IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
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The book Highway Engineering includes the main topics and the basic principles of highway engineering and provides the full scope of current information necessary for effective and cost-conscious contemporary highway. The book reflects new engineering and building developments, the most current design methods, as well as the latest industry standards and policies. This book provides a comprehensive overview of significant characteristics for highway engineering. It highlights recent advancements, requirements, and improvements and details the latest techniques in the global market. Highway Engineering contains a collection of the latest research developments on highway engineering. This book comprehensively covers the basic theory and practice in sufficient depth to provide a solid grounding to highway engineers. This book helps readers maximize effectiveness in all facets of highway engineering. This professional book as a credible source and a valuable reference can be very applicable and useful for all professors, researchers, engineers, practicing professionals, trainee practitioners, students, and others interested in highway projects.",isbn:"978-953-51-3670-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3669-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4582-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68229",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"highway-engineering",numberOfPages:114,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9c66d18cec90a84fdfd9a64451dc421a",bookSignature:"Hamid Yaghoubi",publishedDate:"December 6th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6103.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8871,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 31st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 28th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"103965",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Yaghoubi",slug:"hamid-yaghoubi",fullName:"Hamid Yaghoubi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103965/images/system/103965.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hamid Yaghoubi is the director of Iran Maglev Technology (IMT). He became the Iran top researcher in 2010. In this regard, he was awarded by the Iranian president; the Iranian Minister of Science, Research and Technology; and the Iranian Minister of Information and Communication Technology. He became the 2011 and 2012 Outstanding Reviewer for the Journal of Transportation Engineering (JTE), American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), USA. One of his journal papers became the 2011 Top Download Paper for JTE. He received the ICCTP2011 Award for the 11th International Conference of Chinese Transportation Professionals (ICCTP2011), ASCE. He is an assistant chief editor and an editorial board member for some journals. He has been a reviewer for the majority of journals, books and conferences. He has also been an editor for some books. He has cooperated with hundreds of international conferences as a chairman, a keynote speaker, a chair of session, a publication chair, and a member of committees, including scientific, organizing, steering, advisory, technical program, and so on. He is also a member of several international committees.",institutionString:"Iran Maglev Technology (IMT)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Iran University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"709",title:"Highway Engineering",slug:"highway-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"57083",title:"Reserve Capacity Model for Optimizing Traffic Signal Timings with an Equity Constraint",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70883",slug:"reserve-capacity-model-for-optimizing-traffic-signal-timings-with-an-equity-constraint",totalDownloads:1429,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper represents a solution algorithm for optimizing traffic signal timings in urban road networks by considering reserve capacity with an equity constraint. It is well known that the variation of signal timings in a road network may cause an inequity issue with regard to the travel costs of road users travelling between origin-destination (O-D) pairs. That is, the users may be influenced differently by changing traffic signal timings. In this context, the bilevel programming model is proposed for finding reserve capacity for signalized road networks by taking into account the equity issue. In the upper level, the reserve capacity is maximized with an equity constraint, whereas deterministic user equilibrium problem is dealt in the lower level. In order to solve the proposed model, a heuristic solution algorithm based on harmony search combined with a penalty function approach is developed. The application of the proposed model is illustrated for an example road network taken from a literature.",signatures:"Ozgur Baskan and Cenk Ozan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57083",authors:[{id:"15540",title:"Prof.",name:"Ozgur",surname:"Baskan",slug:"ozgur-baskan",fullName:"Ozgur Baskan"},{id:"207460",title:"Dr.",name:"Cenk",surname:"Ozan",slug:"cenk-ozan",fullName:"Cenk Ozan"}],corrections:null},{id:"56756",title:"Effects on the Design of Transport Systems of Pedestrian Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70496",slug:"effects-on-the-design-of-transport-systems-of-pedestrian-dynamics",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the study, transportation-architecture-people-focused triple, urban transportation, design of transportation systems, pedestrian-oriented design and pedestrian walkable spaces will be emphasized. However, by analyzing the effects of pedestrian dynamics, transport systems aim to present a mechanism with an improved model that will define dynamics for the first time to explain the processes underlying design decisions. Four hundred and twelve healthy volunteers were selected from 18–65 years of age. First, three-dimensional (3D) virtual city is designed to understand the experiences of the pedestrians. Later, it was provided to navigate the three-dimensional virtual glasses in the city where the broadcasts were designed. During this navigation, pedestrian dynamics were observed, and spaces where pedestrians cautioned were identified. Following this determination, the “attractive” locations will be shown on the macroscale, with the eye-tracking method, it has been in both virtual city navigation and analysis with eye-tracking technology, the cognitive activities of the broadcasts were tested with electroencephalogram (EEG). This approach will in general bridge an empirical and theoretical link between transport-architectural literature in understanding pedestrian movements/behaviors and combining architectural-pedestrian interactions with transport research. However, by analyzing the way-finding behavior, the study interprets its effects on the spatial area.",signatures:"İlker Erkan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56756",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56756",authors:[{id:"206561",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilker",surname:"Erkan",slug:"ilker-erkan",fullName:"Ilker Erkan"}],corrections:null},{id:"57087",title:"Analysis of Highway Acceleration in Regard to Cargo Security",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70829",slug:"analysis-of-highway-acceleration-in-regard-to-cargo-security",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cargo security during road transportation particularly presents a current topic in the context of transport safety. One of the key factors influencing the magnitude of impact (acceleration coefficients) during transportation is the quality of the road networks. Acceleration coefficient values directly affect the rate of inertia forces influencing the cargo. Given that the inertia force magnitudes (acceleration coefficients) are not known prior to commencing the actual transport, acceleration coefficient values known from regulations or otherwise (for example, empirically) certain established values must be used. Values of acceleration coefficients were established in EN 12195–1, a regulation typically used within the European Union. This chapter covers the approaches of this standard and provides comparison of acceleration coefficients established through regulations with those measured. Data (coefficient acceleration) from both highway transport and unpaved roads (in off-road conditions) were measured and statistically processed for comparison purposes. The transportation model presented subsequently demonstrates differences in the magnitude of inertia forces using three sets of data—acceleration coefficients obtained from the standard, from highway transport, and from off-road transport. At the same time, these secured cargoes were set into an insufficient context, where unsuitable or insufficient security of the cargo represents one of the significant risks in the occurrence of an accident.",signatures:"Martin Vlkovský",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57087",authors:[{id:"207708",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Martin",surname:"Vlkovský",slug:"martin-vlkovsky",fullName:"Martin Vlkovský"}],corrections:null},{id:"57709",title:"Joint Road Safety Analysis in Open Roads and Tunnels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71734",slug:"joint-road-safety-analysis-in-open-roads-and-tunnels",totalDownloads:1290,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"From the user’s (drivers) point of view, a road is a unique linear infrastructure although it is clear for a driver that such a linear infrastructure consists of open terrain (open roads) and occasionally closed environment (tunnels). Since the two environments present different safety issues, the related analyses are usually conducted on the field by different experts; those conclusions are sometimes not well interlinked and harmonised, leading to safety gaps particularly, but not only, in the transition areas. Joint safety analyses conducted in the same time by a group of road safety and tunnel safety experts can fill such a gap and increase the safety level of the whole infrastructure. During the year 2016, an international group of road safety experts and tunnel experts visited five road sections with open roads and tunnel in Europe and performed joint safety analyses together with the infrastructure managers. Such analyses were conducted according to a predefined experimental procedure to check the effectiveness of the joint analyses with respect to the usual ones. The key results are that joint safety operations in tunnels and open roads are possible and extremely useful: their cost can be very low when well planned.",signatures:"Carlo Polidori, Adewole Adesiyun, Antonio Avenoso, Kallistratos\nDionelis, Liljana Cela, Christophe Nicodème and Thierry Goger",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57709",authors:[{id:"206556",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Carlo",surname:"Polidori",slug:"carlo-polidori",fullName:"Carlo Polidori"},{id:"207601",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewole",surname:"Adesiyun",slug:"adewole-adesiyun",fullName:"Adewole Adesiyun"},{id:"207602",title:"Dr.",name:"Liljana",surname:"Cela",slug:"liljana-cela",fullName:"Liljana Cela"},{id:"207603",title:"Mr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Avenoso",slug:"antonio-avenoso",fullName:"Antonio Avenoso"},{id:"207604",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",surname:"Nicodème",slug:"christophe-nicodeme",fullName:"Christophe Nicodème"},{id:"207605",title:"Mr.",name:"Kallistratos",surname:"Dionelis",slug:"kallistratos-dionelis",fullName:"Kallistratos Dionelis"}],corrections:null},{id:"57639",title:"Empowering Added Value in Highway Project: A Strategy to Improve the Feasibility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71778",slug:"empowering-added-value-in-highway-project-a-strategy-to-improve-the-feasibility",totalDownloads:1572,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Most mega-project infrastructure such as highway construction requires an enormous amount of cost. This situation might be a problem to developing countries that have limited national budget plan. On the other hand, the capability to transfer the funding of infrastructure depends on the project attractiveness to the private sector. The evaluation to involve in the project should be supported by a significant value for money from the business perspective. Optimum feasibility plays a vital role in bridging the partnership between the government and private interests. The study uses a case study of highway project development of Trans-Sumatera highway road (TSHR) that spans about 2700 km to elaborate on how project feasibility can be improved through creative method. Value engineering (VE) approach as a systematic way to generate innovative ideas by combining multidiscipline backgrounds perspective is used. The study shows that additional functions for the project include integration with motorbike toll road, dry port, and railway line; others also include tourism, fiber optic, and service area development. The innovative ideas have contributed to the significant increase in the internal rate of return (IRR) to the project from 7.79 to 12.76%. The study also formulates institutional scheme through build operate sharing transfer (BOST) which administers government’s role in the project development.",signatures:"Mohammed Ali Berawi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57639",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57639",authors:[{id:"207251",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Ali",surname:"Berawi",slug:"mohammed-ali-berawi",fullName:"Mohammed Ali Berawi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57612",title:"Nondestructive Tests in Highway Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71615",slug:"nondestructive-tests-in-highway-engineering",totalDownloads:1544,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In highway engineering, one needs to know the information about the thickness and elastic modulus of each pavement layer. The thickness and elastic modulus of each pavement component then become input to elasticity analysis or finite element computation to calculate the service life of the highway. An application was Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) measurement on highway in North Jakarta. The measurement was carried out on highway traffic, because we were not allowed to stop traffic of one of the busiest roads in Jakarta. The street is heading to Tanjung Priok, the port of Jakarta. However, we acquired fairly good data by applying stacking method. The number of stacking was 10 (ten) to overcome traffic noise. After inversion, we came up with the result of MASW measurement of the pavement. The result of MASW measurement in terms of elastic modulus and thicknesses of pavement layer becomes important input of finite element analysis to compute fatigue damage of pavement components.",signatures:"Gunawan Handayani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57612",authors:[{id:"206588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gunawan",surname:"Handayani",slug:"gunawan-handayani",fullName:"Gunawan Handayani"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5423",title:"Urban Transport Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222b5d90a7014dbff7e33f3dcde6bc1d",slug:"urban-transport-systems",bookSignature:"Hamid Yaghoubi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5423.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103965",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",surname:"Yaghoubi",slug:"hamid-yaghoubi",fullName:"Hamid Yaghoubi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6395",title:"Bridge Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1d5fcf0ef5708024ef95eb8b3d7310be",slug:"bridge-engineering",bookSignature:"Hamid Yaghoubi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6395.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103965",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",surname:"Yaghoubi",slug:"hamid-yaghoubi",fullName:"Hamid Yaghoubi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7524",title:"High-Speed Rail",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e248745ed8a460687701d02462cb874",slug:"high-speed-rail",bookSignature:"Hamid Yaghoubi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103965",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",surname:"Yaghoubi",slug:"hamid-yaghoubi",fullName:"Hamid Yaghoubi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8747",title:"Asphalt and Asphalt Mixtures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6083f7c9881029f1e033a1e512af7e20",slug:"asphalt-and-asphalt-mixtures",bookSignature:"Haitao Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8747.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260604",title:"Prof.",name:"Haitao",surname:"Zhang",slug:"haitao-zhang",fullName:"Haitao Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Ziboon and Jawad K. Ali",dateSubmitted:"June 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 6th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"April 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7293",title:"Fractal Analysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fractal Analysis",slug:"fractal-analysis",publishedDate:"April 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7293.