\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately thirty scientific publications in the field of statistics, inclusive education, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health. Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6926",title:"Biological Anthropology",subtitle:"Applications and Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbb192dffd37a257febf4acfde73bb8",slug:"biological-anthropology-applications-and-case-studies",bookSignature:"Alessio Vovlas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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1. Introduction
Nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) are essential elements for plants life being part of multiple structural compounds and participating in many vital processes [1]. On the other hand, silicon (Si) is not considered an essential element for plants, however, its absorption can produce beneficial effects in some crops, such as resistance to pests and diseases [2], attenuating abiotic stress [3, 4] and hydric stress [5]. Among the main accumulative crops of Si, are gramineous as sugar cane (Saccharum spp.), rice (Oriza sativa L.), and corn (Z. mays L.) [6].
Some research report about the effect of the combinations of silicon and nitrogen on plants [7, 8, 9, 10] and silicon and potassium on the development of plants and yields [11], mainly in accumulative crops of silicon. However, there are not enough results on the effects produced by the interaction of silicon, nitrogen, and potassium on the accumulation of these elements inside the vegetables and their implications on the growth of the plants.
High nitrogen concentration and low concentrations of potassium increase the susceptibility of the corn plants to the noxious agents because it diminishes the absorption of Si. This fact is important because it is well-known that silicon can induce higher resistance to the plants in front of the pests [2].
In an accumulative crop of Si like rice, Andreotti et al. [7], informed that the supply of Si had a small influence on the production of dry matter, although it increased the number of panicles per plant at the highest concentrations of Si, and on the other hand, the concentration of Si decreased with the increment of the dose of fertilization with urea [11].
However, some researchers have stated that there is a lack of information on the use of silicon in general and in particular in corn crops that justifies the need to carry out further research on this subject [12]. Castellanos et al. [13] demonstrated the positive effect of the application of Si on the damages of Spodoptera frugiperda Smith in corn to an intermediate dose of N, while Matías and García-Montalvo [14] pointed out that the positive role of the silicon in the resistance to the foliar insects in Zea diploperennis L., however in Z. mayz this is not yet well explained.
González et al. [15] verified the increment of the green forage in one variety of corn and not in others when the application of an intermediate dose of Si was made, while any varieties had a response at the highest dose.
In front of this situation, two hypotheses arise, one that the unbalanced management of N and K, or the excessive use of N associated with the insufficient application of potassium can diminish the silicon absorption and the production of dry biomass in the plants, and other, that the use of silicon can improve the response of the plant in dry biomass production in function of the application of N and K.
To confirm one of those hypotheses the aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the effect of the interaction of silicon, potassium, and nitrogen on the foliar area and the accumulation of these elements and the dry biomass in corn plants.
2. Material and methods
The investigation was performed in a greenhouse located at the department of soils and fertilizers, FCAV/UNESP Jaboticabal Campus, SP, with geographic coordinates of 21° 15′ 22” South, 48° 18′ 58” West and an elevation of 600 m between March and June of 2014, in a hydroponic floating system.
Two silicon concentrations were evaluated (0 and 2 mmol L−1) using as source silicate of calcium; two concentrations of potassium (1 and 12 mmol L−1) corresponding to 16 and 200% of the solution of K proposed by Hoagland and Arnon [16], using as source monobasic potassium phosphate, and four nitrogen concentrations: 1, 10, 15, and 20 mmol L−1 corresponding at 10, 100, 150, and 200% of the solution of Hoagland and Arnon [16], respectively. The added nitrogen corresponded the 25% to ammoniac form (from ammonium chloride) and the 75% to nitric form (from calcium nitrate).
The rest of the macronutrients and micronutrients were incorporated into de nutrient solutions as were proposed by Hoagland and Arnon [16], balancing the concentrations of calcium and phosphorous. The nutrient solution was maintained under continuous oxygenation by means of an air compression system.
Treatments were arranged in one 2 × 2 × 4 factorial scheme with three repetitions. Each experimental unit consisted of a polypropylene pot with a lid, measuring 48 cm long, 11 cm wide at the lower base, 16 cm wide at the upper base, and 17 cm tall, containing 8 L of nutrient solution and six corn plants (Hybrid 30A77HX). The plants were developed in a greenhouse. Initially, the sowing of the corn was carried out in vermiculite on isospory trays, irrigated for 15 days, time in that plants reached five leaves.
Water used in the hydroponic system was distilled and deionized, where solution levels were completed daily in each pot with stock solutions corresponding to each treatment. Values of pH were adjusted to between 6.0 ± 0.2 using solutions of HCl 1.0 mol L−1 or NaOH 1.0 mol L−1.
At 45 days after transplanted, the foliar area of the plants was evaluated. For that, all the leaves of the six plants of each pot were collected, being used an integrative apparatus of scanning the foliar area (LI-COR®modelo LI-3000C).
Later on, the dry biomass was determined from the collection of the roots and the aerial part of each pot. For this, the picked-up material was placed in paper bags and dried off in an oven with forced air circulation (65°C) until they reached a constant weight to determine the dry biomass content by pot (aerial part, roots, and the total).
The dry material was ground for chemical analysis of N and K content according to the methodology described by Battaglia et al. [8] and silicon according to Kraska and Breitenbech [17]. Using data of concentration of N, K, and Si in the dry biomass from the aerial part, from the root, and from the total, for each pot, the accumulation of each element per pot was calculated and expressed in mg per plant.
The data of the active foliar area, dry biomass, nitrogen, potassium, and silicon accumulation in the aerial part of the plants were submitted to variance analysis. The media was compared by means of the Tukey test (P < 0.05). The statistical package SPSS version 21 was used [18].
3. Results
The application of silicon in the nutritious solution increased the biomass of the plants of corn and the accumulation of N, Si, and K in this, however, the foliar area did not increase, while a high-dose of K caused an increment of all evaluated variables. The foliar area, the biomass of the plants, and the accumulation of the three elements in the plants were influenced in some way by nitrogen dose (Table 1). Foliar and total dry matter and the accumulation of K in the plants were influenced by the interaction of the treatments of Si and K, but not the other variables, while dry biomass of the root and accumulation of K were influenced by the interaction Si × N. The interaction of N and K had influenced on the accumulation of Si and K in the plants and on the increment of the dry biomass of the aerial part of the plants and the total.
Source of de variation
Accumulation in the aerial part of
Foliar area
Biomass
N
Si
K
Roots
Aerial
Total
Signification of F values
Si
**
**
**
ns
**
**
**
K
*
**
**
**
**
**
**
N
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
Si × K
ns
ns
**
ns
ns
**
**
Si × N
ns
ns
**
ns
**
ns
ns
K × N
ns
**
**
ns
ns
**
**
CV (%)
14.12
11.51
15.6
14.42
12.51
9.50
8.85
Table 1.
