\r\n\tAn update on clinical manifestations, their assessment, monitoring, and imagiology, including peripheral arthritis, enthesopathy, and extra-articular findings, and, the differential diagnosis with other diseases which evolves with axial and peripheral calcifications will be provided.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
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1. Introduction
SARS-CoV-2 is a relatively large virus with single-stranded RNA genome, belongs to beta coronaviruses that affects the lower respiratory system to cause viral pneumonia. The gastrointestinal system, kidney, heart, liver, and central nervous system may also be attacked leading to multiple organ failure. It is surrounded by an envelope composed of a lipid bilayer and envelope proteins [1].
1.1 The life cycle of COVID-19
The COVID-19 viral infection is mediated by three main stages: the first one involves host cell entry through endocytosis and transportation proteins; the second stage initiates viral RNA translation to polyprotein, which is subjected to cleavage by the main viral proteinases Mpro and Papain-like proteases PLpro to produce the effector proteins; in the final stage, the negative-strand viral RNA is translocated to the Golgi apparatus to produce new virions, and the newly produced virus are released by exocytosis [1].
1.2 Host cell viral entry and nuclear translocation
The viral entry was found to be mediated by endocytic pathways, which is initiated by the binding of spike protein (S protein), a protein found on the envelope of the virus, to a receptor protein located on the host cell surface membrane, known as angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). The S protein is cleaved into S1 and S2 by a human cell-derived protease that is assumed to be Furin. S1 then binds to its receptor, ACE2. The other fragment, S2, is cleaved by TMPRSS2, a serine protease. Thus, ACE2 and TMPRSS2 are essential in airway cells for SARS-CoV-2 infection [2].
Also the viral entry was found to be facilitated through endocytosis [3], especially clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) helps in translocation of ACE-2/virus complex to endosome where the virus is uncoated by the action of acidic proteases such as cathepsins, which are cysteine proteases in host cells involved in facilitating viral entry of several viruses such as SARS-COV and MERS-COV [4]. It’s worthy to note that cathepsins are also involved in S protein cleavage [5, 6].
After uncoating, the viral RNA expression and replication require subcellular localization of viral and cellular proteins from cytoplasm to the nucleus. The viral infection induces the translocation and expression of group of suprafamily protein in the host cells called karyopherin, Importins (IMP) α/β heterodimer. These proteins are reported to be utilized by the virus not only for translocation purposes, but also for disruption of self-antiviral defenses in response to interferon via intervening with the nuclear import of signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins (STAT). Chromosome Region Maintenance-1 (CRM1) is one of those proteins that contribute significantly in nuclear export of viral protein and RNA in wide range of viruses [7].
1.3 Translation of viral RNA to nonstructural protein
The SARS-Cov-2 genome has a large replicase gene, which contains nonstructural proteins (NSPs), structural proteins, and accessory genes. The replicase gene encodes two open reading frames (ORFs) after frameshifting, translated into two large polyproteins pp1a and pp1ab, then processed by two viral proteases: papain-like protease (PLpro, encoded within Nsp3) and Mpro aslo called 3C-like protease (3CLpro, encoded by Nsp5) to produce 16 viral Nsps that their function has been linked to RNA replication. PLpro is believed to play important role to protect the virus from immune response by inactivating ubiquitin-dependent cellular responses to viral infection and blocking of cytokine production [8, 9].
1.4 Genome replication and production of new viruses
After cell invasion, a full-length negative-strand RNA template is synthesized by nonstructural protein 12 (Nsp12) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) to produce more viral genomic RNA [10].
Another important nonstructural protein is RNA helicase, which has main role in the replication of viruses by catalyze unwinding of double-stranded RNA. It is structurally conserved among different types of viruses, thereby making it an excellent target for development of broad-spectrum antiviral agents [11, 12].
1.5 Translation of structural protein virion assembly and release
In this stage, the viral RNA is translocated to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where it is translated to transmembrane structural proteins (S, HE, M, and E) and some membrane-associated accessory proteins, except for the N protein, which is translated by free ribosomes in the cytoplasm [13]. These structural proteins play the main role in virion morphogenesis and the structural components recruitment to the proper assembly site. Then they are released from the cell by exocytosis by the help of several host factors [14].
However, in the COVID-19 pandemic, an integrated approach encompassing prophylaxis, diagnosis, and treatment must be adopted worldwide.
2. Approaches for prophylaxis, diagnosis, and therapy
Among the top priorities for regulating and monitoring COVID-19 are:
An appropriate prophylactic procedure (vaccination).
Accurate diagnostic battery.
An unambiguous therapeutic regimen.
2.1 An appropriate prophylactic procedure (vaccination)
WHO stated that “vaccine must supply a quite convenient beneficial environment for dealing with jeopardy; with high performance, only passing with mild effects and with no danger effects.” The vaccine should be appropriate for lactating, gravid women and for all ages and has many production sources dwell in high-, middle-, and low-income countries [15]. There is a race among several pharmaceutical companies to provide a treatment for COVID-19. Unfortunately, this completion had led to a big controversy, which was refuted by WHO issued on 20 November 2020 “there is a conditional recommendation against the use of remdesivir since there isn’t enough evidence to support its use.” Moreover, WHO has issued a conditional recommendation against the use of remdesivir in hospitalized patients, regardless of disease severity, as there is currently no evidence that remdesivir improves survival and other outcomes in these patients (https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/who-recommends-against-the-use-of-remdesivir-in-covid-19-patients).
However, by the end of 2020 (exactly December 2020), Pfizer/BioNTech was able to get an Emergency Use Listing approval (EUL) for vaccine against COVID-19. Currently and as reported by on January 20th, 2022, nine vaccines were granted EUL status [16, 17].
The Pfizer/BioNTech Comirnaty vaccine, 31 December 2020.
The SII/COVISHIELD and AstraZeneca/AZD1222 vaccines, 16 February 2021.
The Janssen/Ad26.COV 2.S vaccine developed by Johnson & Johnson, 12 March 2021.
The Moderna COVID-19 vaccine (mRNA 1273), 30 April 2021.
The Sinopharm COVID-19 vaccine, 7 May 2021.
The Sinovac-CoronaVac vaccine, 1 June 2021.
The Bharat Biotech BBV152 COVAXIN vaccine, 3 November 2021.
The Covovax (NVX-CoV2373) vaccine, 17 December 2021.
The Nuvaxovid (NVX-CoV2373) vaccine, 20 December 2021
2.2 Diagnosis
2.2.1 Clinical laboratory
The clinical laboratory is an important and essential tool for the diagnosis, follow-up, and evolution, as well as in the prognosis of any pathology that is active or not. In the COVID-19 pandemic, several biomarkers’ involvement as indicators of the disease’s current state has been reported, while others have proved to be useful prognostic markers. Some of these characteristics are as follows [18].
General laboratory findings in SARS-CoV-2 infection sometimes indicate leukocytosis or leukopenia, with marked lymphopenia in the disease’s first stages. Besides, the neutrophilia presence has been related to an unfavorable prognosis [19].
Thrombocytopenia, lymphopenia, thrombocytopenia, D-dimer, elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) (happened repeatedly in critical cases), and leukopenia are not distinctive laboratory factors [20].
COVID-19 patients who have diabetes mellitus of type 2 (T2DM) expressed minimized levels of lymphocytes, body mass index (BMI), albumin, and uric acid (UA), and increased CRP levels. The reduced levels of albumin, UA, and BMI may be related to nutritional consumption and oxidative stress response. The increased CRP levels and decreased lymphocyte counts may be related to the infection [21].
