card, etc. and the third one is some information is always with you it cannot forget, stolen. Your presence is mandatory for this type of authentication i.e. biometric. Apart from these approaches biometrics is a more suitable system because it is always with the person, therefore, biometrics never borrowed, stolen or forgotten [5].
Biometric is a process of identification of unique patterns from the physical, behavioral or chemical properties of the person for authentication. Face, fingerprint, iris, palm, retina, hand geometry, etc. are physical biometric traits whereas voice, gait, dynamic keystrokes are behavioral and DNA, saliva, body odor, etc. are chemical biometrics traits [6, 7].
The process of how biometric works (shown in Figure 1) is as follows:
Capture the biometric data from the appropriate sensor;
Extract the features from the captured image and stored it as a template;
The template of biometrics can be stored in smart cards, local machines or on a server for future use;
Scan the current biometric traits data;
For processing, from the image extract the features and from template;
For matching, take the input processed features with the existing biometric template;
On the basis of matching ranking score decide the business-level application and
Make the security evaluation of the system for proper use.
How biometric system works.
Biometrics is a way of automatic identification or verification of the person on their physical, chemical or behavioral properties. It is a scientific way to analyze the biological unique patterns of the individual person through the use of advanced technology. Biometrics is a scientific approach to understand and find the unique representation of the person. Biometrics is purely depending on the physical, behavioral or chemical properties of the human being for secure access or in identification and verification otherwise biometric devices have no use in authentication. Biometrics is a science of identification or verification of a person through the face, fingerprint or voice, etc. measurement of unique patterns. These unique patterns of the person called as features stored in embedded devices, smart cards are known as templates or bio-prints. They are used to verify the identity of the person by comparing them to the previously stored bio-prints [8].
In general, the biometric model (Figure 2) is divided into five parts are as follows.
The block diagram of biometric model.
The first part is a data collection which consists of biometric presentation and sensor. In this part, biometric modality is captured through the biometric sensor and it represents in its equivalent format for user understandable level. The biometric data sample is collected through various biometric traits either physical or behavioral. The biometric samples were taken from an instance, it should be unique at multiple impressions, iteration or frequent timely. At the time of data acquisition through the sensor, some technical issues may arise such as noise generated in the background while taking the samples of speech or sensor sensing capacity fault. The user does not support while collecting the samples through the sensors. Sometimes more pressure is applied to the fingerprint device then noisy data will be captured.
Sometimes at the time of storage, data are in large volume, we need to store it into the compressed format for fast transmission. At the time of compression technique, we need to be careful while selecting the algorithm otherwise there may be chances of adding more artifacts in original data samples.
It is not mandatory to store the data on the device, it might be stored on the local machine or the server as per the application requirement and cost-effectiveness. Sometimes, there is no need to store the data on the server or the application may be taken care of it to store it into the secure format on the same application device.
The main core component of any biometric system is signal processing, in which we can check the quality of the image, feature extraction or pattern matching. Sometimes due to distortion in input image, there is a chance of noisy image or bad quality data then there is a need to recapture the image or biometric samples once again. After ensuring the good quality data then proceed for the feature extraction through an appropriate technique that will be suitable for the application. Pattern matching is a key role player in which stored data template is matched with the given input samples. The pattern matcher will compare the matching results and send them to the decision module for the final decision.
After the pattern matching score, the decision module decides the acceptance or rejection of the person by using predefined certain threshold values [9].
The camera is one of the famous image acquisition devices. Cameras are mainly divided into two main types i.e. analog and digital cameras. Digital cameras can be further classified into parallel digital, Camera Link and IEEE 1394 [10, 11].
MathWorks has developed a proprietary multi-paradigm programming language and numeric computing environment is known as Matrix Laboratory. From this matrix laboratory, MATLAB word is abbreviated. In MATLAB, we can perform matrix operations, plot the various graphs, develop the functions, interfaces and make the interfacing for the other programming languages programs.
MATLAB provides the programming and numeric computing platform for the analysis of data, algorithm development, creation of models, hence, it is widely used by scientists, engineers, researchers. If you wish to get more knowledge about the image acquisition process and capabilities (Image Acquisition Toolbox), MATLAB documentation is the best source.
Image Acquisition Toolbox (ImATool) provides the ability to handle the numeric calculation by using the predefined available functions. Under the IMAtool, wide functions are defined which supports the following image acquisition operations:
Acquiring images through many types of image acquisition devices
Acquiring images through many types of image acquisition devices
From professional-grade frame grabbers to USB-based Webcams
Viewing a preview of the live video stream
Triggering acquisitions (includes external hardware triggers)
Configuring callback functions that execute when certain events occur
Bringing the image data into the MATLAB workspace
MATLAB has capabilities to extend the imtool in your own code or combination with other toolboxes, such as the Image Processing Toolbox and the Data Acquisition Toolbox. It also provides the Image Acquisition Blockset i.e. Simulink interface. This block set extends Simulink with a block that lets you bring live video data into a model. To get the live image data from the acquisition boards after plug-in for that Matlab provides the Data Acquisition Toolbox through which we can able to communicate with the acquisition boards.