Effect of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) concentrations in the presence or not of silicon (Si), on the nitrogen, potassium, and silicon accumulation in the aerial part of corn plants, the foliar area to and biomass, under hydroponic conditions.
*, **, and ns: Significant (P < 0.05), (P < 0.01), and nonsignificant by the F-test, respectively.
The nitrogen accumulation was increased at the highest concentrations of this nutrient with a relationship at the lowest dose while this did not happen at the lowest dose (1 mmol L−1). The silicon accumulation was higher at the concentration at 10 mmol L−1 of N, with a statistical difference with the treatments at 15 and 20 mmol L−1 of N in the nutrient solution being lower at 1 mmol L−1. A similar situation was observed in relation to the influence of N doses for the foliar area (Table 2).
Nitrogen
Accumulation in the aerial part of
FA
Biomass
mmolL−1
N
Si
K
Roots
Aerial
Total
mg kg−1
g per pot
1
70.50b
36.79c
394.14c
0.67c
19.51b
36.50c
56.01c
10
269.32a
71.55a
731.96a
1.20a
29.95a
69.11a
99.06a
15
239.65a
59.62b
665.38ab
1.12b
24.39ab
60.91b
85.30ab
20
252.51a
55.85b
612.37b
1.06b
22.93ab
56.90b
79.83b
Table 2.
Effect of the nitrogen (N) concentrations on the N, K, and Si accumulation in the aerial part of corn plants, the foliar area (FA), and biomass under hydroponic conditions.
Different letters in the columns indicate significant differences according to the Tukey test for P < 0.05.
The higher values in accumulation of K were observed at the concentrations of 15 and 20 mmol L−1 of N, and the lower at 1 mmol L−1. A similar situation to that it was observed for the total dry biomass, however, the roots dry biomass showed lower values at 1 mmol L−1 of N in relation to the highest concentrations. The interaction of the application of Si with the highest concentration of K promoted an increase in the accumulation of K and the foliar and total biomass. However, there was no difference for the foliar biomass between the treatment of Si at 2 mmol L−1 combined with the treatment with K at 12 mmol L−1 compared with K at 12 mmol L-1 without the application of Si (Table 3).
Concentrations
Accumulation of K
Dry biomass
Si
K
mg kg−1
g per pot
mmol L−1
Aerial
Total
0
1
47.98c
69.63b
246.01c
0
12
57.96b
80.29ab
822.52b
2
1
54.47b
77.02ab
265.48c
2
12
62.22a
88.57a
1069.82a
Table 3.
Effect of the interaction of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) concentrations on the N, K and Si accumulation in the aerial part of corn plants, the foliar area and biomass under hydroponic conditions.
Different letters in the columns indicate significant differences according to the Tukey test for P < 0.05.
The accumulation of K was increased in the treatments that received 2 mmol L−1 of Si and 10 and 15 mmol L−1 of N, without statistic difference with the treatment that received N at 10 mmol L−1 without the application of Si. The dry biomass of the root was increased in the interaction of Si at 2 mmol L-1 and N at 10 mmol L-1 in relation to the treatment that received 1 mmol L−1 of N in the nutrient solution without the application of Si, but not in the relation of the rest of the treatments. The role of silicon in the absorption of the K was verified, and at the same time that the beneficial effect of silicon was not evidenced in front of low and high concentrations of N (Table 4).
Si
N
Accumulation of K
Roots biomass
Mmol L−1
mg kg−1
g per pot
0
1
318.69f
18.73b
0
10
735.97ab
23.45ab
0
15
513.11de
22.40ab
0
20
569.32cde
23.38ab
2
1
469.58ef
23.30ab
2
10
727.95abc
28.45a
2
15
817.67a
26.38ab
2
20
655.42bcd
22.48ab
Table 4.
Effect of the interaction of silicon (Si) and nitrogen (N) concentrations on K accumulation and root biomass under hydroponic conditions.
Different letters in the columns indicate significant differences according to the Tukey test for P < 0.05.
The accumulation of Si and the dry biomass in the air part of the plant manifested an increment at the higher concentration of K (12 mmol L−1) combined with 1, 10, and 15 mmol L−1 of N, while the accumulation of K and the biomass of the air part showed increments at 1 mmol L−1 of K and 10 mmol L−1 of N and at 12 mmol L−1 of K and at 10, 15 and 20 mmol L−1 of N (Table 5).
Concentrations
Accumulation
Biomass
K
N
Si
K
Aerial
Total
Mmol L−1
mg kg−1
g per pot
1
1
40.54ef
59.65 cd
44.10c
245.21d
1
10
59.18bcd
83.23ab
65.63ab
246.96d
1
15
51.40 cd
72.73bcd
46.73bc
264.80d
1
20
50.36de
70.83bcd
44.43c
285.05d
12
1
32.48f
52.40d
29.48c
522.26c
12
10
69.05a
96.90a
77.76a
1199.11a
12
15
67.00ab
94.55a
72.52a
1083.79ab
12
20
61.85bc
83.91ab
67.27a
699.53b
Table 5.
Effect of the interaction of potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) concentrations on the Si and K accumulation in the aerial part of corn plants and biomass under hydroponic conditions.
Different letters in the columns indicate significant differences according to the Tukey test for P < 0.05.
The influence of the concentration of K in the nutritious solution on the absorption of Si was verified. The application of low and high N concentrations caused the less accumulation of Si in the plant. In the same way, the results demonstrated that the treatments that stood out for a bigger absorption of Si also stood out for higher total biomass, while those treatments that had shown higher accumulation levels of potassium also manifested higher levels of dry biomass in the air part of the plant.
4. Discussion
The present results agree with those of Lima et al. [19] who observed increases in dry biomass of leaves, stems, and roots in maize seedlings with the application of 1 mmol L-1 of Si via nutrient solution.
Many authors have pointed out the increase of silicon accumulation in different crops as a response to the application of this beneficial element in corn [12, 20] and in rice under hydroponic conditions [11].
The increase of K accumulation in the aerial part of the plant with the application of high concentrations of this nutrient agrees with the results of Andreotti et al. [7] who obtained an increment of the concentration of K with an increase of the doses of K.
Increments in N accumulation as a function of N doses were also obtained in the aerial part of the maize plants (leaves, stems, cob, straw, and grains) by Gava et al. [21]. There are other results that also show that increases in N doses caused higher development and yield of corn plants [21, 22].