2.2.2 Imaging
Medical imaging, such as Computed Tomography (CT) and X-ray, plays a significant function in the combat against the pandemic. So, the current AI methods can be used to help medical specialists and strengthen imaging tools. Also, AI could also increase work performance by effective detection of CT and X-ray diseases. The Computer-Aided Diagnosis (CAD) models enable physicians to take correct clinical choices on disease diagnosis, monitoring, and prognosis [22]. Many radiological characteristics are used to categorize the disease and help in discovering the treatment, such as the following:
The most direct method to identify the degree of disease is imaging, as it is effective and accurate. Consolidation and diffuse lesions are features of severe pneumonia. Doubled ground-glass opacity, unification, and interlobular septal thick ply in the right and left lungs are the popular chest CT discoveries for COVID-19, which are particularly spread under the pleura. The serious part of the pandemic diagnosis and examination is computed tomography [23].
A sensitive examination method is called spiral CT. It can be used for diagnosis in the early stages and estimation of development. This method has diagnostic allergy and precision preferable to the disclosure of nucleic acid [24]. During the first week of the illness, appearance and blended predominance with opacity in the lower lung are quite dubious of COVID-19. However, few illness cases may have a normal chest outcome despite positive testing for COVID-19 [25].
The proportion of infected cases with mild COVID-19 symptoms was relatively high-rise. Misdiagnosis in some cases can result from checking for COVID-19 with only chest CT, which would result in a possibility of contagion risk. It was not appropriate as a separate screening device. Visual, quantitative interpretation depended on CT images with great diagnostic capability and good matchmaking. It can help in clinical classification; it is predictable to strictly evaluate the severe COVID-19 cases and combining with the clinical information to guide the clinical treatment [26].
2.3 Therapy
Therapeutic interferences can be categorized into four main classes: general treatment, antiviral treatments, particular medications, and other medications.
The effectiveness and safety of COVID-19 have been tested using several drugs, such as chloroquine, remdesivir, favipiravir, and hydroxychloroquine. Some of them had presented antiviral impacts against COVID-19 but no conclusive evidences [27].
Although the serious disease has been related to hyperinflammation induced by COVID-19, the immune responses of acute COVID-19 stay ambiguous. Some researchers comprehensively analyzed circumferential immune troubles in blood for 42 recovered and infected by COVID-19. The activation of various immune strains is recognized, including oligoclonal plasmablast expansion, trafficking receptor modulation on granulocytes, innate lymphocytes, and T cell activation, which separated acute COVID-19 patients or moderate-severe patients from healthy donors or COVID-19-recovered. One of the predictive biomarkers is the ratio between neutrophil and lymphocyte of organ failure and disease gravity. Results appeared wide innate and adaptive leukocyte annoyances that characterize dysregulated have an infection in extreme COVID-19 disease, and medication examination is required. There were no efficacious antiviral medications, even common drugs with strong effect as abidol, ritonavir/lopinavir showed no exceptional impact on clinical progression, virus clearance, or deaths [28].
The meta-analysis of corticosteroid treatment and available observational studies suggested maximized death rates and subaltern contagion rates in influenza, maximized viremia, weakened antibody response, and weakened infection riddance MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV, and corticosteroid treatment complications in recovered patients [29]. Therefore, in the medication of COVID-19, corticosteroids should not be supported or even applied for acute patients.
The plasma of convalescent for severe influenza infection and SARS-CoV medication was proposed to minimize the mortality rate and days number in hospital, particularly after symptom appearance and administered plasma early [30].
As for inoculation, if any cross-reactive epitopes were recognized among COVID-19 and SARS-CoV, the preceding vaccine of SARS-CoV might be reused to expedite the COVID-19 vaccine progression. It is recommended for prophylaxis, streptococcus pneumonia, and influenza vaccination, especially in the elderly [31].
2.4 Drug repurposing and COVID-19
Drug repurposing is also a quick tool that creates a shortcut to find a safe and effective therapy for this exciting pandemic. It depends on the fact that their safety profile, side effects, posology, and drug interactions are well known [27]. Currently, several FDA-approved drugs are tested for their potential to treat COVID-19 infection such as lopinavir, chloroquine, azithromycin, hydroxychloroquine, favipiravir, umifenovir, ribavirin, remdesivir, and darunavir have been tested in many COVID-19 clinical experiments for hopeful use under emergency protocol. Unfortunately, none of these tested drugs showed a conclusive results and satisfactory outcomes among treated patients. Therefore, several studies used in silico tools for prediction of the ability of drugs to interact with molecular targets important for viral replications.
In that aspect, the liver research laboratory (FAB-Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt) has applied several approaches for not only improving the pharmacological effect of easily accessible natural products, but also identifying new applications for them. Drug repositioning or repurposing may reveal a new approach to rediscover new uses for clinically approved existing old drugs [32].This book revealed the theory, applications, and/or hazardous outcomes on drug discovery in different disciplines in medicine; e.g. dermatology [33, 34], cancer [35, 36, 37], and neurological disorders [38].
A hopeful mechanism to cure COVID-19 patients is the reusing of trusted antiviral treatments in opposition to COVID-19. Viral loads are reduced by employing the antiviral treatments that have risen lung allocations, which is helpful to COVID-19 cases. There are a number of antiviral medications such as [39]:hr
2.4.1 Natural products inhibitors for targeting COVID-19
Some results depended on molecular docking and network direct pharmacology action on COVID-19, for examples:
Kaempferol, aloe-emodin, quercetin, luteolin, forsythoside E, rutin, and hyperoside in Lianhua Qinwen might be the buoyant components in hindering COVID-19 by computer-assisted treatment design (CADD) of virtual checking and network pharmacology analysis through JAK-STAT signaling pathway [40, 41, 42]
Patchouli alcohol, saikosaponin ergosterol, 23-acetate alisol B, shionone, B (Bupleuri Radix) could act straight on the COVID-19 3CL pro to restrain infection multiplication. On differentiate, shionone (Asteris Radix et Rhizoma), tussilagone, patchouli alcohol, asarinin, ephedrine hydrochloride, and ergosterol might work on steward cells ACE2 to restrain the attack [43, 44, 45, 46]
Licorice glycoside E, (2R)-7-hydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl) chroman-4-ketone, robinin, naringenin, quercetin, kaempferol, irisolidone, and isorhamnetin from Huoxiang Zhengqi as 3CL pro restraints, which may block COVID-19 repetition by focusing on E2F1 and PIK3CG by PI3K-Akt signaling path [44]. Rosmarinic acid could block virus repetition through the PI3K-Akt signal path [47].
Quercetin, Kaempferol, luteolin, baicalein, glyasperin C, licochalcone B, and oroxylin A were suggested to tie with organizing different signals paths and ACE2, as BCL2, PTGS2, Kaposi sarcoma-related herpesvirus contagion, CASP3, hepatitis C, Epstein-Barr virus infection, measles, and human cytomegalovirus contagion.
Baicalein, kaempferol, luteolin, rhubarb wogonin, and quercetin had a great partiality with COVID-19 3CL hydrolase [48].
As previously explained, nonstructural proteins of COVID-19 and several factors and receptors in host cells are essential for viral entry and replication, which means that both should be considered in the process of the development of effective antiviral agents as depicted in Figure 1. In this section, we will address known natural products inhibitors to the key targets controlling viral entry and replication.
Figure 1.