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103826",title:"Dr.",name:"Sid-Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Ouadfeul",slug:"sid-ali-ouadfeul",fullName:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"261659",title:"Prof.",name:"Jawad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",fullName:"Jawad Ali",slug:"jawad-ali",email:"jawadkali@theiet.org",position:null,institution:{name:"Institution of Engineering and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"262048",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Ziboon",fullName:"Hadi Ziboon",slug:"hadi-ziboon",email:"haditarishziboon@yahoo.co.uk",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"64430",slug:"fractal-geometry-an-attractive-choice-for-miniaturized-planar-microwave-filter-design",signatures:"Hadi T. Ziboon and Jawad K. Ali",dateSubmitted:"June 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 6th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"April 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7293",title:"Fractal Analysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fractal Analysis",slug:"fractal-analysis",publishedDate:"April 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7293.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103826",title:"Dr.",name:"Sid-Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Ouadfeul",slug:"sid-ali-ouadfeul",fullName:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"261659",title:"Prof.",name:"Jawad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",fullName:"Jawad Ali",slug:"jawad-ali",email:"jawadkali@theiet.org",position:null,institution:{name:"Institution of Engineering and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"262048",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Ziboon",fullName:"Hadi Ziboon",slug:"hadi-ziboon",email:"haditarishziboon@yahoo.co.uk",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7293",title:"Fractal Analysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fractal Analysis",slug:"fractal-analysis",publishedDate:"April 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7293.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103826",title:"Dr.",name:"Sid-Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Ouadfeul",slug:"sid-ali-ouadfeul",fullName:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11676",leadTitle:null,title:"Recent Advances in Homeostasis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tHomeostasis is the condition of optimal functioning of the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range). Other variables include the pH of extracellular fluid, the concentrations of sodium, potassium, and calcium ions, as well as that of the blood sugar level, and these need to be regulated despite changes in the environment, diet, or level of activity. Each of these variables is controlled by one or more regulators or homeostatic mechanisms, which together maintain life. \r\n\tHomeostasis is brought about by a natural resistance to change when already in the optimal conditions, and equilibrium is maintained by many regulatory mechanisms. All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable to be regulated: a receptor, a control center, and an effector. The receptor is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment, either external or internal. Receptors include thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. Control centers include the respiratory center and the renin-angiotensin system. An effector is a target acted on to bring about the change back to the normal state. At the cellular level, receptors include nuclear receptors that bring about changes in gene expression through up-regulation or down-regulation and act in negative feedback mechanisms. An example of this is in the control of bile acids in the liver. \r\n\tSome centers, such as the renin-angiotensin system, control more than one variable. When the receptor senses a stimulus, it reacts by sending action potentials to a control center. The control center sets the maintenance range—the acceptable upper and lower limits—for the particular variable, such as temperature. The control center responds to the signal by determining an appropriate response and sending signals to an effector, which can be one or more muscles, an organ, or a gland. When the signal is received and acted on, negative feedback is provided to the receptor that stops the need for further signaling.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1), located at the presynaptic neuron, is a receptor that can stop stressful neurotransmitter release to the postsynaptic neuron; it is activated by endocannabinoids (ECs) such as anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) via a retrograde signaling process in which these compounds are synthesized by and released from postsynaptic neurons, and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to bind to the CB1 receptor for modulation of neurotransmitter release to obtain homeostasis. \r\n\tThe polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are lipid derivatives of omega-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, and eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) or of omega-6 (arachidonic acid, ARA) and are synthesized from membrane phospholipids and used as a precursor for endocannabinoids (ECs) mediate significant effects in the fine-tuning adjustment of body homeostasis.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe aim of this book is to discuss further various aspects of homeostasis, information that we hope to be useful to scientists, clinicians, and the wider public alike.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-478-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-477-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-479-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"63eb775115bf2d6d88530b234a1cc4c2",bookSignature:"Dr. Gaffar Sarwar Zaman",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11676.jpg",keywords:"Optimal Functioning, Body Temperature, Fluid Balance, Core Temperature, Blood Glucose, Iron Levels, Malfunction, Inherited Defect, Respiratory Center, Arterial Blood, Insulin, Baroreceptors",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 31st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Zaman is a member of the Medical Council of India, the Association of Medical Biochemists of India, and the Association of Clinical Biochemists of India. He was awarded a Fellowship in Diabetes (FID) from Royal Liverpool Academy, the United Kingdom, and Fellowship in Applied Nutrition (FIAN) from Medvarsity, Apollo Hospitals, India. He has authored more than 55 publications in both national and international journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar",middleName:"Sarwar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Zaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203015/images/system/203015.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Zaman obtained an MD in Biochemistry from Assam Medical College & Hospital, Srimanta Sankaradeva University of Health Sciences (formerly under Dibrugarh University), India. He completed a Fellowship in Diabetes (FID) at Royal Liverpool Academy, United Kingdom, and a Fellowship in Applied Nutrition (FIAN) at Medvarsity, Apollo Hospitals, India. Dr. Zaman obtained a Post Graduate Diploma in Clinical Research (PGDCR) from Symbiosis University, India. He has almost fifteen years of experience as an Associate Professor at King Khalid Government University, Saudi Arabia, and Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, India. He has expertise in quality development and curriculum design and is trained in e-learning methods. He has more than fifty research publications to his credit in both national and international journals. He has also edited/co-edited books and authored many book chapters.",institutionString:"King Khalid University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
When the availability of water is insufficient to maintain plant growth, photosynthesis, and transpiration, plants become water deficit stressed (Fan et al., 2006), a serious problem that reduces world crop production (Boyer, 1982; Vincent et al., 2005). While drought has profound direct detrimental effects against plants, including rendering otherwise arable regions less, or non-, arable, herbivorous arthropod populations and the injuries they cause can be affected by stress-related changes that occur in the plant. Moderate stress is known to heighten the nutritional value of some plants’ tissues and juices, in some instances to reduce concentrations of plant defense compounds, and even to select against predators and parasitoids that otherwise help reduce pest populations to economically tolerable levels, each of which can contribute toward greater pest infestations. Sometimes the injury inflicted on water deficit stressed plants is intensified even if numbers of the pest haven’t been affected, as in the instances of honeylocust spider mites, Platytetranychus\n\n multidigituli (Ewing), on honeylocust trees, Gleditsia triacanthos L. (Smitley & Peterson, 1996), and greenbug and flea beetle, Aphtona euphorbiae Schrank, on several different crop species (Popov et al., 2006). When the stress associated with water deficit is more severe, however, host plant suitability for utilization by arthropods declines (Mattson & Haack, 1987; \n Showler, 2012\n ) because of insufficient availability of water for the pest, and from senescence and drying of the plant’s tissues. As plants desiccate further, they eventually die and concerns about arthropod pest damage to that crop become moot unless the pests move from unsuitable dead plant material to vulnerable, living crops.
\n
Although severe water deficit stress that causes plant mortality usually renders plants useless to herbivores, chronic lower level or pulsed water deficit stress can enhance the nutritional value of plants to arthropods, resulting in selection preference, heightened populations, intensified injury to crops, and even outbreaks that affect production on area-wide scales. Twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, populations, for example, increase on drought stressed soybeans, Glycine max (L.) Merrill (Klubertanz et al., 1990) and populations of the Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Morvilko), increased in nonirrigated wheat, Triticum aestivum L., fields as compared with fields that received irrigation (Archer et al., 1995). The cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L., infested water deficit stressed rape, Brassica napus L., more heavily than nonstressed plants (Burgess et al., 1994; Popov et al., 2006), and greenbug, Schizaphis graminum (Rondani), densities were higher and more injurious to wheat stressed by drought (Dorschner et al., 1986). Water deficit stressed host plants are also known to favor the xerophilic maize leaf weevil, Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyllenhall (Popov et al., 2006); scolytid bark beetles infesting trees (Lorio et al., 1995); flea beetles on corn, Zea mays L. (Bailey, 2000); and the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), on tall fescue, Festuca arundinacea Schreb. (Bultman & Bell, 2003). Under circumstances where water deficit is beneficial to arthropod pests, population growth generally results in further damage to crops that have already been injured or stunted by water deficit stress itself.
\n
Water deficit stress in plants can affect the amounts and composition of volatile compounds, and the concentrations of several kinds of nutrients beneficial to arthropod pests. Its associations with free amino acids and carbohydrates are chiefly described in this chapter because those two kinds of nutrients have been researched to an appreciable extent, permitting some conclusions to be drawn about arthropod host plant selection and levels of infestation.
\n
\n
\n
2. Water deficit, host plant nutrient accumulation, and associations with phytophagous arthropods
\n
Water deficit stress alters plant metabolism and biochemistry (Hsiao, 1973; Beck et al., 2007), and consequent changes to plant physiological processes have been reported as being factors affecting herbivorous arthropod host plant preferences, growth, and development (Mattson & Haack, 1987; \n Showler, 2012\n\n ). Although soil dries in association with drought, evapotranspiration rates in affected plants are often maintained (Jordan & Ritchie, 1971) by elevated accumulations of free amino acids, especially proline, and other organic solutes (Janagouar et al., 1983). Osmotic stress in plants involves several interlinked molecular pathways that transmit signals and produce stress-responsive metabolites (Ingram & Bartels, 1996; Zhu, 2002), and gene transcripts associated with signaling can be up- or down-regulated minutes after stress induction (Seki et al., 2001; Showler et al., 2007). Water deficit stressed plants often have diminished osmotic potential (Labanauskas et al., 1981; Golan-Goldhirsch et al., 1989; Bussis & Heineke, 1998), heightened oxidative stress (Becana et al., 1998; Knight & Knight, 2001), and accumulations of osmolytes such as antioxidants, amino acids, carbohydrates, and inorganic ions, altering the attractiveness and nutritional value of the plant (Jones, 1991; Showler & Castro, 2010a). Reduced leaf water content relative to dry biomass in water deficit stressed plants, in combination with the increased quantities of nutritional metabolites (White, 1984; Dubey, 1999; Ramanulu et al., 1999; Garg et al., 2001), may contribute toward the increased nutritional value of plants per unit of surface area consumed by arthropods. It is likely that arthropods can perceive cues about host plant suitability from emission of plant volatile compounds, or semiochemicals.
Once the phytophagous arthropod has found or selected the host plant, contact chemoreceptors on many are important in the acceptance or rejection of a host plant based on the presence or absence of stimulant (e.g., sugars, amino acids, vitamins) or deterrent chemicals, and moisture (Dethier, 1980; Schoonhoven, 1981; Städler, 1984; Otter, 1992; Krokos et al., 2002). Free amino acids, for example, elicit electrophysiological responses from the sensillae of lepidopteran larvae (Städler, 1984; Blaney & Simmonds, 1988). Many free essential amino acids (essential for insect growth and development) accumulate in plant tissues during water deficit stress in crop plants that range from cotton to sugarcane, Saccharum species, to pine trees, Pinus species (Mattson & Haack, 1987; \n Showler, 2012\n\n ). Amino acids were even found to be more important determinants of corn susceptibility to neonate fall armyworms than toxins or other biochemical factors (Hedin et al., 1990). Resistance against the sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari (Zehnter), and the yellow sugarcane aphid, Sipha flava (Forbes), involved absence of some free essential amino acids in resistant sugarcane varieties (Akbar et al., 2010). Free amino acids are more available for use by herbivorous arthropods because insects absorb nitrogen through the gut mostly as free amino acids or small peptides (Brodbeck & Strong, 1987). Hence, enhanced foliar nutritional value as a result of water deficit is known to be an important determinant of neonate lepidopteran performance (Mattson, 1980; English-Loeb et al., 1997; Showler, 2001, \n 2012\n\n ; Showler & Moran, 2003; Moran & Showler, 2005; Chen et al., 2008). In terms of water deficit stress, the mealybug Phenacoccus herreni Cox & Williams develops and reproduces better on drought stressed than on well watered cassava, Manihot esculenta Crantz, in response to greater concentrations and more nutritious combinations of free amino acids (Calatayud et al., 2002). The eldana borer, Eldana saccharina Walker, a stalkborer of sugarcane in Africa, prefers water deficit stressed host plants (Moyal, 1995), and the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), inflicts up to twice the injury to water deficit stressed corn than to corn under conventional irrigation (Godfrey et al., 1991). Correlations were reported between elevated free amino acid concentrations in phloem sap of water deficit stressed wheat, Triticum aestivum L., and barley, Hordeum vulgare L., and population increases by the bird oat-cherry aphid (Weibull, 1987) and the cabbage aphid on Brassica spp. (Cole, 1997). Similarly, bark beetle outbreaks during times of drought are associated with greater concentrations of amino acids (and soluble sugars) in host plant phloem that likely contribute toward improved scolytid performance (Mattson & Haack, 1987).
\n
In addition to elevated levels of free essential amino acids, free proline, a nonessential amino acid that accumulates in most water deficit-afflicted plants, is a feeding stimulant for many phytophagous arthropods (Mattson & Haack, 1987; Städler, 1984). Dadd (1985) reported that a number of amino acids, particularly glycine, alanine, serine, methionine, histidine, proline, and γ-aminobutyric acid, were phagostimulants to a number of insect species. Amino acids that elicited the greatest response as feeding stimulants to southwestern corn borer larvae were determined to be arginine, histidine, lysine, methionine, phenylanaline, valine (essentials), alanine, glycine, and serine (nonessentials) (Hedin et al., 1990), but not proline.