The total dry biomass in the aerial part of the plant was increased with the presence of Si, which agrees with the results of Rohanipoor et al. [23], who reported increases in the leaf area of the corn crop under different doses of Si. Also, González et al. [15] observed increases in plant height and green forage of the Morocho Blanco corn variety under hydroponic conditions when they applied an intermediate dose of Si, in relation to nonapplication. They attributed this to a synergism between Si and K.
No results were found in the literature on the influence of the interaction of the presence of Si with a high concentration of potassium on the gain of the dry biomass, however, Miaoo et al. [24] reported that in the soybean plants there was a positive effect of silicon on the increase of root length and its density subjected at low concentration of K (1 mmol L−1). They attributed this to the action of Si on the affectation of the peroxidase enzyme, but this effect was not demonstrated for the case of maize in an experiment in which the plants were subjected to a low concentration of K [10].
The increase in the accumulation of dry matter observed with the application of Si can be associated with its protective effects of the photosynthetic apparatus of the plants, in the improvement of the efficiency of water use and the balance of mineral nutrients as indicated by Mateos-Naranjo et al. [25]. Other researchers have attributed this increment of biomass to the beneficial effects of Si against the oxidative damage of plant membranes and the increase of the cell wall extension capacity [9].
Other investigations have shown that Si increases stomatal conductance by promoting better water use efficiency [26], inducing increased transpiration, which may lead to increased absorption of K, an element that participates actively in the closure and opening of the stomata [25].
The role of Si in the uptake of K was verified in the present research, but this effect does not occur at low and high concentrations of N. The increase of K at 10 mmol L−1 of N without application of Si can be explained by the small amounts of Si which remains in the water as indicated by Raya and Aguirre [6], despite being deionized in the experiment.
Parveen and Ashraf [27] also observed increases in dry biomass of the roots in corn plants with the application of 2 mmol L−1 of Si in relation to the nonapplication of this element combined with N at 10 mmol L−1 under hydroponic conditions.
The results obtained have relation to those of Mauad et al. [11] in rice, who observed a higher concentration of Si in the plant at the lowest dose of N combined with a normal dose of K, independently of the presence or absence of silicon, which show the role of the beneficial element in the presence of plant stress by N.
Castellanos et al. [13] also stated that the interaction of N and K influenced the accumulated silicon in corn with an optimum at 11.4 mmol L−1 of N. Similar results were obtained by Mauad et al. [11] who observed a decrease in the deposition of silica in leaves of rice plants at high doses of N.
Increments of dry biomass and productivity of corn as increase the concentration of N have also been obtained by other authors as Queiroz et al. [1].
The nitrogen effects on dry biomass gain was confirmed since this element is a constituent of all molecules, proteins, enzymes, coenzymes, nucleic acids, and cytochromes, as well as its important function as a member of the molecule of chlorophyll, as have been pointed out by Pina et al. [28].
5. Conclusions
The absorption of silicon in corn plants is influenced by the interaction of nitrogen and potassium. Application of Si combined with a high concentration of K causes an increase in K accumulation which is reflected in higher total dry biomass in corn plants. An excess and a deficit of N decrease the accumulation of Si in the aerial part of the plant, which is more evident at a low concentration of K in the nutrient solution, diminishing the accumulation of total dry biomass.
Acknowledgments
To CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil) by the fellowship as visiting professor from abroad granted to the first author.
\n',keywords:"benefic element, dry biomass, nutritious, Zea mays",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79187.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79187.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79187",totalDownloads:78,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:33,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"September 24th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 30th 2021",datePublished:"April 20th 2022",dateFinished:"October 30th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The aim of the research was to evaluate the effect of the interaction of silicon, potassium, and nitrogen on the foliar area, the accumulation of these elements in the aerial part and the dry biomass in corn plants. The research was developed under hydroponic conditions in Jaboticabal Sao Pablo, Brasil using the 30A77HX hybrid. Two silicon concentrations were evaluated (0 and 2 mmol L−1); two concentrations of potassium (1 and 12 mmol L−1) and four nitrogen concentrations: (1, 10, 15, and 20 mmol L−1). A completely randomized design was used, with factorial arrangement 2 × 2 × 4 and three replications. The foliar area, the dry biomass and, nitrogen, potassium, and silicon content were determined. The application of silicon at a high concentration of K causes an increase in the accumulation of K, which is reflected in an increment of the total dry biomass in the plants of corn, while excess and a deficit of N diminish the accumulation of Si in the aerial part of the plant, which is more evident at a low concentration of K in the nutritious solution, affecting the accumulation of the total dry biomass.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79187",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79187",book:{id:"11016",slug:"maize-genetic-resources-breeding-strategies-and-recent-advances"},signatures:"Leónides Castellanos González, Renato de Mello Prado and Cid Naudi Silva Campos",authors:[{id:"438080",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonides",middleName:null,surname:"Castellanos González",fullName:"Leonides Castellanos González",slug:"leonides-castellanos-gonzalez",email:"lclcastell@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"438398",title:"Dr.",name:"Renato",middleName:null,surname:"de Mello Prado",fullName:"Renato de Mello Prado",slug:"renato-de-mello-prado",email:"rm.prado@unesp.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"438399",title:"Dr.",name:"Cid Naudi",middleName:null,surname:"Silva Campos",fullName:"Cid Naudi Silva Campos",slug:"cid-naudi-silva-campos",email:"cid.campos@ufms.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Material and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Queiroz AM, Souza CHE, Machado VJ, Quintão RML, Korndorfer GH, Silva AA. Avaliação de diferentes fontes e doses de nitrogênio na adubação da cultura do milho (Zea mays L.). Revista Brasileira de Milho e Sorgo. 2011;10(3):257-266'},{id:"B2",body:'Castellanos L, Campos CN, Mello R. Silicon in the crop resistance to agricultural pest. Cultivos Tropicales. 2015a;36 No especial:18-26'},{id:"B3",body:'Silva CN, Renato MR, Caione G, Lima AJ, Checchio FL. Silicon and excess ammonium and nitrate in cucumber plants. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2016;11(4):276-283. DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2015.10221'},{id:"B4",body:'Mahdieh M, Habibollahi N, Amirjani MR, Abnosi MH, Ghorbanpour M. 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Acta Physiologiae Plantarum. 2012;34(5):1779-1788'},{id:"B27",body:'Parveen N, Ashraf M. Role of silicon in mitigating the adverse effects of salt stress on growth and photosynthetic attributes of two maize (Zea mays L.) cultivars grown hydroponically. Pakistan Journal of Botany. 2010;42(3):1675-1684'},{id:"B28",body:'Pina NCA, Herrera OF, Mello R. Manejo de suelos para una agricultura sostenible. 1ra. ed. Vol. 1. Jaboticabal: FCAV/UNESP; 2013. 511 p'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Leónides Castellanos González",address:"lclcastell@gmail.com;, leonides.castellanos@unipamplona.edu.co",affiliation:'
Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad de Pamplona, Colombia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Renato de Mello Prado",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, (UNESP), Brasil
Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, (UNESP), Brasil
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1. Introduction
Growing demand for energy in all possible forms (mobility, heat, electricity) induced intensive research on various energy harvesting and storage systems. Today, it is clear that fossil fuels are no longer a reasonable choice for further society development. Various reasons, such as environmental pollution, depletion of natural resources, and remarkable climate changes, stimulated intensive research on sustainable solutions for energy harvesting and storage. In this context, numerous technologies are known for sourcing the energy in a “green” manner (like photovoltaics, wind turbines, flywheels); however, this energy must be somehow stored to be further used when needed.