Different approaches for targeting viral entry and replication of the COVID-19. (1) Inhibition of S protein binding to ACE2, (2) disruption of endocytic pathways, (3) inhibition of nuclear translocation of viral RNA and protein by host cell mediators, (4) inhibition of the proteolysis of viral polyprotein to the nonstructural proteins (Nsp), (5) inhibition of transcription and replication of viral RNA.
2.4.1.1 Inhibition of viral invasion process
2.4.1.1.1 Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 lipid-dependent attachment to host cells
Targeting host lipids is an intriguing antiviral strategy. Coronaviruses are a class of viruses with a lipid envelope that requires a plasma membrane fusion process mediated by endocytosis, a mechanism that involves certain cholesterol-rich microdomains and its ACE2 receptor [49] and mediates the early stages of internalization of coronaviruses [50].
Macromolecules such as methyl-β-cyclodextrin have been used to inhibit attachment of coronaviruses to host cells. These nontoxic macromolecules mimic attack sites for the enveloped virus, competing with host cell attack sites. It could also decrease ACE2 expression in the cell membrane, thereby reducing the infectivity of coronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV-2 [51].
Natural compounds including phytosterols and triterpenes (Figure 2) can exert the same action. For example, betulinic acid also has the same lipophilic properties as cholesterol, so it may therefore compete with cholesterol, replacing it in plasma membranes, or it may bind to the virus instead of raft cholesterol, acting as a soluble competitor [52].
Figure 2.
Chemical structures of the most common phytosterols. They are considered as potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 lipid-dependent attachment to host cells, a possible approach for decreasing its infectivity.
2.4.1.1.2 Blocking the viral entry process by inhibiting TMPRSS2 activity
TMPRSS2, a human cell surface serine protease, results in membrane fusion. ACE2 and TMPRSS2 are essential in airway cells for SARS-CoV-2 infection [53]. ACE2 inhibition should not be tracked as a treatment strategy as ACE inhibitors upregulate the expression of ACE receptors providing more binding sites for SARS-CoV-2. On the other hand, blocking TMPRSS2 is accessible and will prevent the fusion of the envelope of the virus with host cell surface membranes. Nafamostat, an existing safe drug used for pancreatitis, may inhibit SARS-CoV-2 entry by inhibiting TMPRSS2 activity.
In this context, several reported serine protease inhibitors from nature could be repurposed to target TMPRSS2.
Potent serine protease inhibitors have been reported from filamentous marine cyanobacteria. Most of these molecules are 3-amino-6 hydroxy-piperidone (AHP-containing cyclic depsipeptides). The AHP moiety is crucial for serine protease inhibitory activity, and any structural or conformational variations to this unit will affect activity (Figure 3) [54].
Figure 3.
Serine protease inhibitors isolated from marine cyanobacteria. Potential blockers for the requisite viral entry process (inhibition of the S protein-initiated membrane fusion by inhibiting TMPRSS2 activity).
2.4.1.1.3 Inhibition of endocytic pathway.
2.4.1.1.3.1 Increase of the endosomal and lysosomal pH using lysosomotropism agents
It’s now well established that endocytosis is the nick bottle for COVID-19 entry to the host cells, thus inhibiting this pathway could reduce the infectivity of the virus dramatically. This could be achieved by increasing of the endosomal and lysosomal pH using lysosomotropism agents, which disrupt the proteolytic action of host cell proteases, which work optimally in acidic pH and prevent the cleavage of the S Protein of the virus [55]. While chloroquine (CQ) and its derivative are developed originally for treatment of malaria, but since they demonstrated potent activity by direct acting on the virus and by preventing its endocytosis, they were repurposed for treatment of several viral infection and currently used widely used in therapeutic protocol for treatment of COVID-19 [56]. Bafilomycin A1, a vacuolar-type H+−ATPase inhibitor, lies in the same category and could explain the use of azithromycin, a structurally related macrolide antibiotic for treatment of COVID-19 patients [57].
2.4.1.1.3.2 Cathepsins inhibitors
Inhibition of cysteine proteases such as cathepsins could be an important approach due to their role in viral entry, and luckily the incorporation of these protein in the pathogenesis of several diseases such as cancer, metabolic conditions, and Alzheimer’s has led to the discovery and development of several inhibitors that could be repurposed for treatment of COVID-19 infection. E-64, a compound isolated from the fungus Aspergillus japonicus, can bind irreversibly to this target without showing toxic activity; also gallinamide A and Miraziridine A marine natural products were reported to possess the same activity. There are a number of natural compounds that possess a promising cathepsins inhibition with IC50 range from 2 to 10 micromolar, such as panduratin A, guttiferone A, ursolic acid, and agathisflavone [58].
As addressed earlier, CME is one of the main mechanisms for viral entry; hence, its inhibition could be a reliable method for control of the infection. Ouabain and bufalin cardiotonic steroids, which are used for treatment of cardiovascular diseases, have demonstrated antiviral activity against MERS-CoV infection at nanomolar concentrations by affecting the CME pathway [59]. This is consistent with recent report by Jeon et al., where ouabain, lanatoside C, and digitoxin were able to reduce viral viability of COVID-19 in micromolar concentrations [60].
Bolinaquinone, a sesquiterpenoid derivative with quinone ring, isolated from marine Dysidea sp., which is known to possess anti-inflammatory activity, however, affinity chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry revealed the ability of this molecule to inhibit clathrin in a concentration comparable to chlorpromazine, a well-known inhibitor of this target [61]. Also, ikarugamycin, an antibiotic that was found to specifically inhibit CEM effectively [62].
2.4.1.1.4 Inhibition of translocation mechanisms
Like other viruses, COVID-19 uses the replication machinery of the host cell for transcription and replication of Viral RNA; this means that viral materials such as nonstructural proteins and negative-strand RNA should be relocated to the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum.
Interestingly, ivermectin, an antiparasitic FDA-approved drug, has been reported to inhibit nuclear transport in host cells such as (IMP) α/β1 heterodimer preventing the translocation of viral DNA integrase in HIV-1 and other viruses. Recently, ivermectin has shown potent antiviral activity against COVID-19 [63]. In fact, such effect was linked to the broad-spectrum antiviral activity of this molecule [64].
2.4.1.1.4.2 Chromosomal maintenance 1 (CRM-1 also known as exportin 1 (XPO1)) inhibition
Finally, leptomycin B (LMB), a compound isolated from Streptomyces sp, with prominent anticancer and anti-inflammatory activity, which is attributed to its ability to block CRM-1. While the main research focus of this target was on its role in tumorigenesis; it’s now known that it contributes in the infection of different viruses. There are a lot of natural compounds reported to target CRM-1 such as valtrate, which is anxiolytic compound isolated from valerian roots, acetoxychavicol, curcumin, goniothalamin, piperlongumine, and plumbagin. These compounds share the presence of alpha, beta unsaturated ketone, making structure similarly to LMB, which seems to be important feature to interact with Cys528 via Michael-type addition and exert their inhibitory actions. Despite the reported antiviral activity of these molecules, there are no studies addressing this effect in COVID-19. Figure 4 shows the chemical structure of compounds that inhibit endocytic pathway and translocation mechanisms.
Figure 4.
Chemical structure of compounds that inhibit endocytic pathway and translocation mechanisms.
2.4.1.2 Inhibition of nonstructural proteins formation
We have addressed the role of host cells factor and protein inhibition in controlling viral infection. So, we will focus mainly on some important targets of the virus itself. The proteolysis of polypeptide to the 16 NSp is a rate-limiting step in viral replication; thus, it is obvious that targeting viral proteases could achieve significant antiviral activity.