\n
Water deficit stress has also been associated with increased concentrations of carbohydrates (which have important roles in osmotic adjustment) in many plants (Schubert et al., 1995; Kameli & Lösel, 1996; Massacci et al., 1996; Mohammadkhani & Heidari, 2008). Corn plants with elevated soluble carbohydrate concentrations were preferred by the European corn borer for oviposition (Derridj & Fiala, 1983; Derridj et al., 1986), and styloconic sensilla of larvae and adults of three noctuid species were highly responsive to sugars, especially sucrose and fructose (Blaney & Simmonds, 1988). These two sugars are known to be important feeding stimulants for both life stages (Frings & Frings, 1956; Blom, 1978), and fructose, glucose, maltose, and sucrose have been identified as phagostimulants for other insects (Bernays, 1985). Electrophysiological recordings revealed that the maxillary sensilla styloconica of fifth instar African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walker), and the lepidopteran stalkborers E. saccharina, Maruca testulalis (Geyer), and Chilo partellus (Swinhoe), were stimulated by 13 different carbohydrates (Otter, 1992). In an experiment involving fall armyworm larval feeding, sucrose elicited ≥5-fold more feeding response than fructose or glucose (Hedin et al., 1990). Carbohydrates are well known as sources of energy for arthropods, and they are therefore highly important as nutrients (Nation, 2002). Studies on larval rice stem borers, for instance, showed that fructose, glucose, and sucrose are highly nutritious as compared with other carbohydrates based on their growth and development (Ishii et al., 1959; Ishii, 1971). Also, eastern spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana Clemens, outbreaks often follow droughts (Mattson & Haack, 1987) because water deficit stressed trees accumulate sugar and sugar alcohols (Price, 2002).
\n
\n
\n
3. Water is a nutrient, too
\n
Water deficit affects both the availability of water, which is a nutrient itself, to herbivores as well as the nutritional quality of dietary biochemical components that accumulate as osmoprotectants or for other purposes. When herbivorous arthropods are unable to have access to sufficient amounts of wager, their populations can decline. For example, aphid populations are reduced under conditions of continued and severe host plant water deficit (\n Showler, 2012\n ). Black bean aphid, Aphis\n\n fabae Scopali, survivorship was diminished on continuously drought stressed sugar beet, Beta vulgaris L., leaves (Kennedy & Booth, 1959), and reproduction and survival were negatively affected for the mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) on radish, Raphanus sativus L. (Sidhu & Kaur, 1976); the spotted alfalfa aphid, Therioaphis maculata (Buckton), on alfalfa, Medicago sativa L. (McMurtry, 1962); the greenbug on sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (Michels & Undersander, 1986); the potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas), on potato, Solanum\n tuberosum L. (Nguyen et al., 2007); the bird oat-cherry aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), on tall fescue (Bultman & Bell, 2003); and the eastern spruce gall adelgid, Adelges abietis (L.), on Norway spruce, Picea abies (L.) Karst. (Bjőrkman, 2000). The most likely cause of the host plants’ unsuitability for aphids under such conditions is low turgor which reduces the ability of aphids to feed (Levitt, 1951; Wearing & Van Emden, 1967). Turgor facilitates aphid ingestion by forcing fluids out of the plant and through the aphids’ stylet lumens (Kennedy & Mittler, 1953; Maltais, 1962; Auclair, 1963: Magyarosy & Mittler, 1987; Douglas & Van Emden, 2007); turgor loss reduces or curtails feeding by aphids despite their cybarial pump. This has been reported to occur for the black bean aphid on different plant hosts (Kennedy et al., 1958); the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover on cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L. (Komazaki, 1982); the greenbug on wheat (Sumner et al., 1983); and the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris, on alfalfa (Girousse & Bournoville, 1994). Also, greater concentrations of host plant osmolytes and other biochemicals associated with drought stress increase sap viscosity which resists flow through the stylets (Douglas & Van Emden, 2007), impeding ingestion despite the enriched nutritional quality of the sap (Kennedy et al., 1958).
\n
The greater nutritional quality of water deficit stressed plants can be offset by the condition that causes it: insufficient water. When provided with dried, ground material from water-deficit stressed tomato plants, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., incorporated into a nonnutritive diet, beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), larval growth decreased (English-Loeb et al., 1997). Cecropia moth, Hyalophora cecropia L., larvae reared on water deficit stressed wild cherry, Prunus serotina Ehrh., leaves grew more slowly than those fed on well-watered plants, but they, and beet armyworm larvae on water deficit stressed cotton leaves, consumed greater quantities of leaf tissue in order to gain access to more water, and possibly in order to supplement body water with water derived from respiration (Scriber, 1977; \n Showler & Moran, 2003\n\n ). Under field conditions, fall armyworm; soybean looper, Pseudoplusia includens (Walker); and beet armyworm larval survivorships increased and development was hastened in soybeans that were irrigated compared with dryland-grown soybeans (Huffman & Mueller, 1983). These observations suggest that soft-bodied lepidopteran larvae that live on plant surfaces exposed to the desiccating effects of direct sunlight and ambient air (unlike lepidopteran stalkboring larvae that live in moist plant interiors) are especially vulnerable to the desiccating effects of insufficient water supply.
\n
\n
\n
4. Some non-nutrient-related associations of water deficit with phytophagous arthropods
\n
Host plant selection among insects also involves visual and physical factors such as leaf shape, color, and size (Ramaswamy, 1988; Renwick & Radke, 1988; Renwick & Chew, 1994; Showler & Castro, 2010b), and both constitutive and inducible plant chemical defenses can vary in response to water deficit stress (Lombardero et al., 2000), but visual and physical cues, and defensive compounds are not considered as being nutritional for the purposes of this chapter (although defensive compounds might loosely be considered as being types of nutrients, they mostly repel, interfere with feeding, or act as toxins). Concentrations of several classes of defensive secondary compounds tend to increase in plant tissues in response to moderate drought, including terpenoids (some of which are attractants (Mattson & Haack, 1987) and alkaloids (Gershenson, 1984; Hoffmann et al., 1984; Sharpe et al., 1985; Lorio, 1986; Mattson & Haack, 1987; \n Showler, 2012\n\n ), but intensified drought stress can lead to reductions of these compounds (Mattson and Haack, 1987). Drought can also influence predator and parasitoid guilds that affect phytophagous arthropod populations (\n Showler, 2012\n\n ), but plant stress is not directly involved. Other mechanisms that might also contribute toward plant vulnerability to herbivorous arthropods under conditions of water deficit stress have been suggested (Mattson & Haack, 1987), including acoustical cues, detoxification of foods by drought stressed insects, and drought-induced genetic changes in arthropods, but they have not been well substantiated.
\n
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5. Multiple effects of water deficit: case study on sugarcane and the Mexican rice borer
\n
The Mexican rice borer, Eoreuma loftini (Dyar), and its association with sugarcane is arguably one of the most illustrative examples of how an economically important phytophagous arthropod is affected by limited availability of water. The crambid moth is indigenous to western Mexico (Morrill, 1925; Van Zwaluwenberg, 1926) where it is a major pest of sugarcane, but it had spread by the mid 1970s to Veracruz, San Luis Potosi, and Tamaulipas in eastern Mexico (Johnson, 1984). First detected in the United States in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas in 1980 (\n Johnson, 1981\n , 1984; \n Johnson & Van Leerdam, 1981\n\n ), the pest dispersed into rice producing areas of east Texas (Browning et al., 1989; Reay-Jones et al., 2008), and in 2008 it moved into Louisiana (Hummel et al., 2008, 2010). Because the Mexican rice borer was recently determined to prefer corn over other crop plants (Showler et al., 2011), its assumed range might be considerably underestimated (\n Showler & Reagan, 2012\n ).
\n
Eggs are mostly deposited in clusters within folds of dry sugarcane leaves, although eggs are also laid in folded green living tissue if available (Showler & Castro, 2010b). Van Leerdam et al. (1986) found 96% of the pest’s eggs on the basal 80 cm of sugarcane plants where most dry leaf tissue is located. The Mexican rice borer is not so much stress-oriented as it is nutritionally-oriented in that it prefers to lay eggs on dry foliage of plants stressed by limited water and of plants growing in enriched soil (Showler & Castro, 2010a; Showler & Reagan, 2012). Water deficit stress in sugarcane plants, however, unlike over-fertilized plants, offers increased quantities of dry, folded leaf tissue per plant, contributing to the crop’s vulnerability (Reay-Jones et al., 2005; Showler & Castro, 2010b). In a greenhouse no-choice cage experiment using sugarcane plants from which all dry leaf tissue was excised and removed from the cages, or placed at the bottom of the cages like a mulch, and intact (dry leaf tissue remained on the plants) sugarcane plants (controls), numbers of eggs and the degree of larval infestation was distinctly greater on the controls (Figs. 1 & 2; Showler & Castro, 2010b).
\n
Figure 1.
Mean (± SE) numbers of Mexican rice borer eggs on green and dry leaf tissue per sugarcane plant; ANOVA, Tukeys HSD (P < 0.05), n = 7 replicates per assay (Showler & Castro, 2010b).
\n
Early instars feed on living leaf tissue, under fresh leaf sheaths, and some tunnel into the leaf midrib; later instars bore into the main stalk (Wilson, 2011). Injury from stalk tunneling results in deadheart, decreased sugar production, and stunting or lodging of stalks sometimes so severe that harvest becomes unfeasible (Johnson, 1985; Legaspi et al., 1997; Hummel et al., 2008). Tunnels within host plant stalks are packed with frass, blocking entry of predators and parasitoids (Hummel et al., 2008). Pupation occurs within the stalk after mature larvae make emergence holes protected with a thin window of outer plant tissue (Hummel et al., 2008). In the Lower Rio Grande Valley, a life cycle takes 30–45 days, and there are 4–6 overlapping generations per year (Johnson, 1985; Legaspi et al., 1997). Tunneling damage and the insect’s prevalence has made it the key sugarcane pest of south Texas, displacing the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis (F.) (Van Leerdam et al., 1984; Legaspi et al., 1997).
\n
Figure 2.
Mean (± SE) numbers of Mexican rice borer larval entry holes per sugarcane stalk; ANOVA, Tukeys HSD (P < 0.05), n = 7 replicates per assay (Showler & Castro, 2010b).
\n
Approximately 20% of sugarcane internodes are injured by Mexican rice borers in south Texas, and larval entry holes also provide portals for red rot, resulting in additional loss of sugar (Van Zwaluwenberg, 1926; Osborn & Phillips, 1946; Johnson, 1985). On some varieties of sugarcane, up to 50% bored internodes have been reported (\n Johnson, 1981\n\n ); Mexican rice borer injury results in losses of US$575 per hectare of sugarcane (Meagher et al., 1994) and US$10–20 million annually (Legaspi et al., 1997, 1999). Projected economic consequences of Mexican rice borer infestation of Louisiana includes US$220 million in sugarcane and US$45 million in rice (Reay-Jones et al., 2008). In corn, stalk boring and secondary infection by stalk rot pathogens can cause shattering, lodging, and complete collapse of stalks (Showler et al., 2011) such that by season’s end >50% of stalks of susceptible varieties are destroyed (Showler, unpublished data).
\n
A connection between irrigation practices and severity of Mexican rice borer infestation was first suggested by Meagher et al. (1993), and later studies indicated that drought stressed sugarcane is preferred for oviposition because there is more dry leaf tissue and the nutritional value, at least in terms of a number of important free amino acids, is enhanced (Tables 1 & 2) (Muquing & Ru-Kai, 1998; Reay-Jones et al., 2005, 2007; Showler & Castro, 2010a). Although severe water deficit stress of sugarcane reduces sugar production, some cultivars under moderate stress accumulate sugars (Hemaprabha et al., 2004), and Mexican rice borer preference among species of host plants (Showler et al., 2011) has been associated with concentrations of fructose (Showler, unpublished data). Differences in oviposition preference were not observed on excised dry leaf tissue regardless of whether the sugarcane plant from which it originated was water deficit stressed or well watered; hence, the expression of sugarcane vulnerability or resistance appears to require the pest’s ability to detect nutrients in living leaf tissue (Showler & Castro, 2010b). Although a sugarcane cultivar with some degree of resistance to the Mexican rice borer was still better protected than a susceptible variety under drought conditions, water deficit increased injury to the crop by ≈2.5-fold in each (Reay-Jones et al., 2005). Reay-Jones et al. (2003) also reported that high soil salinity, a stress factor that also heightens free amino acid accumulations in plants (Labanauskas et al., 1981; Cusido et al., 1987), increases Mexican rice borer infestations in sugarcane. Further, relatively high concentrations of organic matter incorporated into soil of the Lower Rio Grande Valley (and conventionally fertilized with nitrogen) resulted in 18% more stalk production per sugarcane stool but this effect was offset by substantial increases in Mexican rice borer infestation, causing stalk weight, length, and percentage brix reductions relative to sugarcane fertilized with conventional nitrogen fertilizer or chicken litter (Showler, unpublished data). The composted soil was associated with greater accumulations of free amino acids and fructose (Showler, unpublished data). These associations reveal that the pest is not responding simply to water deficit, but instead to nutritional enhancement of the plant whether moderated by stress or by other factors.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 1.
Mean (± SE) water potential (bar), and numbers of dry leaves, Mexican rice borer egg clusters, total eggs, entry holes, and exit holes per stalk of two sugarcane varieties maintained under well watered or drought stressed greenhouse conditions (Showler & Castro, 2010a)
Mean (± SE) picomoles of free amino acid per μl of sugarcane leaf juice in two varieties, L97-128 and CP70-321, that were well watered or drought stressed (Showler & Castro, 2010a)
Means within each row followed by different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
\n a Cystine was detectable but not found in the samples.