Electrochemical energy conversion and storage systems are one of the most common solutions used every day by almost everyone—at home, at work, or in the car. This is true that well-known Li-ion batteries allowed the world “to move” and made our lives more “mobile”. Nevertheless, these are not the only ones that have been recently developed and used. Despite the high amount of energy stored in batteries, their power density is still not enough to eliminate other technologies. Furthermore, their typical redox-based charge storage mechanism makes their lifetime short (counted in thousands of cycles) and thus less resource-effective. Electrochemical capacitors, with their high-power density and moderate energy, cyclability counted very often in millions of cycles and much safer chemistry in the cell, appear to be an interesting technology that could serve as a standalone system or greatly accompany the battery.
Conventional capacitors are composed of two flat, non-porous plates (electrodes) separated by a dielectric material. These devices are characterized by low energy density, limiting their application [1]. In 1957, a new group of capacitors, called electrochemical capacitors (ECs), super- or ultracapacitors, emerged. It must be here pointed out that only the “electrochemical capacitor” term should be used for scientific purposes, as other names (supercapacitors, ultracapacitors, etc.) refer to commercial products. Furthermore, “electrochemical capacitors” are often confused with “electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs)”. In fact, EDLCs are always ECs; however, this term is reserved only for the systems exploiting the double-layer charging/discharging process, thus, the mechanism is entirely electrostatic, while ECs could also exploit redox-based processes in the charge storage (like hybrid systems).
Unlike conventional capacitors, in ECs, the electrodes of highly developed surfaces are used. Such electrodes allow higher capacitance to be reached and, in consequence, the energy accumulated increases while their superior power is maintained [2].
It is worth noting that besides ECs, there are many energy storage devices and their application depends on the performance parameters. Therefore, these properties, i.e., energy and power, are crucial from a practical point of view. The so-called Ragone plot (Figure 1) is the best way to compare various systems’ performance [4].
Figure 1.
Ragone plot presenting the performance parameters (energy and power) of different energy storage/conversion devices [3].
It can be noticed that the electrochemical capacitors demonstrate the properties between conventional capacitors and batteries—the specific power is very high, however, slightly lower than in the case of “dielectric” capacitors, and the specific energy is significantly higher—but still moderate if compared with the batteries (especially commonly used Ni/MH, Li-ion and Li-primary ones). Besides the tremendous power of ECs that allows them to be charged and discharged very quickly, these devices are getting more and more attention because of their long lifetime and safe/reliable use [5]. For these reasons, ECs are applied in the automotive industry—for instance, in regenerative braking, start-stop systems, or track control devices. Nonetheless, the energy density of these devices needs to be increased, as the volume or weight of the device must be reduced.
As already mentioned, ECs consist of two porous electrodes of highly developed surface area. The electrodes are very often made of carbon materials (especially activated carbons) due to their good conductive properties, high availability (abundance) as well as relatively low price [6]. During the ECs operation, the electrodes are polarized positively (+) and negatively (−). An insulator separates them to prevent short circuits. These components are immersed in an electrolyte, playing the role of ion source and carrier (Figure 2a). When charging the cell, positively charged ions (cations) are adsorbed on the (−) electrode surface, while negatively charged ions (anions) are adsorbed on the (+) electrode surface. An electrical double-layer is formed at the electrode/electrolyte interface during this process. For this reason, ECs are also called electric double-layer capacitors—EDLCs (Figure 2binset). The opposite process (discharge) results in the desorption of ions from the electrode surface vicinity to the electrolyte volume (Figure 2c) [7, 8].
Carbon materials can be enriched with surface functional groups, heteroatoms like oxygen or nitrogen, and transition metal oxides like MnO2. Moreover, carbon/electrically conductive polymer (e.g., PANI, PPy, PEDOT) composites can be synthesized and used as electrodes for ECs. These materials are classified as pseudocapacitive ones [9]. The charge storage mechanism in such devices can be described as quick, continuous faradaic reactions occurring with no phase change in the electrode material. The cells operating with these materials are very often called asymmetric or pseudocapacitance-based ECs (Figure 2b). One should restrain from using the “pseudocapacitor” term, as the pseudocapacitance concerns the electrode, not the system. If redox reactions occur on both electrodes, the system should rather be considered as a battery.
ECs incorporating pseudocapacitive materials may suffer from shorter cycle life, due to unstable behavior of the functional groups during long-term tests and chemical and mechanical composites degradation. Moreover, the cost of such materials exceeds the cost of non-modified activated carbon and impacts the final price of the cell. Thus, another solution was proposed to increase the capacitance, causing an increase in the energy of the ECs—i.e., electrolytes demonstrating redox activity (redox ECs, Figure 2b).
Generally, the redox processes in the batteries are attributed to the electrode material, ensuring high charge storage capacity. However, solid-state diffusion remarkably impacts the power capability. Shifting the redox processes to electrolytic solution remarkably diminishes the mass-transfer limitations and allows the power of electrostatic interactions to be almost maintained.
Figure 2.
Electrochemical capacitor: (a) construction, (b) types and (c) principle of operation.
The operating potentials of each electrode in symmetric EDLCs are comparable. For instance, when ECs are investigated with cyclic voltammetry, the curves of rectangular shape are recorded (Figure 3; solid lines), since the capacitance does not depend on the potential.
Figure 3.
Comparison of the voltammetric responses of a positively (+) and negatively (−) polarized electrode of the electric double-layer capacitor (solid line) and a redox (hybrid) capacitor (dashed line) [10].
In the case of galvanostatic charge/discharge, the curves are triangular [11]. Obviously, it is possible to notice potential shifts (very often negligible) that originate from matching cations/anions with the pore diameter of the electrode material. The capacitance of the system (Ccell) can be calculated based on Eq. (1) because two electrodes that store the energy at the electrode/electrolyte interface are considered as two capacitors in series [10].