For image processing, analysis and algorithm development related functions are defined under the Image Processing Toolbox. For control and communication with the test and measurement of various equipment’s related functions are defined under the Instrument Control Toolbox. You can also perform the Video and Image Processing Blockset by using the Simulink model.
To develop a motion detection application, certain basic steps are required, which are shown in Figure 3. Pixel-to-Pixel variations in the scene show the difference in acquired image data frames in developed motion detection application. Sometimes frame will be constant, which means there is no change in incoming frame pixel values. Suppose, variation is found in the incoming image frame pixel values, it means, a change in the scene which is also capable to display in the application. Very few lines of coding are required for image frame data acquisition with the help of the toolbox, which is described in Section 5.2 examples. For the execution of the given code in the example, the image acquisition device should be connected to your system. Image acquisition devices can be professional so that the acquired image data frame will be quality image data for the high level of assumptions. Examples of professional devices are frame grabber, generic windows, webcam, etc. This sample code will be able to capture the image from different types of image acquisition devices by doing simply minor changes sometimes. Figure 3 shows how to acquire image data with the help of Image Acquisition Toolbox and Figure 4 shows Image Acquisition Toolbox Components.
Image acquisition basic steps.
Image acquisition toolbox components.
In this example, you can configure time-based acquisition using the number of frames per trigger.
Before taking the input from the connected camera on your current system, you need to first create an object. The camera gives synchronous data, it is continuous information in the form of bits. To convert this information in the form of a visual display unit by using windowing techniques, therefore, it becomes video. From this video input, you want to capture the image. Hence, you need to create the video input object of your camera device for accessing the device property. You can check the list of image acquisition devices by using
In this case, the vid is the camera object, video input is the function, win video is a type of image acquisition device category and 1 is the camera id number.
Once the camera object has been created, you can acquire the image information at a specific time. If you wish to acquire the 10 or 20 seconds of data from your camera, then it has to be set the property as FramesPerTrigger. For the calculation of FramesPerTrigger first, check the frame rate of the camera per second and multiply it by the number of seconds. Then it can be considered for the camera configuration property.
Example. If the frame rate of the camera is 20 frames per second and you want to acquire the 10 seconds data then it will become 20 *10 = 200. To set this configuration there is set() function available in MATLAB. This function will receive three arguments: the first argument is video object i.e. vid, the second argument is configuration property i.e. FramesPerTrigger and the third one is the value of FramesPerTrigger i.e. as per example 200.
To acquire the image from the camera to our system, we have to start gabber of camera object in MATLAB as start() function available in MATLAB.
Ex.
After calling the start() function video object is started and tries to store the temporary data into the memory buffer. It will acquire the image data continuously till the specific number of frames as in example 200. This process executes as a trigger when the start() function is called in our program and stops when the specific number of frames is received in the memory buffer.
Figure 5 shows the image preview when you start the video object.
Image preview.
Load your data for verification that all data contains are accurate which we have planned to acquire the image as per our resolution and configuration. In MATLAB, there is a getdata() function that returns number of frames acquired within the specific time slot with a timestamp. We can verify the amount of acquired data according to timestamp and the difference between the first frame and the last frame.
Start Camera Code:
global vid;
vid = videoinput(‘winvideo’,1);
vidRes = get(vid, ‘VideoResolution’);
nBands = get(vid, ‘NumberOfBands’);
set(gcf,\'CurrentAxes’,handles.axes1);
hImage = image(zeros(vidRes(2), vidRes(1), nBands));
preview(vid, hImage);
Once you have started the video object and set the bands, you can preview live camera acquisition data into the windows as shown in Figure 6. Then you can fix the face position into the camera preview and then follow the next steps to capture the preview image as shown in Figure 7.
Image preview in GUI.
Image preview in GUI after capture the image.
Capture Image Code:
global vid;
%% Image Capture through the Current Video Preview.
global im;
im = getsnapshot(vid);
set(gcf,\'CurrentAxes’,handles.axes2);
imshow(im);
In this way, we have successfully captured images using MATLAB code. Now, we have to develop the face database for your face recognition application [12, 13, 14, 15]. Then go for the feature extraction, classification and recognition level as per your preferred suitable techniques [16, 17, 18].
Biometrics is mostly used for authentication purposes in security. Face recognition in real-time itself is a challenging task. For that taking input from the camera is very important for real-time application. In this chapter, we have mainly focused on how to acquire the face image using MATLAB. The complete chapter is divided into five sections introduction, definition of biometrics, image acquisition devices, image acquisition process in MATLAB. Each section has explained in detailed steps for the upcoming young researchers.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\n1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\\n\\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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