In addition to water deficit stress associations with Mexican rice borer preferences for physical (i.e., dry, curled leaf tissue) and nutritional factors (i.e., amino acids and possibly sugar accumulations), water availability has a strong influence on abundances of a voracious predator, the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren, which has already been shown to be an efficient predator of the stalk boring moth, D. saccharalis, in Louisiana (\n Showler, 2012\n ; \n Showler & Reagan, 2012\n\n ). Originally from wet habitats of South America, the red imported fire ant entered the United States in 1929 and it spread throughout much of the wet southern states (Lofgren, 1986). To provide another example of the predator’s effectiveness against insect pests, red imported fire ant foraging activity accounts for 58% of boll weevil mortality along the relatively wet coastal cotton-growing region of Texas (Sturm & Sterling, 1990), and red imported fire ant predation on immature boll weevils averaged 84% compared with 0.14% and 6.9% mortality caused by parasitism and desiccation, respectively (Fillman & Sterling, 1983). In the drier subtropics of south Texas, however, even in cotton with rank weed growth commonly associated with thriving red imported fire ant populations in wetter regions (Showler et al., 1989; Showler & Reagan, 1991), few or no red imported fire ants were found and boll weevil infestations were not affected by predation (\n Showler & Greenberg, 2003\n\n ). While sugarcane in relatively dry regions, such as south Texas, is not protected by red imported fire ants, it is possible that the predator’s greater abundance in the more moist sugarcane growing conditions of Louisiana will suppress Mexican rice borer populations (\n Showler & Reagan, 2012\n ) despite its cryptic larval behavior.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
Water deficit might initially appear to affect herbivorous arthropod populations because of a single factor, but the associations of the Mexican rice borer with water indicate a more complex relationship that can involve physical, biochemical, and ecological factors. Levels of Mexican rice borer infestation are likely influenced by low water availability in at least three ways, only one of which is directly related to the nutritional status of the crop. Drought changes many environmental conditions relative to arthropods, such as soil condition, leaf size and color, lignification of plant cell walls, secondary protective compounds, and natural enemy activity, but accumulations of nutrients, particularly free amino acids and carbohydrates, unlike the other drought-related conditions, directly result from water deficit stress to the plant. This plant stress response to water deficit influences levels of pest infestations by causing the plant emit volatile semiochemicals and by enhancing the nutritional quality of the plant. Water deficit can also make it difficult for some plant sucking insects (e.g., aphids) to attain water and nutrients, and soft-bodied lepidopteran larvae living on surfaces of water deficit stressed plants ingest insufficient amounts of water to sustain themselves against desiccation despite compensating by consuming greater quantities of plant tissue. While non-nutritional factors are often important under conditions of water deficit, the nutritional status of the plant to herbivorous arthropods is directly modulated by water deficit stress, and host plant nutritional quality is arguably the most fundamental component of plant-herbivore interactions.
\n
\n \n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/43230.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/43230.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43230",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43230",totalDownloads:2846,totalViews:336,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:14,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:90,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 1st 2012",dateReviewed:"September 6th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 13th 2013",dateFinished:"February 21st 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/43230",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/43230",book:{id:"3226",slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture"},signatures:"Allan T. Showler",authors:[{id:"72273",title:"Dr.",name:"Allan T.",middleName:null,surname:"Showler",fullName:"Allan T. Showler",slug:"allan-t.-showler",email:"allan.showler@ars.usda.gov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Agricultural Research Service",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Water deficit, host plant nutrient accumulation, and associations with phytophagous arthropods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Water is a nutrient, too",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Some non-nutrient-related associations of water deficit with phytophagous arthropods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Multiple effects of water deficit: case study on sugarcane and the Mexican rice borer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n \n \n \n Akbar\n W.\n \n \n Showler\n A. T.\n \n \n White\n W. H.\n \n \n Reagan\n T. 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W.\n \n \n Jr \n \n \n \n 1984Effects of substrate physical characteristics and orientation on oviposition by Eoreuma loftini (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Environmental Entomology\n 13\n 800\n 802\n 0004-6225X.\n '},{id:"B144",body:'\n \n \n \n Van Leerdam\n M. B.\n \n \n Johnson\n K. J. R.\n \n \n Smith\n J. W.\n \n \n Jr \n \n \n \n 1986Ovipositional sites of Eoreuma loftini (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in sugarcane. Environmental Entomology 15\n \n 75\n 78\n 0004-6225X.\n '},{id:"B145",body:'\n \n \n \n Van Zwaluenberg\n R. H.\n \n \n 1926Insect enemies of sugarcane in western Mexico. Journal of Economic Entomology\n 19\n 664\n 669\n 0022-0493\n \n '},{id:"B146",body:'\n \n \n \n Vanderzant\n E. S.\n \n \n 1958The amino acid requirements of the pink bollworm. 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F.\n \n \n 1967Studies on the relations of insect and host plant. I. Effects of water stress in host plants on infestations by Aphis fabae Scop., Myzus persicae (Sulz.) and Brevicoryne brassicae (L.). Nature\n 213\n 1051\n 1052\n 0028-0836\n \n '},{id:"B151",body:'\n \n \n \n Weibull\n J.\n \n \n 1987Seasonal changes in the free amino acids of oat and barley phloem sap in relation to plant growth stage and growth of Rhopalosiphum padi. Annals of Applied Biology 111\n 727\n 737\n 1744-7348\n \n '},{id:"B152",body:'\n \n \n \n White\n T. C. R.\n \n \n 1984The abundance of invertebrate herbivores in relation to the availability of nitrogen in stressed food plants. Oecologia 63\n 90\n 105\n 0029-8549\n \n '},{id:"B153",body:'\n \n \n \n Wilson\n B.\n \n \n 2011Advanced management of the Mexican rice borer (Eoreuma loftini) in sugarcane. M.S. thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA.\n '},{id:"B154",body:'\n \n \n \n Wright\n L. C.\n \n \n Berryman\n A. A.\n \n \n Gurusiddaiah\n S.\n \n \n 1979Host resistance to the fir engraver beetle, Scolytus ventralis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). IV. Effe cts of defoliation on wound monoterpene and inner bark carbohydrate concentrations. Canadian Entomologist\n 111\n 1255\n 1262\n 0000-8347X.\n '},{id:"B155",body:'\n \n \n \n Zalucki\n M. P.\n \n \n Clarke\n A. R.\n \n \n Malcom\n S. B.\n \n \n 2002Ecology and behavior of first instar larval Lepidoptera. Annual Review of Entomology 47\n 361\n 393\n 0066-4170\n \n '},{id:"B156",body:'\n \n \n \n Zhang\n J. X.\n \n \n Kirkham\n M. B.\n \n \n 1990Variation in ethylene production by sorghum. Euphytica 46\n \n 109\n 117\n 0014-2336\n \n '},{id:"B157",body:'\n \n \n \n Zhu\n J.\n \n \n \n K.\n \n \n 2002Salt and drought stress signal transduction in plants. Annual Review of Plant Biology\n 53\n 247\n 273\n 1543-5008\n \n '}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Allan T. Showler",address:"Allan.Showler@ars.usda.gov",affiliation:'
USDA-ARS, Weslaco, Texas, USA
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1. Introduction
Various electronic machines and instruments are available worldwide, and some of these are shown in Table 1. The purpose of these machines and instruments is to make different aspects of human lives easier. Components such as electronic devices (i.e., integrated circuits), wires and cables are central to their make-up [1, 4]. Some of these components are either made of rubber materials or require the use of various types of rubber for their respective functions. These include rubber sheets, grommets, tubes and seals, keypads, wire and cable rubber hoses and insulators, adhesive sealants, flat washers, boots and bellows, bumpers and tips covers, sleeves, and anti-vibration rubber mounts [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Their main function is to keep the machines and instruments performing at their optimum best by dissipating heat, as well as insulating and sealing the electronic components; thus protecting them against shock, electromagnetic interference, very high and low temperatures, gas permeation, and exposure to dust and fluid (e.g., water, chemicals, solvents, steam, moisture and oil) intrusion that may lead to damage of the machines and instruments [1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11]. Electronic machines and instruments normally operate at different types of environmental conditions, from moderate to high-stress environment. Therefore, in addition to being thermal, gas and fluid resistant, the electronics rubber materials are required to be extraordinarily durable, stretchable and resilient, and yet be easy to use [5, 7, 9, 12].
Electronic machines and instruments
Sector
Stethoscope, respiration monitors, defibrillator, glucose meter, and pacemaker.
Medical
Entertainment and navigation systems, engine, transmission, and devices for safety and driver assistance.
Automotive (automobiles)
Office gadgets, home appliances, audio and videos systems, router, automated teller machine, and barcode scanners.
Consumer
Automation and motion control robotics, power converting technological instruments, hydraulics, and photo voltaic systems.
Industrial
Data logger, hygrometer, anemometer, drifter buoy, barometer, and tipping bucket rain gauge.
Meteorological and Oceanographic
Aircraft and missile launching systems, boom barrier and radars for military, cockpit controllers, and rocket launchers for space.
Defense and Aerospace
High voltage DC transmission, excitation systems, VAR compensation, static circuit breakers, fans and boiler feed pumps, and supplementary energy systems.
Utility systems
Table 1.
Electronic machines and instruments, and sectors where they are used [1, 2, 3].
The common rubbers that are used to manufacture the electronics rubber materials include natural rubber (NR), Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM), silicone (Q), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR), Fluoroelastomer (FKM/FPM), isoprene rubber (IR) and neoprene [5, 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. Generally, these rubbers have excellent elasticity and deformability, but in addition to the fact that some of them are not crystallizable under high strain, their strength and modulus, especially, could not satisfy the requirements of some electronic machines and instruments, especially those that operate at frequent vibrations and high pressures [5, 9, 13, 18, 19, 20]. Therefore, it is deemed necessary to further strengthen these rubbers, typically by adding reinforcing filler into them to yield sufficiently high mechanical properties with low hysteresis loss (heat-build up). Other common properties that are improved by reinforcement include electrical, chemical, swelling and thermal properties [9, 13, 15, 16, 21, 22].
Carbon black (CB) and silica are the most conventional fillers used for the reinforcement of rubber. However, there are many emerging fillers such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) which offer superior reinforcing effect, properties and performances at relatively lower quantities [2, 7, 23, 24, 25]. Although there is paucity in CNTs reinforced rubbers as compared to CB reinforced rubbers, several researchers [5, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 21, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31] postulated that CNTs may be considered by electronic industries in the near future for the production of CNTs-based rubber composites for strengthening, insulating and sealing the components of the electronic machines and instruments. This is due to the resultant extraordinary properties and associated performances that are typically offered by such composites, which, by definition, refers to multiphase materials that comprises of the individual or hybrid reinforcing filler and the rubber matrix or matrices [21, 24, 28, 32].
Since the discovery of CNTs, there have been several research studies aiming at understanding their structure and properties, as well as developing novel applications for them [2, 13, 21, 33]. The main attracting nature of CNTs to produce the CNTs-based rubber composites include excellent electrical conductivity, thermal stability and chemical stability, as well as the superior mechanical properties for load-bearing reinforcements in rubber composites and for structural applications [2, 22]. Rubber-CNTs composites, with strengthened stress transfer from rubber to CNTs due to their uniform dispersion in the rubber matrix and the strong rubber-CNTs interactions, are relatively lighter and flexible for easy use in the electronic machines and instruments [2, 5, 8, 9, 13, 15]. Their excellent thermal and chemical stability makes them versatile materials for improving the flame retardancy of the electronic rubber materials and for the protection of the electronic components against damage [1, 2, 15, 28, 34]. The extraordinary durability and resilience of rubber-CNTs composites makes them suitable especially for resisting wear, high pressure and vibrations; and their outstanding mechanical properties allows them to exceptionally resist abrasion, tear, high compression set and flex fatigue life that are normally due to prolonged vibrations, high pressure and compressive loads [1, 2, 28]. These properties make them more suited and applicable for use in electronics, as well as the fact that rubber-CNTs compounds are potentially cost-effective than rubber-CB compounds because of the performance of CNTs that is dominant even at smaller loaded quantities [7, 15, 35, 36]. Hence, this chapter investigated the studies that show that CNTs have great potential as the alternative reinforcing materials for rubbers used in electronics, and these rubbers are referred to as electronics rubbers in the chapter.
2. Structure and properties of carbon nanotubes
Since the discovery of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in 1991 by Iijima using an electric arc-discharge method and transmission electron microscope (TEM), their unique atomic structure and superior properties have attracted the researchers’ attention both in academia and industry [1, 22, 24, 37]. As can be seen in Figure 1, CNTs are typically one-dimensional quantum nanomaterials with carbon electrons in (ideally) sp2 hybridized orbitals, and they can also be viewed as a graphene sheet that is rolled up into a nanoscale tubular form [1, 5, 28, 38]. They are commonly synthesized using visible light vaporization, arc discharge or catalytic chemical vapor deposition method, and have been categorized as the fourth allotrope of carbon, following naturally occurring types such as diamond, graphite and fullerenes [16, 24, 37]. Depending on the employed synthesis method, CNTs can be produced as individual cylinders (single-walled carbon nanotubes, SWCNTs) or as concentric tubes (multi-walled carbon nanotubes, MWCNTs), which both have the exceptionally resilient structures due to the carbon–carbon (▬C▬C▬) bond and the system controlling these atomic bonds throughout the axis of the tubes [2, 39].