1Ccell=1C++1C−E1
Assuming the capacitance values of both electrodes in symmetric cell are comparable (C+ ≈ C− = Cele), Eq. (1) can be transformed to Eq. (2):
Ccell=Cele2E2
The specific energy for the EDLCs (EEDCL) can be calculated from Eq. (3):
For accurate calculations, it is necessary to consider the ohmic drop for ΔV calculation [10].
In the case of ECs operating in redox-active electrolytes, the potential range of each electrode can significantly differ, as presented in Figure 3 (dashed lines). It is seen that one electrode demonstrates capacitive character, typical of EDL formation, with constant capacitive current recorded; at the same time, the positive electrode demonstrates a very high current response with a narrow potential range. This suggests high capacity, accumulated in a narrow potential range, typical of the redox process. In the galvanostatic charge/discharge technique, the redox activity is seen as a plateau on the E = f(t) plot [11].
For the cells’ performance characterization, the specific energy (E) should be calculated from the galvanostatic charge/discharge profile, with applied current I and change in the voltage (V) over the time (t), recalculated per active mass (m) of both electrodes:
E=13600·m∫VIdtE5
Power capability needs to be calculated as well for the full characterization of the investigated cells. It is directly related to the system’s energy, according to Eq. (6):
P=E∆tdischE6
where Δtdisch is the discharge time at which the energy is released.
For more detailed information and characterization techniques, comprehensive literature reports are published [9, 12, 13].
It must be clearly stated that the energy and power of the devices should be expressed per mass of the cell components and must not be calculated for the single electrode. However, on the laboratory scale, when the electrolyte is in great excess, only the mass of the electrolyte confined in the pores should be considered. The other possibility is to normalize these values per volume of the device’s components. All the presented methods of cells characterization is correct, but the author needs to comment on how the calculations were made [10, 11, 12].
3. Redox-mediated electrolytes
As mentioned, the redox-active electrolyte in EC allows the cell performance to be significantly improved. It is necessary to use the electrodes made of electrically conductive material to make the electron flow from the electrode to the electrolyte possible [14, 15, 16, 17].
There are many redox couples with well-defined and stable redox activity that can be used as additives for electrolytic solutions. The most popular ones, with their reduction potentials (expressed vs. normal hydrogen electrode; NHE), are presented in Figure 4 [18].
Figure 4.
Redox couples with their reduction potentials [18]. Redox couples marked in red are stable in acidic conditions, those marked in green are stable in neutral solutions and the one in blue is stable in alkaline electrolytes.
Depending on the cell construction, electrode material used, potential application, and expected operating performance, one can select which redox couple is suitable for EC that meets the requirements. In the case of aqueous-based systems, there are additional issues that need to be taken into account. First of all, at too high or too low potentials, water is decomposed, so oxygen and hydrogen evolution can be observed, respectively. These reactions are considered harmful for the cell because (i) the solvent should not be decomposed, (ii) evolving gases can block the electrode porosity, (iii) the highly active oxygen causes the irreversible electrode oxidation and its degradation, and (iv) corrosion of the current collectors remarkably affects the cell lifetime. Therefore, the potential of the chosen redox couple should preferably be between hydrogen (HEP) and oxygen (OEP) evolution potential.
The second issue is related to the electrolyte pH. Both HEP and OEP are pH-dependent—when the solution pH increases, these potentials are shifted toward lower potentials [19]. It is, thus, possible to slightly adjust the HEP and OEP by regulating the electrolyte pH. However, one should keep in mind that the potentials of some redox couples are also pH-dependent, so with the pH change, their potential will also change. Moreover, the stability of redox couples also depends on the solution pH.
Redox-active electrolytes are grouped in a way similar to the types of electrolytes. Hence, they can be divided into two main groups—aqueous and nonaqueous ones [11, 20].
3.1 Aqueous redox-active electrolytes
Aqueous solutions, despite their limited operating voltage related to the theoretical water decomposition above 1.23 V, are very attractive electrolytes for ECs due to their price lower than for nonaqueous electrolytes and the possibility of the cell manufacturing in an ambient atmosphere. Moreover, the impact of water-based solutions on the environment is rather negligible. These solutions are also characterized by high conductivity and low viscosity. The main drawback of the ECs operating in redox-active electrolytes is moderate cycle life related to the efficiency of the redox reactions and possible side reactions [21, 22].
In general, it seems beneficial to combine more than one redox additive in one electrolyte. If the ratio between different redox species is well-optimized, the energy reached in such cells is higher than reported for the single redox couple [23, 24].
Aqueous redox-active electrolytes can be divided into three groups: cationic, anionic, and neutral electrolytes, due to the charge of the redox-active ion. It is worth mentioning that the redox ions in cationic and anionic electrolytes contribute to the EDL formation, whereas in neutral electrolytes redox species quite often do not participate in this process [11].
3.1.1 Cationic aqueous redox-active electrolytes
Cationic redox electrolytes can be divided into three groups: lanthanides, transition metals, and organic species [18, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. The general requirement is that the solubility of these species should be possibly high and their standard potential should be close to HEP, as their activity is expected at the negative electrode [18].
Cerium, which belongs to lanthanides, was introduced to the acidic solution [11, 27]. However, standard redox potentials of lanthanides (∼+1.6 V vs. NHE of Ce3+/Ce4+ redox couple) being higher than OEP definitely limits their application.
The second group—transition metals like Zn, Sn, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, include a solid phase in the solution of neutral or acidic pH. The cations are reduced at relatively low potential, between −0.762 V and +0.337 V vs. NHE. However, still irreversible hydrogen evolution reaction can occur during the metal electrodeposition in aqueous solutions. Although in general hydrogen evolution reaction is considered parasitic or unwanted, it is possible to store hydrogen reversibly in the electrode porosity—it is necessary to use microporous electrodes for this purpose. Moreover, the addition of halide ions to the electrolytic solution can be beneficial—halide anions will block the carbon and its active sites preventing hydrogen reactions [32, 33]. Finally, metal electrodeposited on the electrode can affect the specific surface area of the electrode and worsen the performance stability of the system. It is also possible to avoid solid-state metal deposition on the electrode, by applying redox couples dissolved in the liquid state, like Fe2+/Fe3+, Cu+/Cu2+ [26, 34].
Viologen di-cations can be included in the organic cationic additives. Moreover, these species are characterized by fast redox kinetics and high reversibility [35, 36]. It was found that 1,10-dimethyl-4,40-bipyridinium cation (MV2+) is strongly attracted to the electrode surface. However, after reduction to MV+, the physical interaction between these species and the electrode can be even stronger [37]. This may be beneficial to reduce self-discharge, which is caused by redox shuttling.