2.4.1.2.1 Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro, also called 3CLpro)
Mpro is one of the best characterized drug targets among coronaviruses. This enzyme is essential for processing the translated polyproteins from the viral RNA. The Mpro works at not less than 11 cleavage sites on the large polyprotein 1ab (replicase 1ab, ~790 kDa); the recognition sequence at most sites is Leu-Gln↓(Ser,Ala,Gly).
The viral replication could be blocked by Mpro inhibitors [65, 66, 67]. There are no human proteases with a similar cleavage specificity. Therefore, these inhibitors are not supposed to be toxic. Peptidomimetic alpha keto-amides were reported to be potential Mpro inhibitors [68]. The natural α-keto amides such as eurystatin A and B, complestatin, and aplidine display prolyl endopeptidase inhibitor, HIV replication inhibitor, and antitumor activity, respectively [68]. Also, theaflavin-3,3′-digallate was reported as natural protease inhibitor in SARS-CoV [9]. Other flavonoids are reported to strongly block Mpro activity such as pectolinarin, rhoifolin, herbacetin [69].
2.4.1.2.2 Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 papain-like protease (PLpro)
PLpro has dual function, beside its role in release of other nonstructural protein, it neutralizes the immune response by the host cell due its deubiquitinating activity, so its inhibition will not only stop the replication cascade but will help the immune system to regain the ability to recognize and destroy the virus [70, 71]. Hirsutenone, a diarylheptanoid from Alnus Japonica, was able to inhibit Plpro in uncompetitive manner at IC50 = 4.1 μM, which was attributed to the presence of catechol ring and alpha-beta unsaturated ketone [72]. Also tanshinone IIA achieved significant inhibition at IC50 = 0.8 μM, the binding of this compound with PLpro was noticed to increase with time indicating the possibility of covalent bond inhibition [73]. Tomentin E geranylated flavonoid was discovered to be mixed-type inhibitor of this target by bio-guided isolation, its IC50 = 5.0 μM. The inhibition assay demonstrated that flavonoid bearing dihydropyran ring might be superior inhibitor in comparison to parent compounds. Figure 5 shows chemical structure of SARS-COV proteases inhibitor from natural products [74].
Figure 5.
Chemical structure of natural compounds that inhibit viral proteases (Mpro and PLpro).
2.4.1.3 Inhibition of viral replication
After the transcription of viral RNA to the required structural protein, the hijack of the host cell continues to make many replicas of the viral RNA that will be packed and released. The new virus, RNA helicase was found to be crucial to viral genome replication, which explains why it is a potential target for antiviral drug development. Scutellarin inhibits 90% of SARS-COV RNA helicase activity at 10 μM probably by binding to the ADP active site, myricetin showed the same activity but with much lower extent [75]. Interestingly, ivermectin has shown the ability to inhibit RNA helicase of flavivirus [76], taking in consideration that helicase are structurally conservative among most of the viruses. Ivermectin might also be able to exert the same activity in COVID-19, which in fact may explain the potent antiviral activity addressed previously. Figure 6 shows the chemical structure of the natural helicase inhibitor.
Figure 6.
Chemical structure of the natural helicase inhibitors.
2.4.1.4 The role of natural products in immunity modulation and alleviation of inflammation associated with COVID-19
One of the hallmarks of late-phase COVID-19 infection is uncontrolled intense release of proinflammatory mediators, which is known as cytokines storm. Different types of viruses tend to activate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPKs) cascades, which control proliferation and inflammation in order to stimulate the replication process of the virus RNA. Since the upregulation of MAPKs was linked to several inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, it can lead to multiorgan failure and potentially death.
Clinically, in some patients, it has been reported that their immune response to the SARS-CoV-2 virus results in the increase of cytokines IL-6 and IL-10 [77].
Both hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine have immunomodulatory effects and can suppress the increase of immune factors. Bearing this in mind, it is possible that early treatment with either of the drugs may help prevent the progression of the disease to a critical, life-threatening state. In critically ill SARS-CoV-2-infected patients, the use of corticosteroids may be harmful. While the use of immunosuppressants (e.g., tocilizumab) is not ideal either as it can suppress the immune system and lead to an increased risk of infection. In this setting, hydroxychloroquine may be an ideal drug to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection as it can inhibit the virus via its antiviral effects and help mediate the cytokine storm via its immunomodulatory effects [78].
Fortunately, natural products could serve as the perfect solution in such case as they would not only work as antiviral agents but also could help to downregulate proinflammatory gene and protein expression via affecting a plethora of MAPKs and transcriptional factors. LPS-induced expression of proinflammatory cytokine could be considered as an excellent model for screening, since LPS also activates the inflammatory mediators through several pathways.
For example, diarylheptanoids, flavonoids, and triterpenes, which possess antiviral activity as mentioned earlier, were able to suppress the gene expression of TNF-alpha, IL-1β, IL-6 in different types of cells such as macrophages and HepG2 induced by LPS by modulating multiple intracellular signaling pathways in macrophages and prevent LPS-induced IL-6 production by reducing the mRNA stability via inhibiting ERK1/2 activation. This could be achieved by natural compounds such as flavokawain A, curcumin, quercetin curculigoside, syringic acid or vanillic acid, licochalcone A, chrysin, apigenin, and luteolin at transcriptional level [78, 79]. In brief, the anti-inflammatory effect of natural products is so prominent to be summarized in this chapter, and they can contribute significantly at reducing the mortality rates associated with COVID-19 complications (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Chemical structures for the potential natural immunomodulators for cytokine storm associated with COVID-19 infection.
3. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) technologies in drug discovery, diagnosis, and health care of COVID-19
3.1 Drug discovery
Therapeutics: AI and ML in treatment discovery development and/or drug repurposing for COVID-19 based on:
EHR data and clinical guidelines
Interaction of human-AI in robotic surgery
Pharmacogenomics for directing the management of medications
AI may contribute to the advancement of resources to support doctors and ultimately enhance medical outcomes. Fuzzy logic can be used in decision support systems to replicate patient decision-making processes [80, 81, 82]. Admittedly, machine learning applied is to clinical data that are regularly collected will produce new knowledge and potentially new perspectives that clinicians lack.
Drug repurposing is hoped to offer a way to establish COVID-19 avoidance and cure policies. For instance, the researchers built a DL approach to classifying current and mercantile medicines for “drug-repurposing,” i.e., identifying a quick treatment using existing medicines that can be introduced to patients immediately. The idea that recently created treatment typically needs years to succeed is reviewed before getting to the public motivates research. Although the results are not accepted clinically, new approaches to combat COVID-19 disease are already opening up [83]. In silico medicine is suggested in [84] using the deep generative model to explore drugs (identifying new medicines). This analysis may be used for simulations and computer modeling to obtain compounds for COVID-19 coronavirus by new molecular entities.
IBM reported that it is now offering an analysis service based on the cloud using the COVID-19 dataset that has been educated [85]. Besides, IBM has implemented its proposed drug discovery AI technology, in which 3000 novel COVID-19 molecules have been produced [86]. In the year 2020, a systematic analysis was developed by Zeng et al. [87] to find drugs for COVID-19. With the support of active Amazon Web Services (AWS), a DL-based model was developed, and 41 data on drug types were validated. As for performance metrics, true-positive rate (TPR), false-positive rate (FPR), etc., have been presented, and the approach suggested by the author is explicit that DL serves as an important instrument for exploring therapeutics.
3.2 Diagnostics
Earlier, our research team had presented the usefulness of AI and ML in diagnosis of several diseases [88, 89, 90]. However, COVID-19 diagnosis was based on AI.