Figure 1.
Schematic illustration of CNTs: (a) carbon nano-walls, (b) SWCNTs and (c) MWCNTs (modified with permission from [28]).
CNTs, due to their size and helical arrangement of graphite rings in the walls, exhibit a wide range of interesting unique properties for various potential applications [16]. They have exceptionally small diameters (several nm) and length (μm, mm or cm) [39, 40]. Furthermore, CNTs have incredibly high aspect ratio (∼106) and a large surface area (~100 m2/g to 1200 m2/g), which often allows them to form superior interaction with the polymer matrix [22, 25, 41, 42, 43]. The strength of the sp2 -C-C- bonds gives CNTs an extremely high tensile strength (∼ 150 to 180 GPa), modulus (∼ 640 GPa to 1 TPa) and elasticity, and remarkable electrical conductivity, thermal (more than 1000°C) and chemical stability [1, 3, 5, 6]. These distinctive properties render CNTs the ultimate nanofiller materials in nanomaterial-based rubber composites for research and industrial applications. The main attractive nature of CNTs for such composites especially in the industrial application is their fracture and deformation behavior [2]. Because of CNTs, rubber-CNTs composites can withstand high loads without showing the sign of fracture, and they can do this by switching reversibly into different morphology patterns (flattened, twisted, and buckled) on strain deformation [2].
3. Carbon nanotubes and carbon black as reinforcing fillers in carbon-based rubber composites
Generally, several fillers have been used for many years as reinforcing materials to prepare the composites mostly with enhanced mechanical properties. The mechanism of the reinforcement is believed to be both chemical and physical in nature, and the surface area and structure of the filler are its primary properties [44, 45]. The greater reinforcement effect has been reported to be given by the material with relatively smaller particle size and larger surface area [45]. Carbon black (CB) is the most widely used and most effective conventional reinforcing filler in the rubber industry because it generally enhances the mechanical properties of various rubbers [8, 18, 24, 27]. However, in addition to its environmental polluting nature, the drawbacks of using CB is that it tends to cause difficult processability due to its relatively larger particle size and high bulk viscosity of most rubber compounds [18, 24]. Additionally, its high loadings (35–45 phr) in the rubber compound formulation is a requisite for its efficiency, and this normally negatively impact the compression set and hysteresis loss (heat-build up) of some vulcanized rubber products [18, 24]. Its high loadings also cause the resultant rubber products to be relatively costly [41]. Therefore, scientific and industrial fields have been focusing on partially or completely replacing CB in rubber formulations with CNTs (single-walled and multi-walled) for the production of carbon-based composites, i.e., CNTs-natural rubber and CNTs-synthetic rubber composites, with relatively excellent properties [8, 39]. The extremely small particle size, high specific surface area and aspect ratio of this new class of fillers makes them superior to CB, and makes it relatively easy for them to uniformly disperse in the rubber matrix as individual particles [8, 28, 41]. The distances between the components of CNTs and the rubber matrix are exceptionally small and therefore, the interactions at a molecular level between CNTs and the matrix provides remarkable properties compared to conventional fillers [8].
The extraordinary properties of CNTs are the main factor that prompted a great interest in the production of CNTs-based rubber composites for a wide range of applications, including electronics [2]. The commonly used methods to prepare CNTs-based rubber composites with uniformly distributed CNTs and strong rubber-CNTs interactions include solvent/solution blending, melt blending, in-situ polymerization, latex compounding and high-shear (roll mill and internal mixer) mixing [5, 6, 40, 46, 47, 48]. The use of solvent to disperse CNTs aid in achieving good defibration and necessitate the dispersal of hydrophobic CNTs in the aqueous emulsion; hence surfactants, which typically suppress re-aggregation, are also often employed in melt blending, in-situ polymerization and latex compounding [5]. The high-shearing mixing method is often used for solid rubber and is favored for the industrial production of rubber-CNTs composites, including those used to manufacture electronics rubber materials, because it minimizes both the production time and costs [5, 28].
Since the applications of CNTs-based rubber composites are different, they are normally categorized into two kinds, i.e., functional composites and structural composites [1]. CNTs function differently in these two kinds of composites. In structural composites, they allow for the formation of structural rubber-CNTs material with easy processability, ultralight weight, and high tensile strength, elastic modulus, compression strength and stiffness [1, 36, 49, 50]. For rubber-CNTs functional composites, CNTs function by developing the electrical and thermal conductivity and chemical stability of these composites. Rubber-CNTs functional composites have shown outstanding heat resistance, chemical and swelling resistance, electrical conductivity, electromagnetic absorption and interference shielding, and high energy storing capability [8, 9, 15, 51, 52, 53].
4. Parameters affecting the properties of rubber-CNTs composites
CNTs tend to form bundles during growth due to strong van der Waals interactions between individual tubes [3, 39]. Therefore, this allows them to easily form microscale aggregates or agglomerates into a rubber matrix, hence reducing the expected improvements of the properties of the resulting composites. The extent of reinforcement effect of CNTs on rubber for the formation of CNTs-based rubber composites with superior properties is highly dependent on a variety of parameters, which normally influence the overall exploitation of the performance of rubber-CNTs composites in an intended application. These include CNTs fabrication method, ratio of CNTs to the amount of rubber matrix, entanglement state of CNTs in the rubber matrix, if CNTs are functionalized or not, functionalization method, matrix type, rubber viscosity, degree of CNTs wetting with rubber, dispersity and dispersion method, interfacial bonding, CNTs structural defects and composite processing method [13, 38, 54, 55]. These parameters are the main key for ensuring the formation of the effective load/stress transfer, normally monitored by Raman Spectroscopy, from the matrix to individual nanotube, which consequently support the effective processing of the formation of rubber-CNTs composites with optimum properties [1, 13, 21, 54, 56, 57]. Of all these, filler dispersion is the most popular parameter and is normally studied by examining the morphology of the composite, and this is achieved by employing transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). For instance, SEM micrograph can be seen in Figure 2, where the uniform distribution of CNTs particles throughout the silicone rubber (Q) matrix is shown in pictures (a), (b) and (c).
Figure 2.
SEM micrograph of Q-SWCNTs vulcanized composites: (a) Q sample of SWCNTs with 70% carbon, (b) sonicated Q sample of SWCNTs with 70% carbon, (c) Q sample of SWCNTs with 90% carbon, and (d) unfilled Q sample [58].
The parameters that define the quality of rubber-CNTs composites have also been reported to affect one another. For instance, the rubber-CNTs interaction, which generally defines the stress transfer capacity, directly affects the dispersion of CNTs in the matrix [13, 28, 59]. Also, the dispersion of CNTs in the rubber matrix and the interaction of CNTs with the matrix are highly influenced by the functionalization (surface modification) of pristine CNTs which is typically achieved by physical (non-covalent) or chemical (covalent) bonding of organic or inorganic moieties to the tubular structure of CNTs [3, 13, 28, 57, 59]. This surface modification of pristine CNTs typically result to modulation of CNTs physicochemical properties, therefore increasing their ease of dispersion and interaction, as well as processability, among different types of rubbers [38, 57]. However, even though it might possibly lead to weaker rubber-CNTs interaction, non-covalent functionalization method is more preferred than the covalent method for the production of composites as the latter tend to cause structural defects to the tubes by disturbing the π system of the graphene sheets and therefore resulting in shortened CNTs length and hence, inferior properties of the CNTs [3, 27, 60]. Optimization of the ratio of CNTs to the amount of the rubber matrix is also necessary for overcoming the inability to fully explore the properties and performance of CNTs in rubber-CNTs composites for any intended application.
5. Effect of CNTs (SWCNTs and MWCNTs) on various properties of rubber-carbon nanotubes composites for electronics
The main targets under consideration for the application of rubber-CNTs composites in electronics is to manufacture rubber materials that are extremely resistant to different temperature conditions, durable, abrasion resistant, chemical and swelling resistant, thermal resistant, high stretchable and thermo-conductive, and offer proper insulation and sealing [2, 5, 12, 13, 61]. CNTs permits the rubber-CNTs composites to maintain their mechanical strength at temperatures as high as 1200°C, therefore electronics rubber materials that comprise of CNTs would be very useful for electronics operating at high temperatures [1, 5]. Additionally, researchers [28, 62, 63] believe that rubber-CNTs composites will soon be employed as layers and coatings design to dissipate heat, and as materials that enhances flame retardancy because most rubbers are less thermally stable than CNTs. The very high chemical stability of CNTs makes the rubber-CNTs composites resistant to various solvents, oils, hydrocarbon fuels and acids or alkalis, and therefore far superior to metals as regards to corrosion resistance, and would be excellent for use in covering the electrochemical sensors, power devices and other components of various electronic machines and instruments [1, 5, 6, 28, 64]. Similarly, the high swelling stability of the rubber-CNTs composites makes them resistant to water, steam and moisture and therefore has a great potential for the manufacturing of the rubber materials that would protect the electronics materials like temperature/humidity sensors and conductive electrodes/wires [1, 6, 64]. Given the obvious possibility that water, coldness and heat, are present in the environment in which sealing and protecting rubber materials are used, rubber-CNTs composite materials would thus be best materials for electronics as they can resist hydrolysis, which may lead to degradation of rubber. This has been additionally proven by other researchers [5], where they subjected the rubber-CNTs material, with 1 wt.% CNTs content, into an environment of 280°C temperature and 6.3 MPa pressure for 3 h, and observed no change in hardness and tensile properties of the material, meaning that CNTs improve hydro-thermal resistance even at high pressure. Rubber-CNTs composites have outstanding electrical and thermal conductivity, of which the latter far exceed 400 W/Mk thermal conductivity of copper and 2200 W/Mk of diamond [5]. According to Ata [5] and Dai et al. [13], the main advantage of using rubber-CNTs composites to make stretchable electroconductive and thermo-conductive materials for electronics is that the electrical and thermal conductivity of the composite remains unaffected when the material stretches during service because CNTs form unidimensional particles in the rubber matrix, as opposed to conventional fillers. In comparison to rubber-CNTs composites, a reduction of the conductivity of the composites of conventional fillers, which are typically composites of zero-dimensional (0D) particles, with stretching, is due to the loss of contact between filler particles, as can be seen in Figure 3 [2, 5, 50]. These conductivity properties have therefore led to a suggestion that rubber-CNTs composites can be used as wiring materials for stretchable and wearable electronic devices and instruments [5, 12, 36, 65, 66]. This has been supported by other authors [61], where they have made stretchable CNTs-based FKM conducting materials that have the potential for application in electronics such as stretchable sensors, stretchable light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and human motion monitoring.
Figure 3.
Network structure in rubber composites of different fillers [5].
Electronic components, like electronic devices (e.g., electronic circuits), wires and cables, in the electronic machines and instruments are subjected to damage during service. Hence, for rubber materials that typically seal, insulate and therefore protect these components, the improvement of mechanical properties, especially tensile, modulus, durability, flexibility and resilience, is a necessity. Felhös et al. [67] have used varying amounts of CNTs on hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber (HNBR), and measured the mechanical properties, including sliding and rolling friction, observing improved properties as the filler content was increased. They also observed that CNTs performance was better than that of silica in drying sliding and rolling. As far as the various required properties for rubber materials used in electronics are concerned, several other studies, on the reinforcement of electronics rubbers by CNTs, are shown in Table 2, which also shows the common applications of the stated CNTs-based rubber composites. While most of these studies are more based on enhancement of various properties of electronics rubbers, others [6, 17, 18, 24, 28, 32, 35, 41, 72, 83, 84] also compared the reinforcement effect of CNTs to that of CB, and showed that CNTs’ performance is dominant even at relatively very low quantities (at or below 1 wt.%), without polluting the working environment.
It is well known that CNTs have a tubular structure of carbon atom sheets with a thickness scaled in less than few nanometers, and depending on the number of carbon atom sheets, they are often simply classified as single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). The performance of SWCNTs and MWCNTs seems to be similar in both the functional and structural composites, even though it is believed that SWCNTs, in comparison with MWCNTs, are relatively more suited for the production of electronics rubber-CNTs composites since they are single-dimensional systems and therefore can easily and uniformly be dispersed in the rubber matrix and are unlikely to cause high stiffness, which might lead to high heat build-up [22, 40, 85, 86]. Nonetheless, on account of their extremely high moduli, both the SWCNTs and MWCNTs are considered fillers that provide much higher reinforcement effects than conventional fillers; hence their use in the enhancement of the matrix of most rubbers, including those that are used in the electronics [39]. It has been suggested by several researchers [6, 18, 24, 28, 32, 35, 41, 84] that the manufacturing and maintenance cost of the electronics rubber materials made of CNTs would be relatively better than those made of CB because CNTs, in addition to the fact that they are effective at very low added concentrations, are also becoming easier to fabricate and therefore cheaper to buy [5, 28, 39, 87]. As far as the cost of rubber-CNTs composites for electronics is concerned, composites made of MWCNTs would be much cheaper in comparison to those made of SWCNTs since the fabrication cost of the former is relatively cheaper than that of the latter. Nonetheless, costs are not the only determining factor on the choice of CNTs, rather the resultant properties of rubber-CNTs composites are also imperative. Therefore, it is important to understand the influence of the different types of CNTs on the properties of different types of rubbers.