As the cations are supposed to be attracted to the negatively polarized electrode, redox reactions originating from cationic additives are mostly at the negative side. However, the synthesis of carbon material exhibiting the affinity to cations and application of such an electrode as the positive one in ECs is also reported [26, 38, 39, 40]. It is worth noting that not only carbon materials can be functionalized—in fact, but various polymers can also be enriched with cationic (or anionic) functional groups.
The systems operating in redox-active electrolytes with transition metals as active species need to be assembled with ion-selective membranes as separators. These membranes can mitigate the self-discharge and leakage current which are relatively high for such systems [23, 39]. Nevertheless, the application of viologens (organic molecules) as a redox additive to the electrolytic solution can also decrease self-discharge without the necessity of ion-selective membrane employment. It is caused by viologens strong adsorption at the porous electrode surface [18, 28].
The main disadvantage of using viologens is their limited solubility and large size of the molecule that can negatively influence the ECs performance [32, 41], especially because of mass-transport issues.
In the case of halide and pseudohalides-based electrolytes, a well-defined redox response is recorded at the positively polarized electrode. They are characterized by strong adsorption at the electrode surface. Hence, the self-discharge of the cell operating in such electrolytes is relatively low and the application of an ion-selective membrane is not needed. Moreover, halides can be coupled with metal ions deposition reaction, especially Zn/Zn2+, and viologen redox couple [30, 31, 55], however, such systems are no longer typical capacitors. To avoid metal dendrites formation, some additional components should be used, like dendrite suppression or nanoporous separators [56, 57, 58, 59].
The standard potentials of bromide and iodide reactions are similar; however, the bromides demonstrate slightly higher values [60]. It can be beneficial for reaching higher energy of the ECs, as the operating voltage might be shifted toward higher values. Nonetheless, bromide solutions are toxic, so for safety, it is favorable to use iodide-based solutions. Also due to the high standard potential of Br−/Br2, close to oxygen evolution potential, the electrolyte decomposition can be difficult to control and corrosion on current collectors can be observed [31]. Iodide-based ECs are widely described in the literature. These systems are characterized by stable operation even during long-term experiments [32, 61, 62].
Pseudohalides solutions exhibit similar electrochemical behavior to halide solutions when used as electrolytes in ECs but self-discharge is definitely more pronounced. Thiocyanates-based solutions are especially interesting for ECs application due to their higher maximum operating voltage than selenocyanate-based electrolytes. Moreover, the energy and power of such systems are comparable to those reached in iodide-based electrolytes, but their lifespan is still limited [41].
Organometallic-based electrolytes (ferricyanide- or ferrocyanide-based solutions) ensure the promising performance of the ECs. The main drawback of these electrolytes is high self-discharge, seen as low efficiency, especially at low current loads. Therefore, ion-selective membranes are very often used to limit redox shuttling [48, 63].
3.1.3 Non-ionic aqueous redox-active electrolytes
Even in aqueous-based systems, organic redox-active additives can be used. For instance, hydroquinone (HQ), anthraquinone [64, 65, 66], catechol (an isomer of benzoquinone), rutin [67], p-phenylenediamine [68], and conducting polymers [69, 70] (if soluble in water) are popular neutral electroactive species added to the electrolytic solutions. To enable redox reaction with proton transfer, the use of supporting electrolytes is necessary. For this reason, acid solutions (H2SO4) are used as a source of protons. As a consequence, the maximum operating voltage of the ECs operating in an acidic medium is limited to ∼1 V, and, because of corrosion issues, the use of gold or other noble metal current collectors is necessary.
As the representative reaction, the reduction of benzoquinone to hydroquinone (Q/HQ) is presented in Eq. (7).
E7
Moreover, the conductivity of the electrolytic solutions with organic molecules can be diminished. Therefore, additional ionic species are very often introduced (like neutral salts—KNO3 or alkaline KOH [71]); hence, the formation of EDL can be more efficient. These systems are also characterized by considerable self-discharge related to the movement of neutral molecules between the polarized electrodes. To reduce self-discharge and increase the efficiency of the charging and discharging processes, the use of an expensive proton exchange membrane is recommended, which significantly increases the price of ECs [72]. The cells operating in the electrolytes with polymeric additives (i.e., sulfonated polyaniline or p-nitroaniline) also required the use of cheaper membranes. It is possible to use a semipermeable membrane that allows the movement of protons and supporting ions like SO42−. The drawback of such electrolytes is the solubility of the polymeric molecules—when the concentration of electroactive molecules is relatively low, the capacity of the cell is also limited [69]. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the ECs with new polymer-based electrolytes to develop these systems and reach satisfactory operating parameters.
3.1.4 Cationic-anionic electrolytes
As cationic additives exhibit redox activity at the negatively polarized electrode and anionic additives at the positively polarized one, they can be combined, giving significant performance improvement. These redox couples should be carefully selected because they must be stable and soluble under the same conditions. Otherwise, it would be necessary to use more expensive separators/membranes and the assembly process would be more complex [18]. ECs operating in the electrolyte containing viologen cation and halide anion were tested. In the case of the electrolyte with MV2+ and I− redox-active species during cell charging, an irreversible capacitance loss was noticed. It was caused by precipitate formation (MX•+–I−) [73]. When the iodide was replaced by bromide (the anion of higher standard potential) the processes were reversible, and higher energy was reached. However, because of the high potential needed for Br−/Br3− activity, the signs of corrosion were observed. MVCl2/KBr-based cells suffer from a relatively high self-discharge, which was more pronounced than for halide-based electrolytes, suggesting that MV species are, mostly, responsible for this voltage loss. Therefore, other viologen was used—1,10-diheptyl-4,40-bipyridinium dibromide (HVBr2), resulting in lower self-discharge. Probably, not only stronger adsorption of HV2+ cation was the reason for the lower self-discharge but also these cations were immobilized due to the precipitate formation within the carbon electrode [74]. The optimization of redox-active species concentration, choice of the appropriate counter anion/cation for redox-active cation/anion, respectively, and experimental conditions optimization is definitely more complex and time-consuming than for one active component within the electrolytic solution. However, taking into account the significant improvement of the energy stored in the EC operating in the redox-active electrolytes, it is still worth discovering the potential of this field.
3.2 Redox-mediated nonaqueous electrolytes
Commercially used ECs very often employ nonaqueous electrolytes (organic ones) despite the fact, that they cannot be considered environmentally friendly solutions, because of the necessity of toxic solvents use—like acetonitrile or propylene carbonate. However, they have a few advantages that make them more attractive for ECs construction: wider electrochemical window (up to 3.8 V [75, 76]) which allows higher energy to be stored, and long cycle life. On the other hand, there are ionic liquids called “green solutions”, that can be also used in ECs but they are relatively expensive.