Multiomics and clinical data
Records of Electronic Health (HER) data and expert knowledge
3.2.1 Image data and deep learning
Nour et al. [91] have developed a DL model for COVID-19 detection, as CNN is applied as a feature extractor. For performance assessment, chest X-ray images dataset is taken into account. For feeding ML methods such as K-nearest neighbour (KNN), Decision Tree (DT), and support vector machines (SVM), the deep feature that has been extracted with the aid of CNN is utilized. Precision, F-score, etc., are used as output variables. Among other suggested approaches, SVM yields greater precision.
Pereira et al. [92] proposed a new model for forecasting the dynamics of COVID-19 that have cases that have happened in other countries or places with similar emission patterns. For all subregions and accessible countries, they implemented a grouping algorithm.
3.3 Health care
Big data in the administration of hospitals, epidemiology, insurance, medication interactions and complications, outcomes reviews based on quality, epidemic tracking.
Speech datasets include breath sounds and cough, which can be utilized for COVID-19 diagnoses and its prediction for illness seriousness. Machine learning, statistical techniques, and big data may be used to the datasets for prediction functions about the disease. Various open-source datasets for COVID-19 included mobility, diagnosis, contagion assessment, NPI analysis, statistic relationships, and sentiment analysis.
4. Concluding remarks and future perspective
COVID-19 causes a gigantic load to the healthcare system, particularly in patients with preexisting conditions comorbidities. A comprehensive study is presented about COVID-19 symptoms, clinical classification (mild, moderate, severe, critical cases), and the risk indicators for COVID-19 infection with comorbidities.
Natural products (NPs) have been used for centuries for treatments of different maladies and inspired scientists to develop safer and more effective drugs. The COVID-19 is complex clinical condition that comprises inflammatory components. Although selective inhibitor could be developed for inhibiting critical molecular target in the life of cycle, compounds with multitargeting activity may be more favorable to reduce the possibility of mutation development. Optimum drug should be able to modulate host cell and viral-related mechanisms. This is where natural products could play important role since their ability to bind effectively to targets with completely different homology. Nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory attribute of NPs is another advantage that should be considered during choosing therapeutic protocol. Finally, the observed antiviral activity of different phytochemicals should initiate repurposing campaign of untested NPs to identify new antiviral compounds, which could be exploited to design more effective drugs with optimum pharmacokinetic properties. This study presents briefly the value of AI and ML as powerful tools in healthcare, clinical, drug industry, diagnosis, decision-making, and improvement of the selection criteria for the most appropriate protocol for the treatment of COVID-19.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Ms. Rowida Omar (Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Delta University, Gamsa, Egypt) and Mr. Abdullah A. Elgazar (Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kafrelsheikh University, Egypt) for their great efforts in providing valuable materials of the first draft and Mrs. Zahraa Tarek (Computer Science Department, Faculty of Computer and Information, Mansoura University, Egypt) for providing materials on artificial intelligence section.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"COVID-19, inflammation, viral replication, drug repurposing, artificial intelligence, natural products",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81670.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81670.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81670",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81670",totalDownloads:22,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:0,impactScoreQuartile:0,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 20th 2021",dateReviewed:"February 9th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 6th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 5th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"World Health Organization (WHO) declared on March 11, 2020, coronavirus disease, which erupted in December 19th, 2019 in Wuhan, China (COVID-19) as worldwide pandemic disease. Researchers worldwide were successful to provide a prophylactic approach via developing several vaccines, which were swiftly approved by WHO under Emergency Use Listing (EUL) status. So far, lopinavir, chloroquine, azithromycin, hydroxychloroquine, favipiravir, umifenovir, ribavirin, remdesivir, and darunavir have been tested clinically. Hydroxychloroquine, favipiravir, and chloroquine exhibited a high ratio of distribution for the lung and were reported to minimize viral tonnage in respiratory system of many COVID-19 cases. However, none of the tested drugs showed a conclusive, safe, and efficient activity against COVID-19. This prompted many experts in drug discovery to fetch in the treasure of many available old drugs of natural origin to repurpose based upon their well-studied pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, virtual screening, and artificial intelligence studies. In this review chapter, we will address the repurposing of natural products and their derivatives to be used in treatment of COVID-19 via targeting host cells machinery and viral proteins either in early stages by blocking virus entry to cells or lately through inhibition of viral replication.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81670",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81670",book:{id:"11088",slug:null},signatures:"Farid A. Badria",authors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",email:"faridbadria@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 The life cycle of COVID-19",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Host cell viral entry and nuclear translocation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Translation of viral RNA to nonstructural protein",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4 Genome replication and production of new viruses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"1.5 Translation of structural protein virion assembly and release",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"2. Approaches for prophylaxis, diagnosis, and therapy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.1 An appropriate prophylactic procedure (vaccination)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2 Diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.1 Clinical laboratory",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.2 Imaging",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.3 Therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.4 Drug repurposing and COVID-19",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.4.1 Natural products inhibitors for targeting COVID-19",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"2.4.1.1 Inhibition of viral invasion process",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_5",title:"2.4.1.1.1 Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 lipid-dependent attachment to host cells",level:"5"},{id:"sec_13_5",title:"2.4.1.1.2 Blocking the viral entry process by inhibiting TMPRSS2 activity",level:"5"},{id:"sec_14_5",title:"2.4.1.1.3 Inhibition of endocytic pathway.",level:"5"},{id:"sec_14_6",title:"2.4.1.1.3.1 Increase of the endosomal and lysosomal pH using lysosomotropism agents",level:"6"},{id:"sec_15_6",title:"2.4.1.1.3.2 Cathepsins inhibitors",level:"6"},{id:"sec_16_6",title:"2.4.1.1.3.3 Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) pathway blockage",level:"6"},{id:"sec_18_5",title:"2.4.1.1.4 Inhibition of translocation mechanisms",level:"5"},{id:"sec_18_6",title:"2.4.1.1.4.1 Importin (IMP) α/β1 heterodimer inhibition",level:"6"},{id:"sec_19_6",title:"2.4.1.1.4.2 Chromosomal maintenance 1 (CRM-1 also known as exportin 1 (XPO1)) inhibition",level:"6"},{id:"sec_22_4",title:"2.4.1.2 Inhibition of nonstructural proteins formation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_22_5",title:"2.4.1.2.1 Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro, also called 3CLpro)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_23_5",title:"2.4.1.2.2 Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 papain-like protease (PLpro)",level:"5"},{id:"sec_25_4",title:"2.4.1.3 Inhibition of viral replication",level:"4"},{id:"sec_26_4",title:"2.4.1.4 The role of natural products in immunity modulation and alleviation of inflammation associated with COVID-19",level:"4"},{id:"sec_30",title:"3. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) technologies in drug discovery, diagnosis, and health care of COVID-19",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"3.1 Drug discovery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"3.2 Diagnostics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"3.2.1 Image data and deep learning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"3.3 Health care",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35",title:"4. Concluding remarks and future perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_36",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_39",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai AC, Zhou J, et al. Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses. Trends in Microbiology. 2016;24(6):490-502'},{id:"B2",body:'Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. 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1. Introduction
Social media refers to the use of websites and applications to create and share content or to participate in social networking [1]. Technological developments have given rise to various gadgets including smart-phones, tablets, and laptops to robots too. Living in a digitized era, communication has now become easier and faster with the emergence of various social applications available at the click of a button. While many may agree that social media has connected individuals globally, it has also been used to set standards of beauty for males, females as well as the third gender. This in turn has been known to affect the self-esteem of individuals with regards to body image, body modification and how they view themselves in society. In order to be accepted in society females have to battle body image issues from a very young age, where thin is considered to be the ideal body type [2].