5.1 Natural rubber-CNTs and isoprene rubber-CNTs composites
Natural rubber is known for its good performance in both the electronics gaskets and in insulating the electrical wires and cables because of its good elastic modulus, fracture energy and dielectric strength; therefore, it has been used in portable electronics and distributed sensors [88, 89]. But this is typically only possible when it is reinforced. A shift to CNTs from traditional fillers like CB has allowed the production of NR compounds with enhanced properties, especially because it generally fails at higher temperatures (above 100°C) and it has low oil and fuel resistance (swells in oils and fuels) [90]. Through the high-shear mixing method, Azam et al. [51] have prepared the NR-SWCNTs composites to study the effect of SWCNTs on the tensile, hardness and thermal properties of NR. They observed a reduction in the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and elongation at break (εb) and an increase in tensile moduli (M), hardness and thermal property. The unusual decrease in the UTS of NR with increasing SWCNTs content was suspected to have been caused by the agglomeration of SWCNTs particles in the NR matrix and/or the physical contact between adjacent agglomerates. Additionally, the obtained increase in M was reported to be due to an increase in crosslink density, which resulted from increased swelling resistance of the resultant composites and good distribution of SWCNTs into the NR matrix [51]. The uniform distribution of SWCNTs resulted to limited chain movement of NR during deformation, and therefore resulted in high M, which consequently increased hardness of the rubber compounds [51]. The obtained increase in thermal properties was attributed to physical adsorption and good NR-SWCNTs chemical interaction [51]. Gumede et al. [47] used an internal mixer to prepare the NR-SWCNTs composites, but also passed the compounds through the two-roll mixing mill, which could be a reason why they observed an increase in UTS with an increase in SWCNTs content up to 0.1 wt.%. Unlike authors [47, 51], Anoop et al. [46] prepared the NR-SWCNTs composites through the latex compounding method, also employing the surfactant to improve the dispersion of SWCNTs in the NR matrix, and observed similar results to the authors [47, 51], as far as the tensile properties are concerned, and an increase in tear strength and electrical conductivity, while thermal properties remained unchanged after adding SWCNTs. These findings were attributed to good interfacial bonding between NR and SWCNTs [46]. Other researchers [19, 24, 33, 68] used MWCNTs instead of SWCNTs to prepare the NR-CNTs composites, and these studies have shown that MWCNTs are as effective as the SWCNTs for the enhancement of NR properties. For instance, Jose et al. [33] used a two-roll mixing mill to prepare NR-MWCNTs composites, and found that MWCNTs were uniformly dispersed into the NR matrix (seeFigure 4), which resulted to enhanced thermal, mechanical and electrical conductivity properties of NR.
Figure 4.
Schematic representation of uniformly dispersed MWCNTs into NR matrix [33].
Isoprene rubber (IR) has applications that are similar to those of NR; e.g., it is typically used to manufacture the deep-sea cables insulating materials [90]. This is because IR has good electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding property, which is important for rubber application in the electronics sector, and has been found to be proportional to electrical conductivity properties, i.e., the higher the electrical conductivity values, the higher the EMI shielding effectiveness [17]. IR is also employed in manufacturing the anti-vibration mounts, drive couplings and bearings; therefore, it is the best rubber especially for electronics that are exposed to high vibrations and pressure, including washing machines, engine seals and belts, as well as machines and instruments that supply power through mechanical forces [17, 90]. Wang et al. [17] have shown that the electronics rubber materials that are made of IR and CNTs exhibit high flexibility, and outstanding mechanical, electrical conductivity and EMI shielding properties, and this is mainly because CNTs are one-dimensional (1D) materials in comparison to the traditional filler (i.e., CB) that is zero-dimensional. They explained that the CNTs properties were successfully explored because of the excellent uniform dispersion of these nanomaterials into the IR matrix, and the SEM micrograph, including those of CB, can be seen in Figure 5. While CNTs exhibited an outstanding uniform dispersion into the IR matrix even at high content (20 wt.%), some small spherical or cluster-like aggregations for CB-IR composites were observed.
Figure 5.
SEM micrograph of IR-based composites: (a1) IR-CB composite with 10 wt.% CB content, (b1) IR-CNTs composite with 10 wt.% CNTs content, (a2) IR-CB composite with 20 wt.% CB content and (b2) IR-CNTs composite with 20 wt.% CNTs content [17].
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) rubber is well-known for its outdoor applications. Considering the fact that it is the most water-resistant rubber and capable of resisting failure (abrasion, tear and degradation) during harsh weather conditions, i.e., ozone, UV ray, low-high temperature, steam and flame exposure, it is regarded as the best rubber for making seals, hoses, isolators, gaskets, roll covers, tubes, wires and cables especially for outdoor electronics, including power transformers, distribution automation devices, street lights, engines and cameras [90]. CNTs have been shown to significantly further improve the properties of EPDM for potential electronics applications. Bizhani et al. [69] prepared the EPDM-MWCNTs composite foams, as illustrated by Figure 6, to make an industrially scalable lightweight rubber material. Based on the cryofracture surfaces of the EPDM-MWCNTs composites that were visualized using SEM, as can be seen in Figure 7, to study the nature of MWCNTs dispersion in the EPDM matrix, the authors claimed to have successfully achieved EPDM-MWCNTs composite foams with a good interfacial interaction.
Figure 6.
Preparation of vulcanized EPDM-MWCNTs composite foams [69].
Figure 7.
SEM micrograph of EPDM-MWCNTs composite foams: (a) with 0, (b) with 2, (d) with 6 and (e) with 10 phr MWCNTs content. (c) and (f) are micrograph of filler within the morphology [69].
Due to the development of a good three-dimensional (3D) interconnected network between MWCNTs and EPDM matrix, the authors [69] found that MWCNTs enhanced thermal conductivity (up to 0.2 W/m·K), electrical conductivity (up to 2.7 ×10−4 S/cm) and EMI shielding efficiency (up to 45 dB) properties of the EPDM-MWCNTs foams, and that they do not significantly deteriorate with continuous deformation through bending, as can be seen in Figure 8. These properties, as well as observed high flexibility and lightweight wave absorber capability, of the EPDM-MWCNTs composite foams indicate that these foams may be best suited for several applications, including lightweight portable devices like cell phones.
Figure 8.
Vulcanized solid and foamed EPDM-MWCNTs composites before and after bending [69].
Researchers [6, 70, 71] have also used high-shear mixing method to prepare the EPDM-MWCNTs composites and found that MWCNTs significantly increased the UTS and M, while reducing the εb of EPDM, due to both the good uniform distribution of MWCNTs within the EPDM matrix and the effective EPDM-MWCNTs bonding. Chougule et al. [6] explained that functional groups that are randomly orientated on the MWCNTs surface typically impacts both the level and type of interfacial bonding between MWCNTs and the EPDM matrix. MWCNTs were found to cause the swelling behavior of EPDM to decrease while increasing its electrical conductivity [6, 70]. Additionally, other authors [70] obtained the strain response that showed piezoresistivity behavior under deformation, and this indicates that the EPDM-MWCNTs composite materials have a great potential for being used as flexible strain-sensitive materials. This has also been shown by Haj-Ali et al. [91].
5.3 Silicone rubber-CNTs composites
Silicone rubber (Q) is considered an inorganic–organic hybrid polymer because of the inorganic silicon-oxygen main chain with two organic groups bonded to each silicone center. As can be seen in Table 3, silicone rubbers can be divided based on their pendant group structure, which function to improve the natural properties of Q. Its major application is in the electronics sector mainly because of its non-toxicity, aging resistance at high temperatures, good flame resistance, chemical stability, electrical insulating and weatherability [90, 92].
Rubber-CNTs composites
Effect of CNTs on the rubber properties
Applications in the electronics sector
References
Natural rubber-CNTs
Increased ultimate tensile strength (UTS), modulus (M), tear strength, hardness and dynamic mechanical properties; decreased elongation at break (εb); and enhanced thermal stability, chemical stability, electrical (direct and alternating current) conductivity and abrasion resistance.
Electronics gaskets, insulating electrical wires and deep-sea cables, as well as electronics that are exposed to high vibrations and pressure such as washing machines, engine seals and belts.
Increased UTS, elastic M and hardness; decreased εb; improved thermal stability and conductivity; enhanced electrical conductivity, flexibility, and stretch-ability; and improved strain sensitivity and sensing linearity for pressure.
Cables, potting and encapsulation, particularly as sealing and insulating materials for energy transmission and distribution, electronic utility systems, high frequency communications, wearable electronics, health performance monitoring and automotive electronics.
Increased UTS, stiffness, M, tear strength and hardness; decreased εb; improved thermal stability and abrasion resistance; and reduced thermogenesis and flammability.
Pressure sensors, capacitive sensors and solar cells.
Increased UTS, fracture strength, M, hardness, toughness strength, abrasion resistance and εb; and improved thermal stability and electrical conductivity.
Sealing for all kinds of appliances, machine tapes and power transmission belts.
CNTs are typically incorporated into Q to mainly enhance the mechanical properties, surface hydrophobicity, thermal and electrical conductivity of the resulting Q-CNTs composites. These composites, particularly the ones with liquid Q, have been reported to be very useful in high-voltage indoor and outdoor systems, and CNTs function by extending the service life of Q in such applications [92, 93]. Since Q-CNTs composites are heat, fire and chemically resistant with excellent electrical conductivity and weatherability, they can ideally be employed in the cable, potting and encapsulation sector, particularly as sealing and insulating materials for energy transmission and distribution, electronic utility systems, high frequency communications, wearable electronics, soft robotics, health and sport performance monitoring, oil drilling and automotive electronics [74, 75, 92, 93, 94, 95]. Additionally, silicon-CNTs micropatterns can be fabricated and used in biomedical and chemical sensors, tissue engineering, drug screening, and optical devices [92]. Yanagizawa et al. [96] have prepared Q-CNTs composites and studied the effect of these nanomaterials on their water repellency. The authors observed an increase in contact angle on incorporation of just 1 wt.% of CNTs content, and that CNTs significantly improved repellency. This study aimed mainly at making the CNTs-based rubber roofing materials that are resistant to snow build-up in regions of high snowfall [5]. Li et al. [15] and Bannych et al. [75] observed a rapid increase in electrical conductivity of the Q-MWCNTs composites, after which it slowly changed when the MWCNTs content was above 1 wt.%. They reported that these trends are due to MWCNTs having a large aspect ratio, and therefore a small quantity in the rubber matrix can form an effective effectual conductive path. Typically, the electrical conductivity of the insulator is less than 10−8 S/m while that of the conductor is approximately 105 S/m [15, 97]. Hence, Q-MWCNTs composites are suitable to be used as semiconductor materials [15]. Based on this suggestion, the authors [15] also conducted the Seebeck coefficient test and found that the Seebeck coefficient of the Q-MWCNTs slightly decreases with an increase in MWCNTs content, and it decreases with an increase in electrical conductivity (seeFigure 9). The thermal conductivity was found to increase with an increase in MWCNTs content. Although some aggregates of MWCNTs are seen within the Q matrix in the SEM micrograph of the prepared Q-MWCNTs composite (seeFigure 10), an increase in electrical and thermal conductivity has been attributed to uniform distribution of MWCNTs in Q matrix and the good interfacial bonding between MWCNTs and Q matrix [15]. Bright filament-like substances that appear on this SEM micrograph are due to MWCNTs.
Figure 9.
Seebeck coefficient results: (a) dependent on the MWCNTs content and (b) dependent on electrical conductivity [15].
Figure 10.
SEM micrograph of Q-MWCNTs composite with 1 wt.% MWCNTs content [15].
Kim et al. [50] successfully prepared, via melt mixing method, a highly stretchable and conductive Q-SWCNTs gel composite as illustrated in Figure 11. The authors firstly produced the SWCNTs gels by grounding, using a mortar and pestle, the SWCNTs with a room temperature ionic liquid (IL) called 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide. Using an ultrasonic bath, gels were immersed in a solvent (toluene) for about 1 h to produce a solution of about 1 mg/ml concentration, after which it was homogenized with Q by stirring for about 3 h. The electrodes were made by spraying the Q-SWCNTs-IL solution onto acrylic elastomeric substrates through a contact mask and drying the samples on a hot plate for 3 h and in an ambient temperature vacuum for 24 h. The Q-SWCNTs composite electrodes were also treated with nitric acid by placing them for 30 min in a saturated acid vapor environment of 70°C, after which they were subjected to a vacuum oven at 25°C for 24 h.
Figure 11.
Schematic representation of the preparation of Q-SWCNTs composite electrodes [50].
The uniform dispersion of conducting SWCNTs within the Q matrix was shown by the microstructural analyses presented by Figure 12. This led to obtaining a composite material that is stretchable for three times its length, while maintaining its high electrical conductivity (18 S/cm) even after prolonged and continuous deformation. Hence, such materials can be best suited for wearable and stretchable conductors and strain sensors that need a constant conductivity when an intense deformation is applied [36, 50, 98].
Figure 12.
Microstructural analyses of fractured regions of Q-SWCNTs composite sample with 4 wt.% SWCNTs content: (a) SEM micrograph and (b) atomic force microscope (AFM) micrograph (Amplitude represented in height difference, and current represented in color gradient) [50].