3.2.1 Organic electrolytes with redox activity
In the organic electrolytes, conductive salts like tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF4), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (EMImTFSI), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), are dissolved in acetonitrile (ACN) or propylene carbonate (PC), which are the most popular solvents for ECs application [22, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81]. As already mentioned, organic electrolytes allow the ECs to operate at higher voltages than aqueous-based electrolytes do [82] and they provide higher power than the systems with ionic liquid (IL) electrolytes [11, 83] due to the higher ionic conductivity of organic electrolytes.
The maximum voltage of reported organic-based cells is 2.5 V, when IL (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ferrocenylsulfonyl-(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)-imide, [EMIm][FcNTf]) in ACN [76] and p-phenylenediamine additive to lithium perchlorate LiClO4 in ACN [84] were used as electrolytes. The mixture of microporous carbon with carbon black and graphite was used as the electrode material. However, there are also other materials that can be used, for instance two-dimensional titanium carbide (MXene) [81].
Organic electrolytes exhibiting redox activity are not as popular as aqueous electrolytes. Therefore, there is a gap in this field of study as there are many possible redox additives that could be employed for organic electrolytes [85].
3.2.2 Ionic liquids
Ionic liquids (ILs) are compounds composed entirely of ions—bulky, usually asymmetric organic cation and anion (weakly coordinating) that can be both organic and inorganic [86, 87]. As they are ionic conductive, there is no need to use additional solvents. They are characterized by high electrochemical stability, ensuring a high voltage window (>3 V) and high thermal stability [88, 89]. It is possible to introduce redox additives to IL, for example by incorporating metal ions (Cu2+ added in the form of copper chloride to [EMIm][BF4] [40], neutral redox molecules [90, 91] (HQ added to [TEA][TFSI] [92]) or sulfates (SnSO4 and VOSO4 [23]).
However, ILs themselves can also exhibit redox activity if an anion of IL is electroactive. Hence, such an electrolyte can be called redox-active IL. To observe effective and beneficial redox contribution to ECs charge/discharge, a high concentration of electroactive species needs to be ensured. Electrolyte composed of two ILs—[EMIm][BF4] and [EMIm]Br, where the latter one is a redox additive (1 mol L−1) to the former one, was used in microporous electrodes-based EC. The operating parameters were significantly improved due to the bromide activity (the specific energy was almost twice higher if compared to the [EMIm]BF4-based system, where only EDL formation is assumed, and the Coulombic efficiency was ∼100%) [83]. Moreover, the leakage current was reduced, probably due to strong adsorption of halide on the positively charged carbon electrode, described for aqueous-based cells [18, 32].
Biredox ILs can also be used as electrolytes for ECs. The idea arises due to the potential balancing issue when additives, like metal ions, HQ, or redox-active anions, are introduced to the system operating with microporous carbon electrodes [75]. The cation of IL ([BMIm][TFSI]) was functionalized with AQ, whereas the anion was functionalized with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxyl (TEMPO) molecule. The energy density of such a system was definitely higher than for IL with redox additive as an electrolyte but the specific power and lifetime were rather moderate.
The application of redox-active IL as electrolytes in ECs is a promising strategy to increase the specific energy of the systems. However, one should take into account that the price of such devices is relatively high. Moreover, the power performance and the lifespan of the ECs operating in ILs should be improved.
3.2.3 Redox-mediated gel electrolytes
Gels are characterized by very good stability (both chemical and mechanical) and they can be made of eco-friendly materials [93]. They can be successfully applied as electrolytes (based on aqueous solutions or ILs) for ECs [61, 94, 95]. Gel electrolytes were introduced to ECs to reduce their self-discharge [96] and enable the development of flexible devices, where liquid electrolytes would expose the cells to leaks. Redox mediators can be introduced to the gel electrolytes and increase both ionic conductivity and capacitance of the ECs [97]. For instance, when indigo carmine was added to the gel electrolyte based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sulfuric acid, the ionic conductivity increased by almost 190% [98]. Moreover, the lifetime of the devices can be prolonged. Redox-active compounds, like 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide and bromide (BMImI, BMImBr) [99, 100], 1-anthraquinone sulfonic acid sodium [101], 1,4-naphthoquinone [102], including indigo carmine [98] and FeBr3 [103], can be incorporated into gel structure. BMImBr with Li2SO4 as an additive to the PVA-based gel electrolyte was reported as a perfect solution for lowering self-discharge, increasing energy, and lifetime of the EC [100]. Flexible capacitors based on gel electrolyte—poly(methyl methacrylate)-propylene carbonate-lithium perchlorate electrolyte with HQ as a neutral redox additive were also investigated [104].
4. Summary
Redox-active electrolytes can be successfully applied in electrochemical capacitors and these electrolytes remarkably improve the energy density. It is crucial to use redox additives with a well-reversible and well-defined redox response, as the efficiency of charging/discharging should not be affected by redox process.
A variety of redox couples can be selected depending on the user’s requirements: for the systems based on aqueous or nonaqueous electrolyte, with redox species supposed to be active at the positively or negatively polarized electrode, or which parameters are the most important—high energy, high power, or very long cycle life. Taking into account aqueous-based redox-active electrolytes, the most attractive from the practical point of view are cationic and anionic electroactive species—because of their good solubility in water ensuring high conductivity of the solution. Moreover, the cells operating in organic/polymer-based electrolytes are more expensive due to the proton/ions permeable membranes that have to be used.
There are also a few issues that need to be solved. Redox species cause higher self-discharge of the cell in comparison to ECs with pure EDL formation. Therefore, it would be beneficial to “trap” the redox species within the pores of the material to prevent their movement to the electrolyte bulk. Moreover, the lifetime of EC with redox-active electrolytes should be prolonged, because it is still significantly shorter than the lifetime of the cell operating in the typical capacitive electrolytes.
Nevertheless, redox-active electrolytes in electrochemical capacitors offer an interesting alternative to the solid-state compounds and composites with maintained power and improved charge/discharge efficiency.
Acknowledgments
European Research Council Starting Grant 2017 project “IMMOCAP” (GA 759603) is acknowledged for financial support covering The Open Access Publishing Fee.