This chapter focuses on the effects of social media on standards of beauty. We review the literature on the role of social media and how they affect the physical and psychological beauty of individuals in society.
2. Effects of social media on the aspects of body image
Today, Social Media is one of the most important factors contributing to the mental, emotional, physical and spiritual health of an individual. With the media constantly portraying ideal beauty and body image comparisons, the decisions of men and women’s beauty choices are globally affected.
“Body image refers to a person’s perception of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings, positive, negative or both, which result from that perception” [3]. Social media has had a major impact on the perceptual, affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects of body image [3] by encouraging lean body patterns and delivering anti-obesity messages [4]. Eating disorders determine a distorted relationship between the individual, their eating behavior and body shape [5]. Adolescence being a crucial age for positive and negative development of body image, the self-esteem and body dissatisfaction adolescents feel are known predictors of eating disorders [6]. Continuous pursuit for the perfect slender lean body may generate negative feelings which can result in a change in eating behavior, thereby increasing the chances of weight issues and eating disorders [4, 7]. Social media portrays women who are slim as being more beautiful and successful compared to overweight women [8]. Body image misperception and dissatisfaction with body weight highlight an association between body dissatisfaction and psychological wellbeing [9].
3. Self-esteem issues in response to social media effects
Body image concerns are common in women and men globally, but social media has now increased these concerns through advertising, videos and the use of social media. Milkie [10] conducted in-depth interviews on 60 white and minority girls to examine the effect of media on self-esteem. Results indicated that most girls felt that the images shown in media were unrealistic and not real. White girls felt that boys evaluated them on the basis of the images found on media platforms whereas the minority girls felt that the images portrayed on media did not meet the expectations of the reference group they oriented themselves with. The evolution from adolescence to adulthood has seen 12–16 teenage girls experience emotional changes in interpersonal and intrapersonal development as well as bodily changes such as sudden weight gain and transition from a young girl to a fully grown woman [11, 12]. In today’s world, the self-presentation of beauty and perceptions of others plays an important role in developing identities in girls [13, 14]. New interactive platforms present in social media demonstrate how self-presentations and peer influences are interrelated with the standards of beauty [15]. Many women may imitate their ideal media personality due to the social, psychological and practical rewards associated with this ideal and the belief that their life would change for the better [16].
4. Social media: trends in behavioral outcomes
Social media comprises of social networking sites, image sharing sites, video hosting sites, community blogs, bookmarking sites and gaming sites. Fellow comparisons about self-image and appearances in teenagers have resulted due to social networking sites (SNSs) such as Instagram and Facebook [17]. Teenage girls engage in online self-presentation of posting selfies and sharing the outfit of the day pictures to differentiate themselves with their peers [18]. Media images of ideal beauty standards influence the content and sharing of pictures teenage girls’ post [19]. Individuals are constantly seeking feedback on SNSs through likes, followers and comments to uphold a perfect and stable image of themselves [20]. Teenage girls are vulnerable to the upward comparison as it means that they need to improve their beauty standards, thereby leaving them dissatisfied with their physical bodies, having doubts about their self-worth and also driving them to self-harm behavior [20, 21].
Taking selfies and sharing them on popular social platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Snapchat has increased at an alarming rate during the recent years. A recent study compared selfie takers and non selfie takers and their perceptions of their selfies versus photographs clicked by others. Results indicated that selfie takers perceived themselves as more attractive and likable in their selfies as opposed to pictures taken by others leading to positive distortions of the self [22]. Biases in self-face recognition were seen in men and women in selecting the most attractive modified pictures of themselves [23]. Selfies are no harm per se. But obsession with physical features reveals a lack of holistic perception of self-generated sub-consciously, following an “outside” standard of beauty not defined by the “inner self” of the receiver.
Popular socialites Kim and Khloe Kardashian have been slammed with media reports of them using photoshop to edit Instagram selfies by making unrealistic alterations to look thinner and more toned. Emily Bryngelson, an associate designer struggling with an eating disorder, admitted to deleting pictures if they did not receive enough “likes.” The time spent on Facebook photos was linked to self-objectification, weight dissatisfaction, thin idealization and pursuit of thinness [15].
5. Social media and unrealistic beauty standards
There are multiple factors that affect the beauty standards in the world today, which involve women and men and the third gender individuals trying new trends to be socially accepted. The purchasing decisions of millennials are influenced majorly by social media [24]. 72% of millennials procure beauty products based on Instagram posts and other social networks [25]. Makeup consists of the application of cosmetic products to beautify or change the way one looks either artistically or to conceal flaws. Jang-Soon and Hye-Jin [26] investigated 240 teenage males’ preferences for makeup use. Results indicated that their appearance was one of the major reasons for their social success. The male respondents who were young, unmarried and city residents had an overall positive perception about cosmetics [26]. With bloggers constantly advertising on social media, cosmetic products, have gained popularity.
The images on social media sites are idealized and unreal, due to digital alteration thereby setting high expectations from individuals in society. Imperfections are removed by airbrushing and using other digitized apps to whiten teeth, slim waists and reduce sizes in order to be accepted as beauty ideals [27]. These techniques may further lead to negative consequences of increased body dissatisfaction, body modification and low self-esteem issues. Unrealistic images of feminity, beauty, success and body shape promoted through social media images are associated with development of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction disorders [28, 29].
Filters and beauty apps represent another area in which social media has a major influence. Beauty apps encourage women to see and surveil themselves within a “pedagogy of defect” [30]. They include filters and modification apps, surgery try out apps, and esthetic benchmarking apps which help individuals visualize how they will look after certain changes such as teeth whitening, eye bag removal and also whether the individual looks old or young [31].
“Body modification refers to the deliberate or permanent altering of an individual’s human anatomy or appearance” [32]. They involve two aspects: the processes that modify form or contours of the body such as metabolic manipulation (weight lifting, extreme dieting, use of drugs/steroids, hormones), cosmetic surgeries and procedures (liposuction, face-lifts, rhinoplasty, botox, eye lash extensions), genital surgery and sex reassignment surgery, restriction or compression (waist training, foot binding), abrasion (teeth filing, scourging, flagellation), elongation (neck, lips, earlobes), partial or full removal of body parts (breasts, penis, ribs, nose etc.), implantation of foreign objects (silicone implants, decorative items under the skin), and prosthetics (false limbs, finger nails, lenses) and processes that mark the surface of the body such as tattooing, piercing, tanning/bleaching, scarification, branding and hair removal [32].
Young women and teenage girls following fitness boards on Pinterest were likely to have intensions to engage in extreme crash dieting or extreme exercising as a result of social comparison leading them to feelings of inadequacy and body dissatisfaction [33, 34].
6. Body modification trends in society
From professional athletes to celebrities, contouring, tattooing and body piercings has gained popularity in today’s society [35]. Individuals who get tattooed refer to it as a piece of art and piercing as fashion accessories, for the purpose of embellishment or as a self-healing effect after having being abused [36, 37, 38, 39]. A survey conducted at an American University found body piercings in 42% of men and 60% of women with piercings involving tongue, lips, nose, navel, genitals, nipple and eyebrow besides the earlobe piercing. Bacterial infections, bleeding and local trauma were common complications faced. “Tattoos were present in 22% of male students and 26% of female students” [40].