Katihabwa et al. [73] and Shang et al. [72] also studied the effect of CNTs, particularly the multi-walled type, on the mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of the Q. Although different composite preparation methods were employed, the authors achieved a uniform dispersion of MWCNTs into the Q matrix which consequently led to the enhancement of the studied properties with an increase in the MWCNTs content in the composites. Shang et al. [72] also studied the relative resistance change (R/R0) of the Q-MWCNTs composites when applied to elastic deformation (bending and twisting) of different angles. It can be seen in Figure 13 that as the MWCNTs content reached 8 wt.% (and higher), the R/R0 change values were smaller, meaning that there was a firm and continuous MWCNTs conducting network within the rubber matrix [72]. Hence, the prepared Q-MWCNTs composites have a great potential in the field of conductive elastomer or pressure sensors [72]. The uniform distribution of MWCNTs within Q matrix was achieved regardless of the filler content, as can be seen in Figure 14(a)–(d), and this was reported to be due to the employed compatibilizer, i.e., chitosan salt, that increased the interactions between MWCNTs and Q matrix [72].
Figure 13.
Relative resistance change of the Q-MWCNTs composites at different deformation angles [72].
Figure 14.
SEM micrograph of Q-MWCNTs composites: (a) with 4, (b) with 6, (c) with 8 and (d) with 11 wt.% MWCNTs content [72].
5.4 Styrene butadiene rubber-CNTs composites
Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) has generally been employed in electronics sector because of its good elasticity and resistance to radiation, abrasion, aging, weather and ozone. However, its properties are strongly reliant on the reinforcements [90]. Researchers [24, 41, 76, 77, 83] have reinforced the NR-SBR blend, and the results showed that MWCNTs increased the UTS, M, storage modulus, and thermal stability of the blend. This could be due to good dispersion of MWCNTs into the blend and a strong interaction between MWCNTs and the matrices of both rubbers, indicating that MWCNTs have good affinity for both NR and SBR. Gao et al. [24] also reported an improvement of the abrasion resistance of the NR-SBR (80–20 phr) blend with 5 phr MWCNTs content, which was due to the synergistic effect of MWCNTs. The authors [24] showed, by SEM and TEM (seeFigure 15(a) and (b)), that MWCNTs can come into contact with each other and that they were uniformly distributed within NR-SBR blend matrix; meaning that a good interface cohesion between MWCNTs and the blend matrix was successfully achieved, which consequently led to obtained properties. Additionally, it was reported that, based on TEM micrograph in Figure 15(b), MWCNTs can form the bridges between the CB aggregations if the CNTs/CB hybrid filler is used for rubber reinforcement [24].
Figure 15.
Electron microscope micrographs: (a) SEM image of NR-SBR-MWCNTs composite with 5 phr filler content and (b) TEM image of NR-SBR-MWCNTs-CB composite with 5 phr MWCNTs and 27.5 phr CB content [24].
Rather than blending rubbers, Liu et al. [78] mixed a reduced graphene oxide (rGO) with MWCNTs to form rGO-MWCNTs hybrid filler, which was used to prepare SBR-rGO-MWCNTs composites, as illustrated in Figure 16. According to the authors [78], the employed hydrothermal step facilitated the prevention of restacking of graphene sheets and agglomeration of MWCNTs, and therefore obtaining a significant increase in electrical conductivity and thermal stability of the SBR-rGO-MWCNTs composites with an increase in the rGO-MWCNTs hybrid filler content. The distribution of rGO-MWCNTs hybrid filler within SBR matrix can be seen in Figure 17. MWCNTs content of 10.4 wt.% gave about 3.62 S/cm of electrical conductivity of the composite, of which this was 14 orders of magnitude higher than that of unreinforced SBR. Additionally, it was reported that SBR-rGO-MWCNTs composites can retain high electrical conductivity mostly under low tensile strain. Due to the one-and two-dimensional interconnected network, formed through MWCNTs bonding with rGO sheets, SBR-rGO-MWCNTs composites can be tailored for electronics that require highly conductive and stretchable rubber materials [78].
Figure 16.
Fabrication of rGO-MWCNTs hybrid and SBR-rGO-MWCNTs composites [78].
Figure 17.
(a, b) SEM and (c) TEM images of SBR-rGO-MWCNTs composite and (d) schematic representation of the redistribution of the filler hybrids within SBR composite under elastic deformation [78].
5.5 Nitrile butadiene rubber-CNTs composites
Nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) is commonly used in making hoses, joints, sealing and roll covering materials. However, there is a growing demand for its use in electronics applications. NBR can be blended with other rubbers to improve its thermal stability and gas resistance, as well as weatherability [90]. Similar to Kim et al. [50], Wang et al. [82] also employed an ionic liquid (IL) (1-aminoethyl-3methylimidazolium bis ((trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl) imide), as well as polydopamine (PDA) and (3-Aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (KH550) to functionalize the carboxylated MWCNTs, therefore overcoming their agglomeration, and to promote the stronger carboxylated NBR-MWCNTs (XNBR-MWCNTs) interfacial bonding, which facilitated the formation of the best mechanical and damping properties (seeFigure 18). The effect of functionalizing MWCNTs before they are incorporated into rubber, for the fabrication of nanomaterials-based rubber composites, were visualized by SEM micrograph, and this can be seen in Figure 19(a)–(h). Agglomerated MWCNTs are clearly seen in Figure 19(a), which might have indicated that pristine MWCNTs disperses poorly in XNBR matrix. Substantial crack orientations that are seen in Figure 19(a) are the representation of a reduction in toughness of the XNBR-pristine MWCNTs composite and explains an obtained reduction in damping (loss tan δ) properties [82]. PDA decreased the size and amount of MWCNTs agglomeration in XNBR matrix (seeFigure 19(c), and this was due to hydrogen bonding between MWCNTs-PDA and XNBR matrix [82, 99]. The authors [82] reported that MWCNTs-KH550 (Figure 19(e)) and MWCNTs-IL (Figure 19(g)) had relatively stronger interaction with XNBR, and therefore the large-scale agglomeration was prevented. XNBR-MWCNTs-KH550 (Figure 19(e)) and XNBR-MWCNTs-IL (Figure 19(g)) composites showed only small cracks in the cross-section of XNBR, which indicated that the XNBR toughness was improved by functionalizing MWCNTs before they were incorporated into rubber matrix. Storage modulus of the prepared XNBR-MWCNTs composites was seen to increase by 80% (from 1392 to 2488 MPa) with the incorporation of 2.2 wt.% CNTs-KH550, while the UTS increased from 0.32 to 0.68 MPa by 110% with 3.0 wt.% CNTs-IL. Although other researchers have reported good results of CNTs-based composites that constitute the pristine CNTs, the authors [82] have reported that the failure of damping performance that is often encountered in the field of composites, due to agglomeration of CNTs, can be suppressed by functionalizing the MWCNTs prior the fabrication of MWCNTs-based rubber composites, and this will widen the scope of the application of NBR-MWCNTs composites in the field of electronics.
Figure 18.
Functionalization of MWCNTs and preparation of XNBR-MWCNTs composites with their studied mechanical and damping properties [82].
Figure 19.
Cross-sectional SEM micrograph of XNBR-MWCNTs (3 wt.%) composites with different functionalizing materials: (a, b) XNBR-MWCNTs, (c, d) XNBR-MWCNTs-PDA, (e, f) XNBR-MWCNTs-KH550 and (g, h) XNBR-MWCNTs-IL [82].
Shao et al. [79] observed an improvement in UTS and hardness to about 39% and 101%, respectively, after adding CNTs into NBR, while the εb maintained at high CNTs contents over 100%. They also observed a significant reduction of volume resistivity and an increase in dielectric constant and dielectric loss with an increased CNTs content in the NBR-based nanocomposites. Additionally, the electrical percolation threshold obtained was low (1.5 pph). These results indicated the development of three-dimensional conductive networks in the composites, which meant that NBR-CNTs nanocomposites can provide insulation service to electronics [7, 79]. The presence of MWCNTs in the prepared, via melt and high-shear mixing methods, NBR-MWCNTs composites reduced the swelling behavior while increasing the crosslink density of the composites; consequently increasing their UTS, M, hardness, abrasion resistance and electrical conductivity (with corresponding low percolation threshold value), and significantly decreasing their volume resistivity [6, 18, 80, 81]. These results have been attributed to uniform distribution of MWCNTs into the NBR matrix and the superior interfacial bonding between MWCNTs and the host matrix (NBR) which are due to large aspect ratio of the MWCNTs.
5.6 Fluorocarbon rubber-CNTs composites
Fluorocarbon rubbers, particularly the fluoroelastomer (FKM/FPM), are popular in electronics sector mainly because of their good heat, chemical and abrasion resistance; and does a perfect job for sealing the electronics materials. Seo et al. [100] have proposed a solvent-free encapsulation method to produce the FKM-SWCNTs composite layers that can help protect the electronic components from the physisorbed moisture, water/oxygen molecules. They suggested that this method, with elastomeric poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (e-PVDF-HFP) film lamination, can potentially provide the cost-effective, large-area processable and highly dependable SWCNTs-based thin-film transistors in electronics applications. To study the hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of each layer of SWCNTs-based thin-film transistors, the contact angle measurements of deionized (DI) water on the poly-L-lysine (PLL) solution-treated layer, SWCNTs-deposited layer, and e-PVDF-HFP layer were examined as illustrated by Figure 20(b). The layer that was pretreated with PLL solution appeared to be hydrophilic with an angle of 22.3°, and this was attributed to the hydroxyl and amine groups on the surface of the layer [100]. Due to the annealing process, an angle of this layer increased after the deposition of SWCNTs. However, the substrate retained the hydrophilicity with an angle of 57.9°. On the other hand, the e-PVDF-HFP layer was hydrophobic with an angle of 95.9°, and this was reported to be due to low surface energy that was developed by fluorine atoms in the FKM. As can be seen in Figure 20(a), the hydrophobicity of e-PVDF-HFP layer can therefore be a permanent barrier to moisture, water/oxygen molecules to hamper the physisorption on the surface of SWCNTs and the oxide layer [100].
Figure 20.
(a) Effect of encapsulating a layer of SWCNTs-based thin-film transistors. (b) Optical images of contact angle measurements on different layer surfaces [100].
Hiao et al. [85] prepared, as shown in Figure 21, the porous conductive fluororubber-SWCNTs composites that were said have great stability for pressure sensing applications in electronics sector. They homogenized the pristine SWCNTs with a foaming agent called N,N-dinitrosopentamethylenetetramine (DPT) into 20 ml of methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) using a magnetic stirrer. Dispersion of SWCNTs in MEK was ensured by further sonicating and homogenizing (at 200 W for 10 min) the SWCNTs/DPT mixture, which was then mixed with about 3 g of Daiel-G801 fluororubber. The resultant SWCNTs/G801 suspension (fluororubber-SWCNTs composite) was stirred for 5 h with the aim of dissolving the fluororubber. After being air-dried at ambient temperature for 24 h, the fluororubber-SWCNTs mixture, containing the vulcanizing agents (0.15 g of Luperox F and 0.39 g of triallyl isocyanuric acid), was vulcanized on a hot press machine at about 160°C for 15 min and 180°C for 1 h. The foaming process was initiated by increasing the temperature of the press to about 210°C to obtain a porous structure after about 1 h. To print the conductive silver plates for sensing electrodes (0.5 × 0.5 cm2) on polyimide films, a dispenser was employed. For 30 min, a sensor of the same size, pressed between the two printed electrodes, was baked at about 200°C. The prepared porous pressure-sensitive fluororubber-SWCNTs composites showed the electric resistance variation to compressive stresses with a sensitivity that is as high as 4.31 MPa−1 when the foaming agent (i.e., DPT) was incorporated into the composite; therefore showing a great potential for fast assembly into the printed electronic circuits and utilization in dynamic pressure monitoring applications in the electronics sector [85].
Figure 21.
Preparation of porous conductive fluororubber-MWCNTs composites [85].