Another reason why individuals engage in body modifications is to maintain self-identities and be distinctive from others [41, 42]. Physical endurance, lust for pain, spirituality and cultural traditions, addictions, resistance, sexual motives, group commitments are reasons why individuals adopt modification procedures [43]. Social Media has had a tremendous effect on how individuals perceive and endure painful tattooing and body modifications after viewing popular Instagram and Pinterest handles. Brief exposure to body modifications on popular social networking sites has seen an increase in tattoo searches and body modification procedures in young as well as older individuals, proving the impact of Social Media on Beauty trends in society.
7. Adopting to ever changing social media trends: Is it right?
Social media has a robust influence on the beauty, health and hospitality industry with women and men engaging in weight loss and diets to avoid gaining fat identities that impacted their wellbeing in the long run [44, 45, 46]. Women and men have turned to waxing, shaving and removal of unwanted facial and body hair in order to meet the beauty standards of societal acceptance [47, 48]. Women who did not engage in hair removal were negatively evaluated as being dirty or gross [49, 50]. In 2010, a concept of living dolls emerged online with women practicing the art of appearing “doll like.” These women would engage in usage of wide rimmed contact lenses, hair extensions, corsets, photo editing and surgery including, eye widening, breast implants, liposuction and rib removal to enhance their beauty [31]. Even though women knew the risks in false eyelashes and acrylic nails, they still reported to be continuing to engage in it to feel socially accepted [31].
8. Using social media for body positivity
Social networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and other networking sites have the potential to influence positive beliefs and attitudes in individuals [51]. The online platform has given many individuals a feeling of a “sense of belonging.” Men and women are obsessed with images on social media portals and often search for esthetic body types which are not similar to their own body. Instagram and Facebook often have stories of individuals who have fought hard to change beauty standards through sheer dedication and hard work, be it exercising, eating healthy or building self-esteem and body acceptance through support groups and communities found online. Blocking body shamers can help reinforce confidence in men and women globally. Promoting videos on life struggles with weight motivate others to believe in never giving up and taking charge of their lives. Today social media includes individuals of different race, gender, ethnicity and sexual orientation, thereby focusing more on breaking stereotypes and building communities to support each other.
9. Conclusion
With technology advancing by the minute and newer apps surfacing online, social media has an immediate effect on beauty. Due to the ever changing body images depicted online, individuals are turning to social media handles for acceptance and support. The selfie culture has brought about a positive and negative change in how individuals perceive themselves. While most research today focuses on the negative impacts of social media on beauty, more interest should be laid on body positivity and using social media as a medium for self-acceptance whether beautified or not.
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The researchers have summarized the literature on how social media plays a role in affecting beauty trends, body image and self-esteem concerns. There is support that social media affects individuals negatively, in pushing them to engage in life threatening beauty trends due to social compliance and acceptance in society. The aim was to review social networking sites’ impact on perception of standards of beauty and newer unrealistic trends gaining popularity that could alter opinions and also cause harm to individuals in the long run. This is an emerging area of research that is of high importance to the physical and mental health in the beauty, health and hospitality industry with the latter being manifested in depression, anxiety and fear of non-acceptability and being seen as a social gauche.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73271",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73271",signatures:"Mavis Henriques and Debasis Patnaik",book:{id:"7811",type:"book",title:"Beauty",subtitle:"Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments",fullTitle:"Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments",slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",publishedDate:"May 12th 2021",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine and Júlia Scherer Santos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7811.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-448-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-447-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-449-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"320016",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mavis",middleName:"Lilian",surname:"Henriques",fullName:"Mavis Henriques",slug:"mavis-henriques",email:"mavis_henriques@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"320978",title:"Dr.",name:"Debasis",middleName:null,surname:"Patnaik",fullName:"Debasis Patnaik",slug:"debasis-patnaik",email:"marikesh@goa.bits-pilani.ac.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani - Goa Campus",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Effects of social media on the aspects of body image",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Self-esteem issues in response to social media effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Social media: trends in behavioral outcomes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Social media and unrealistic beauty standards",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Body modification trends in society",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Adopting to ever changing social media trends: Is it right?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Using social media for body positivity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Social Media [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.lexico.com/definition/social_media'},{id:"B2",body:'Grabe S, Ward ML, Hyde JS. The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin. 2008;134(3):460-476. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460'},{id:"B3",body:'Fardouly J. Social media and body image. NEDC e-Bulletin. 2020;46:1-4'},{id:"B4",body:'Cecon RS, Franceschini SCC, Peluzio MCG, Hermsdorff HHM, Priore SE. Overweight and body image perception in adolescents with triage of eating disorders. The Scientific World Journal. 2017;2017:8257329. DOI: 10.1155/2017/8257329'},{id:"B5",body:'Cavalcanti AMTS, de Arruda IKG, de Lima EACM. Characterization of eating behavior disorders in school-aged children and adolescents: A population-based study. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health. 2016;29(3):1-8. DOI: 10.1515/ijamh-2015-0087'},{id:"B6",body:'Voelkar DK, Reel JJ, Greenleaf C. Weight status and body image perceptions in adolescents: Current perspectives. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics. 2015;6:149-158. DOI: 10.2147/AHMT.S68344'},{id:"B7",body:'Lofrano-Prado MC, Prado WL, De Piano A, Damaso AR. Obesidade e transtornos alimentares: A coexistência de comportamentos alimentares extremos em adolescentes. ConScientiae Saúde. 2011;10(3):579-585. DOI: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2010.09.008'},{id:"B8",body:'Toriola AL, Dolan BM, Evans C, Adetimole O. Weight satisfaction of Nigerian women in Nigeria and Britain: Intergenerational and cross-cultural influences. European Eating Disorders Review. 1996;4(2):84-94. DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-0968(199606)4:2<84::aid-erv148>3.0.co;2-w'},{id:"B9",body:'Moehlecke M, Blume CA, Cureau FV, Kieling C, Schaan B. Self-perceived body image, dissatisfaction with body weight and nutritional status of Brazilian adolescents: A nationwide study. Journal of Pediatria. 2018;96(1)1-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jped.2018.07.006'},{id:"B10",body:'Milkie MA. Social comparisons, reflected appraisals, and mass media: The impact of pervasive beauty images on black and white girls’ self-concepts. Social Psychology Quarterly. 1999;62(2):190. DOI: 10.2307/2695857'},{id:"B11",body:'Labre MP, Walsh-Childers K. Friendly advice? Beauty messages in websites of teen magazines. Mass Communication and Society. 2003;6(4):379-396. DOI: 10.1207/S15327825MCS0604_3'},{id:"B12",body:'Vandenbosch L, Eggermont S. Understanding sexual objectification: A comprehensive approach toward media exposure and girls’ internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Journal of Communication. 2012;62(5):869-887. DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01667.x'},{id:"B13",body:'Caspi A. The child is father of the man: Personality continuities from childhood to adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;78(1):158-172. DOI: 10.1037//0022-3514.78.1.158'},{id:"B14",body:'Martin MC, Kennedy PF. Advertising and social comparison: Consequences for female preadolescents and adolescents. Psychology and Marketing. 1993;10(6):513-530. DOI: 10.1002/mar.4220100605'},{id:"B15",body:'Meier EP, Gray J. Facebook photo activity associated with body image disturbance in adolescent girls. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking. 2014;17:199-206. DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0305'},{id:"B16",body:'Engeln-Maddox R. Buying a beauty standard or dreaming of a new life? Expectations associated with media ideals. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2006;30(3):258-266. DOI: 10.1111%2Fj.1471-6402.2006.00294.x'},{id:"B17",body:'Mascheroni G, Vincent J, Jimenez E. Girls are addicted to likes so they post semi-naked selfies: Peer mediation, normativity and the construction of identity online. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. 2015;9(1):5. DOI: 10.5817/CP2015-1-5'},{id:"B18",body:'Kaplan AM, Haenlein M. Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media. Business Horizons. 2010;53:59-68. DOI: 10.1016/j.bushor.2009.09.003'},{id:"B19",body:'Boyd D. It’s Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 2014'},{id:"B20",body:'Corcoran K, Crusius J, Mussweiler T. Social comparison: Motives, standards, and mechanisms. In: Chadee D, editor. Theories in Social Psychology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2011. pp. 119-139. DOI: 10.1037/a0023922'},{id:"B21",body:'Chua THH, Chang L. Follow me and like my beautiful selfies: Singapore teenage girls’ engagement in self-presentation and peer comparison on social media. Computers in Human Behavior. 2016;55:190-197. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.011'},{id:"B22",body:'Epley N, Whitchurch E. Mirror, mirror on the wall: Enhancement in self-recognition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2008;34:1159-1170. DOI: 10.1177/0146167208318601'},{id:"B23",body:'Wen W, Kawabata H. Why am I not photogenic? Differences in face memory for the self and others. Perception. 2014;5:176-187. DOI: 10.1068/i0634'},{id:"B24",body:'Likhareva E, Kulpin S. Social media influence on consumption in the beauty industry: Modern studies. UDC. 2018;304:1-6'},{id:"B25",body:'Social media influence on sales [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/andrewarnold/2017/12/22/4-ways-social-media-influencesmillennials-purchasing-decisions/#3cdd48ea539f'},{id:"B26",body:'Jang-Soon P, Hye-Jin K. Perception about makeup influence on Man’s makeup and their success. Journal of the Korea Convergence Society. 2017;8(4):231-237'},{id:"B27",body:'Farid H. Seeing is not believing. IEEE Spectrum Archive. 2009;46(8):44-48. DOI: 10.1109/MSPEC.2009.5186556'},{id:"B28",body:'Hesse-Biber S, Leavy P, Quinn CE, Zoino J. The mass marketing of disordered eating and eating disorders: The social psychology of women, thinness, and culture. Women’s Studies International Forum. 2006;29:208-224. DOI: 10.1016/j.wsif.2006.03.007'},{id:"B29",body:'Grogan S. Body Image: Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women and Children. 2nd ed. East Sussex: Routledge; 2008'},{id:"B30",body:'Bordo S. Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images from Plato to O.J. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1997'},{id:"B31",body:'Elias AS, Gill R, Scharff C. Aesthetic Labour: Rethinking Beauty Politics in Neoliberalism. London: MacMillan Publishers; 2017'},{id:"B32",body:'Hayes K. Body modifications. Encyclopedia of sex and gender: Culture society history. Social Sciences. 2020;1:1-6'},{id:"B33",body:'Lewallen J, Behm-Morawitz E. Pinterest or thinterest?: Social comparison and body image on social media. Social Media and Society. 2016;2:1-9. DOI: 10.1177%2F2056305116640559'},{id:"B34",body:'Alperstein N. Social comparison of idealized female images and the curation of self on Pinterest. The Journal of Social Media in Society. 2015;4:5-27. Available from: https://www.thejsms.org/index.php/TSMRI/article/view/82'},{id:"B35",body:'Heidelbaug JJ. Clinical Men’s Health: Evidence in Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2008;17:323-338'},{id:"B36",body:'Wohlrab S, Stahl J, Kappeler PM. Modifying the body: Motivations for getting tattooed and pierced. Body Image. 2007;4(1):87-95. DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.12.001'},{id:"B37",body:'Atkinson M. Pretty in ink: Conformity, resistance, and negotiation in women’s tattooing. Sex Roles. 2002;47:219-235. DOI: 10.1023/A:1021330609522'},{id:"B38",body:'Stirn A. Body piercing: Medical consequences and psychological motivations. The Lancet. 2003;361:1205-1215. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12955-8'},{id:"B39",body:'Stirn A. Motivations of tattooed and pierced for their body modifications. Zeitschrift fu r Klinische Psychologie, Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie. 2004;51:43-58'},{id:"B40",body:'Mayers LB, Judelson DA, Moriarty BW, Rundell KW. Prevalence of body art (body piercing and tattooing) in university undergraduates and incidence of medical complications. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2002;7(1):29-34. DOI: 10.4065/77.1.29'},{id:"B41",body:'Millner VS, Eichold BH. Body piercing and tattooing perspectives. Clinical Nursing Research. 2001;10:424-441. DOI: 10.1177/C10N4R7'},{id:"B42",body:'Stirn A. Designing the own body – Narcissistic aspects of tattoos and piercings. Psychotherapie im Dialog. 2004;3:256-260'},{id:"B43",body:'Stirn A, Peregrinova L, Oddo S, Philipp S, Hinz A. Motivations for body piercings and tattoos- the role of sexual abuse and the frequency of body modifications. Psychiatry Research. 2011;190:359-363. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2011.06.001'},{id:"B44",body:'Dalley SE, Buunk AP. ‘Thinspiration’ vs. ‘fear of fat’: Using prototypes to predict frequent weight-loss dieting in females. Appetite. 2009;52(1):217-221'},{id:"B45",body:'Vartanian LR. Disgust and perceived control in attitudes toward obese people. International Journal of Obesity. 2010;34(8):1302-1307. DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2010.45'},{id:"B46",body:'Wray S, Deery R. The medicalization of body size and women’s healthcare. Health Care for Women International. 2008;29(3):227-243. DOI: 10.1080/07399330701738291'},{id:"B47",body:'Tiggemann M, Lewis C. Attitudes toward women’s body hair: Relationship with disgust sensitivity. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2004;28(4):381-387. DOI: 10.1111%2Fj.1471-6402.2004.00155.x'},{id:"B48",body:'Toerien M, Wilkinson S, Choi PYL. Body hair removal: The ‘mundane’ production of normative femininity. Sex Roles. 2005;52(5-6):399-406'},{id:"B49",body:'Toerien M, Wilkinson S. Gender and body hair: Constructing the feminine woman. Women’s Studies International Forum. 2003;26(4):333-344'},{id:"B50",body:'Toerien M, Wilkinson S. Exploring the depilation norm: A qualitative questionnaire study of women’s body hair removal. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2004;1(1):69-92. DOI: 10.1191/1478088704qp006oa'},{id:"B51",body:'Perloff RM. Social media effects on young women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives and an agenda for research. Sex Roles. 2014;71:363-377. DOI: 10.1007/s11199-014-0384-6'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mavis Henriques",address:"mavis_henriques@hotmail.com",affiliation:'
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Goa Campus, India
Department of Economics, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Goa Campus, India
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Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
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COMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
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50 - 130 pages
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Peer-reviewed
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Self-contained works on a particular subject compiled by one or more authors
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Online only, and print options available
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COST
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The final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
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*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
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FUNDING
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We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
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BENEFITS
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Peer-review
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Rapid publishing process: publication 4 to 6 weeks following acceptance
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Language proofreading and technical formatting included in the cost
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Personal support throughout the publishing process
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Tailor-made service: choose between online only or online and print editions of your Compact
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+560,000 visitors per month guarantees high visibility and opportunities for international content sharing
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You retain copyright to your work
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Wide dissemination and distribution to scientific databases and university libraries
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Competitive pricing with funding opportunities
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See a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
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SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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