The properties of FKM have been seen to improve after the incorporation of MWCNTs [6, 60, 61]. Shajari et al. [61] made stretchable electronics materials, via high-shear mixing method, with FKM and CNTs. The authors observed the high electrically conductive network, with corresponding ultralow percolation thresholds of about 0.45 phr and 1.40 phr CNTs content. These results indicated that the prepared FKM-CNTs composites have a wide range of strain sensitivity. At the first strain conductivity plateau, FKM-CNTs composites gave high sensitivity with a gauge factor of 1010 at about 23% strain for 0.6 phr nanotubes content, and of 6750 at 34% strain for 1 phr content. At the second strain conductivity plateau, the composites gave high sensitivity with high gauge factor of about 4× 104 at about 78% strain for 1.5 phr content, and the composite with 2 phr content corresponded to much higher strain of about 100% with gauge factor of 1.3 × 105. The εb of FKM-CNTs composites was found to be as high as 430% and up to about 232% strain sensitivity. These stretchable and conductive FKM-CNTs composite materials are said to be best suited for wearable electronics, including stretchable sensors and light-emitting diodes (LEDs), as well as human motion monitoring electronics [61]. Yang et al. [60] chemically modified the surface of the MWCNTs to get MWCNTs-COOH, MWCNTs-NH2 and MWCNTs-A1120 filler products, as shown in Figure 22. MWCNTs-COOH was prepared by incorporating pristine MWCNTs into a premixed acid solution of H2SO4 and HNO3 with a volume of ratio of 3:1, after which it was ultrasonically stirred for about 2 h at a temperature of 60°C and washed alternately with deionized water and dehydrated ethyl alcohol. The last step involved the filtration with suction and drying of MWCNTs-COOH in a vacuum oven at 80°C for about 12 h. For MWCNTs-NH2 preparation, MWCNTs-COOH, N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDAC), and 4-Dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) were ultrasonically mixed for about 30 min with dehydrated ethyl alcohol, after which ethylenediamine (EDA) was added and stirred for about 24 h. The resulted product was washed alternately with deionized water and dehydrated ethyl alcohol to remove excess reagents, and therefore achieving pure MWCNTs-NH2. The last functionalized MWCNTs product (i.e., MWCNTs-A1120) was prepared by adding a silane coupling agent A-1120 into a premixed solution of deionized water and dehydrated ethyl alcohol at a weight ratio of ¼ with mixing for 1 h, after which pristine MWCNTs ethyl alcohol dispersion was added into the mixed solution, followed by further mixing for about 3 h.
Figure 22.
Schematic representation of surface modification of MWCNTs [60].
Comparing all prepared functionalized MWCNTs products in Figure 22, MWCNTs-A1120 was reported to have a relatively better interfacial interaction with FKM matrix; therefore, it showed uniform distribution within the matrix, and hence the FKM-MWCNTs-A1120 composite had relatively the best tensile properties (UTS increased by 16.58% compared to that of neat FKM; the εb was maintained above 111% with 0.5 wt.% MWCNTs-A1120 content). The nature of dispersion of MWCNTs-A1120 into FKM matrix is shown by fracture surfaces of FKM-MWCNTs-A1120 composites in Figure 23. At 1 wt.% and 3 wt.% MWCNTs-A1120 contents, MWCNTs-A1120 are seen to be uniformly distributed within the FKM matrix. As the content was increased, MWCNTs-A1120 began to contact each other, forming a conductive network. A dramatic agglomeration began to take place at a loading of 7 wt.% MWCNTs-A1120, which can be seen in Figure 23(d) (red dashed frames).
Figure 23.
SEM micrograph of FKM-MWCNTs-A1120 composites: (a) with 1, (b) with 3, (c) with 5 and (d) with 7 wt.% MWCNTs-A1120 content [60].
Uniform distribution of MWCNTs-A1120 within FKM matrix is attributed to the carbon–carbon double bond (▬C〓C▬), formed in FKM molecular chain during vulcanization process, that chemically bonded to the amino group on MWCNTs-A1120, resulting to a strong interface between MWCNTs-A1120 and FKM matrix [60, 101]. This phenomenon also explains why the composites containing amino MWCNTs (i.e., MWCNTs-NH2 and MWCNTs-A1120) had outstanding tensile properties [60]. In addition to tensile properties, MWCNTs-A1120 seemed to enhance the electrical properties of FKM-MWCNTs-A1120 composite. As the loading of MWCNTs-A1120 was increased, the dielectric constant and dielectric loss of the FKM-MWCNTs-A1120 composite also increased, and the volume resistivity decreased. When the doping concentration of MWCNTs-A1120 reached 5 wt.%, the dielectric constant and dielectric loss of FKM-MWCNTs-A1120 composite increased significantly, and the volume resistivity got reduced. The authors [60] reported that since a conductive network can be formed by MWCNTs-A1120 product, the doping concentration of 5 wt.% MWCNTs-A1120 can be taken as the percolation threshold of the FKM-MWCNTs-A1120 composite. Nonetheless, as the tensile deformation increased, the dielectric constant and dielectric loss of the composite decreased, and the volume resistivity increased. This may be an indication that the tensile deformation can increase the spacing of the conductive filler or even destroy the conductive network structure, and hence influence the electrical properties of the materials [60]. Therefore, the great potential applications for FKM/MWCNTs-A1120 composites include flexible dielectric and flexible conductive materials [60].
6. Overview of rubber-CNTs composites for electronics
Electronics rubbers generally have some good and poor properties, and their good properties are due to their stable backbone structure and are the main factors that prompted the initial interest for the use of rubber in electronics. For instance, rubbers like NBR, EPDM and FKM are known to have high lifetime or life expectancy, with FKM having relatively the highest, as it has been shown by their hardness and compression set properties which were studied on their O-ring seals after aging for five-years at various temperatures [14]. With the current transition from CB to CNTs due to superior properties and performances of the latter relative to the former, literature has reported that rubber-CNTs composites are currently the major application area for CNTs in the reinforcement of rubbers. Since rubber materials for electronic components need to be precisely shaped to provide proper insulation, electric shock absorption, chemical and thermal resistance and high mechanical strength, and yet be easy to use in the manufacturing and installation of the end product, several researchers have reported that CNTs are the future reinforcing materials for rubbers used in electronics, in partial or complete replacement of conventional fillers, due to the fact that rubber compounds containing CNTs have relatively ultralight weight, extremely high flexibility, and superior chemical, thermal and mechanical properties [2, 8, 35, 49, 102]. Owing to their extremely large surface area, CNTs are expected to enhance the matrices of the electronics rubbers and thereby enhancing their poor properties and further improving their good properties to produce rubber-CNTs composite materials with excellent properties [2, 34, 36, 49].
7. Conclusions
It is notable that rubber-CNTs composites present an array of possibilities for their use in electronics industry. Rubbers such as EPDM, Q, SBR, NBR, FKM/FPM, IR and neoprene are commonly used and often reinforced with conventional fillers to strengthen, insulate and seal the electronic components, including electronic circuits, wires and cables; and thereby protecting them from exposure to high-stress and extreme environments, which normally causes problems that may lead to catastrophic breakdown of the electronic machines and instruments [5, 6, 7, 9, 16]. Although the present study found that carbon black (CB) is widely used to reinforce electronics rubber materials, there is also some evidence on the use of CNTs as rubber reinforcing materials, even for rubber materials used in the electronics industry.
The studies about reinforcement of electronics rubbers using CNTs showed that even though CNTs are used only in minute quantities compared to CB, they result in outstanding properties and performances of composites. Several researchers strongly believe that rubber-CNTs composites are futuristic materials mainly for the electrical and thermal insulation since CNTs (both SWCNTs and MWCNTs) can form a conducting network within the composite material at contents that are above the certain minimum value called the percolation threshold.
The properties and performances of the rubber-SWCNTs and rubber-MWCNTs composites are often dependent on the rubber reinforcement quality which is defined by the extent of dispersion of CNTs in the rubber matrix, level of CNTs wetting with rubber, and degree of interfacial bonding between CNTs and the rubber matrix [8, 13, 21, 38]. Surface modification of CNTs and optimization of the ratio of CNTs to the amount of rubber seems to be the main factors that can possibly lead to high exploitation of the properties and performances of rubber-CNTs materials in the electronics application. The suitability of rubber-CNTs composites for the manufacturing of electronics rubber materials is based on that their properties meet most of the specifications for these materials, i.e., rubber-CNTs composites are flexible and light in weight for easy installation and are capable of resisting prolonged vibrations, high strain/pressure and most substances that may cause rubber fatigue and cracks, and therefore expose the electronics to damage [2, 6, 7, 16, 45]. Additionally, rubber compounds reinforced with CNTs can be made to be relatively cost-effective for the manufacturing and maintenance of the CNTs reinforced electronics rubber materials [5, 39, 87]. The performance of SWCNTs is comparable to that of MWCNTs in both the functional and structural composites. However, rubbers like Q are typically expensive, and therefore their nanocomposites often constitute MWCNTs rather than SWCNTs because the former is relatively much cheaper to fabricate than the latter. The preference of conductive SWCNTs filler over MWCNTs by some researchers is due to that the former can result in relatively better homogeneity during the fabrication of rubber composites especially for pressure-sensitive rubber materials. For conductive MWCNTs, it is suggested that the MWCNTs are functionalized before they are incorporated into the rubber matrix, especially for flexible dielectric and flexible conductive materials.
Currently, the preparation of rubber-CNTs composites seems to be dominantly done at the laboratory scale. Therefore, when scaling up for mass production for CNTs reinforced electronics rubber materials in the future, the main challenge that the researchers could potentially still face is to come up with practical ways of overcoming the parameters that typically affect the properties and performance of CNTs in the prepared rubber-CNTs composites.
Acknowledgments
Funding support from the National Research Foundation and Nelson Mandela University is appreciated.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"carbon nanotubes, electronics, rubber-carbon nanotubes composites, nanoscale filler, rubber properties",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73704.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73704.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73704",totalDownloads:414,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 4th 2020",dateReviewed:"September 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 3rd 2020",datePublished:"October 13th 2021",dateFinished:"October 21st 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The field of electronics involves complex systems where the active and passive electronic devices are integrated on the rubber substrate, e.g., silicone (Q), which provides, through potting, a strong assembly of these devices on the circuit board. Several other rubbers are employed in the field to strengthen, insulate and seal the components of the electronic machines and instruments, and therefore protect them against damage. These rubbers are typically strengthened and toughened using carbon black (CB). However, due to its noticeable drawbacks, recent research in the field of rubber and electronics has suggested the use of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as alternative reinforcing fillers to produce electronics rubber composites that do not only have enhanced electrical conductiv¬ity, thermal stability, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, weatherability and insulation properties, but also offer outstanding stretchability, bendability and tear strength under frequent elastic deformation. These performances are similar for both single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in both the functional and structural composites. Although SWCNTs can result in relatively better homogeneity than MWCNTs, most rubbers often constitute MWCNTs because they are relatively cheaper. The great potential of rubber-CNTs composites being extensively used in the field of electronics is explored in this chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73704",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73704",signatures:"Jabulani I. Gumede, James Carson and Shanganyane P. Hlangothi",book:{id:"9913",type:"book",title:"Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:"Redefining the World of Electronics",fullTitle:"Carbon Nanotubes - Redefining the World of Electronics",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-redefining-the-world-of-electronics",publishedDate:"October 13th 2021",bookSignature:"Prasanta Kumar Ghosh, Kunal Datta and Arti Dinkarrao Rushi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9913.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-185-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-184-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-186-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"294687",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanta",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prasanta-ghosh",fullName:"Prasanta Ghosh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"323225",title:"Mr.",name:"Jabulani I.",middleName:null,surname:"Gumede",fullName:"Jabulani I. Gumede",slug:"jabulani-i.-gumede",email:"s216281547@mandela.ac.za",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Nelson Mandela University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"327670",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Carson",fullName:"James Carson",slug:"james-carson",email:"james.carson@mandela.ac.za",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Nelson Mandela University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"327671",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanganyane P.",middleName:null,surname:"Hlangothi",fullName:"Shanganyane P. Hlangothi",slug:"shanganyane-p.-hlangothi",email:"percy.hlangothi@mandela.ac.za",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/327671/images/14077_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Nelson Mandela University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Structure and properties of carbon nanotubes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Carbon nanotubes and carbon black as reinforcing fillers in carbon-based rubber composites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Parameters affecting the properties of rubber-CNTs composites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Effect of CNTs (SWCNTs and MWCNTs) on various properties of rubber-carbon nanotubes composites for electronics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Natural rubber-CNTs and isoprene rubber-CNTs composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber-CNTs composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Silicone rubber-CNTs composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Styrene butadiene rubber-CNTs composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5 Nitrile butadiene rubber-CNTs composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.6 Fluorocarbon rubber-CNTs composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Overview of rubber-CNTs composites for electronics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kausar A, Rafique I, Muhammad B. Review of applications of polymer/carbon nanotubes and epoxy/CNT composites. 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Journal of Nanotechnology. 2013;1-7. DOI: 10.1155/2013/296517'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jabulani I. Gumede",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Centre for Rubber Science and Technology, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Department of Chemistry, Centre for Rubber Science and Technology, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shanganyane P. Hlangothi",address:"percy.hlangothi@mandela.ac.za",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Centre for Rubber Science and Technology, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
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In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel throughout the world to present our publications and support our Authors and Academic Editors. We attend international symposia, conferences, workshops and book fairs as well as business meetings with science, academic and publishing professionals. Take a look at the current events.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen events",metaDescription:"In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel worldwide to present our publications, authors and editors at international symposia, conferences, and workshops, as well as attend business meetings with science, academia and publishing professionals. We are always happy to host our scientists in our office to discuss further collaborations. Take a look at where we’ve been, who we’ve met and where we’re going.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/events",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Upcoming Events
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IntechOpen Journals Webinar - Introduction to Open Science
26 November - 04 December 2022, Guadalajara, Mexico
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IntechOpen Represented by LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones SA de CV
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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. 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Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
",annualVolume:11399,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"190041",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez Fernandez",fullName:"Jose Gutierrez Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Granada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",institutionString:"Sapienza University",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa Oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164933/images/system/164933.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge",institution:{name:"National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",annualVolume:11400,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",annualVolume:11401,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",annualVolume:11402,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/112633",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"112633"},fullPath:"/profiles/112633",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()