\n',keywords:"energy storage devices, electrochemical capacitor, redox-active electrolytes, aqueous electrolytes, organic electrolytes, ionic liquids",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82088.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82088.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82088",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82088",totalDownloads:15,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 9th 2022",dateReviewed:"April 15th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 3rd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 2nd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Electrochemistry is strongly related to redox reactions. Charge transfer processes are used for the current generation in all electrochemical cells. Nowadays, redox reactions are still of evitable importance for energy storage/conversion technology. For instance, the charge and discharge of batteries exploit redox reactions. Moreover, these processes can also be used to improve the operating parameters of other energy storage devices like electrochemical capacitors. Although, in principle, the energy in electrochemical capacitors is stored in an electrostatic manner (by electrical double-layer formation), the redox reactions introduce an additional charge and improve the energy of these systems. This chapter presents the principles of electrochemical capacitors’ operation and provides comprehensive insights into this technology with special attention focused on hybrid systems, exploiting the redox activity of the electrolytic solution.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82088",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82088",signatures:"Paulina Bujewska, Przemysław Galek, Elżbieta Frąckowiak and Krzysztof Fic",book:{id:"11213",type:"book",title:"Redox Chemistry - From Molecules to Energy Storage",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Redox Chemistry - From Molecules to Energy Storage",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Olivier Fontaine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11213.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-538-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-537-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-539-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"347437",title:"Prof.",name:"Olivier",middleName:null,surname:"Fontaine",slug:"olivier-fontaine",fullName:"Olivier Fontaine"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Electrochemical capacitors: definition, construction, types",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Redox-mediated electrolytes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Aqueous redox-active electrolytes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Cationic aqueous redox-active electrolytes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Anionic aqueous redox-active electrolytes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Non-ionic aqueous redox-active electrolytes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 Cationic-anionic electrolytes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Redox-mediated nonaqueous electrolytes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.1 Organic electrolytes with redox activity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.2 Ionic liquids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.3 Redox-mediated gel electrolytes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. 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Toughened redox-active hydrogel as flexible electrolyte and separator applying supercapacitors with superior performance. RSC Advances. 2016;6(79):75896-77594'},{id:"B102",body:'Hashemi M, Rahmanifar MS, El-Kady MF, Noori A, Mousavi MF, Kaner RB. The use of an electrocatalytic redox electrolyte for pushing the energy density boundary of a flexible polyaniline electrode to a new limit. Nano Energy. 2018;44:489-498'},{id:"B103",body:'Wang Y, Chang Z, Qian M, Zhang Z, Lin J, Huang F. Enhanced specific capacitance by a new dual redox-active electrolyte in activated carbon-based supercapacitors. Carbon (New York). 2019;143:300-308'},{id:"B104",body:'Kim D, Lee G, Kim D, Yun J, Lee S-S, Ha JS. High performance flexible double-sided micro-supercapacitors with an organic gel electrolyte containing a redox-active additive. Nanoscale. 2016;8(34):15611-15620'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Paulina Bujewska",address:null,affiliation:'
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Since no superfluid has exact zero viscosity, we analyze the consequences of SQS’s viscosity on light propagation, and we show that a static Universe could be possible, by solving a modified Navier-Stokes equation. Indeed, Hubble’s law may actually refer to tired light, though described as energy loss due to SQS’s nonzero viscosity instead of Compton scattering, bypassing known historical problems concerning tired light. We see that SQS’s viscosity may also account for the Pioneer anomaly. Our evaluation gives a magnitude of the anomalous acceleration aP = −HΛc = −8.785°10−10 ms−2. Here, HΛ is the Hubble parameter loaded by the cosmological constant Λ. Furthermore, the vorticity equation stemming from the modified Navier-Stokes equation gives a solution for flat profile of the orbital speed of spiral galaxies and discloses what one might call a breathing of galaxies due to energy exchange between the galactic vortex and dark energy.",book:{id:"5918",slug:"trends-in-modern-cosmology",title:"Trends in Modern Cosmology",fullTitle:"Trends in Modern Cosmology"},signatures:"Valeriy I. 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Multiple scattering was employed to reconstruct the location of scattering centres, producing 2D and 3D images of the interior of hidden volumes (muon tomography). Additional possibilities of cosmic muons have been exploited even for the alignment of large civil structures and in the study of their stability. All these applications benefit from the development of advanced detection techniques and improvement in software algorithms. This contribution surveys the state of the art of these applications, with special emphasis on their possibilities and limitations.",book:{id:"6768",slug:"cosmic-rays",title:"Cosmic Rays",fullTitle:"Cosmic Rays"},signatures:"Paola La Rocca, Domenico Lo Presti and Francesco Riggi",authors:[{id:"18197",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Riggi",slug:"francesco-riggi",fullName:"Francesco Riggi"},{id:"18200",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola",middleName:null,surname:"La Rocca",slug:"paola-la-rocca",fullName:"Paola La Rocca"},{id:"243971",title:"Dr.",name:"Domenico",middleName:null,surname:"Lo Presti",slug:"domenico-lo-presti",fullName:"Domenico Lo Presti"}]},{id:"54705",doi:"10.5772/68116",title:"The Impact of Baryons on the Large-Scale Structure of the Universe",slug:"the-impact-of-baryons-on-the-large-scale-structure-of-the-universe",totalDownloads:1464,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Numerical simulations play an important role in current astronomy researches. Previous dark-matter-only simulations have represented the large-scale structure of the Universe. However, nowadays, hydro-dynamical simulations with baryonic models, which can directly present realistic galaxies, may twist these results from dark-matter-only simulations. In this chapter, we mainly focus on these three statistical methods: power spectrum, two-point correlation function and halo mass function, which are normally used to characterize the large-scale structure of the Universe. We review how these baryon processes influence the cosmology structures from very large scale to quasi-linear and non-linear scales by comparing dark-matter-only simulations with their hydro-dynamical counterparts. At last, we make a brief discussion on the impacts coming from different baryon models and simulation codes.",book:{id:"5918",slug:"trends-in-modern-cosmology",title:"Trends in Modern Cosmology",fullTitle:"Trends in Modern Cosmology"},signatures:"Weiguang Cui and Youcai Zhang",authors:[{id:"199688",title:"Dr.",name:"Weiguang",middleName:null,surname:"Cui",slug:"weiguang-cui",fullName:"Weiguang Cui"},{id:"205491",title:"Dr.",name:"Youcai",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"youcai-zhang",fullName:"Youcai Zhang"}]},{id:"55164",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68410",title:"Cosmological Consequences of a Quantum Theory of Mass and Gravity",slug:"cosmological-consequences-of-a-quantum-theory-of-mass-and-gravity",totalDownloads:1550,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The understanding of several cosmological problems that has been obtained from the development of the Generation Model (GM) of particle physics is presented. The GM is presented as a viable simpler alternative to the Standard Model (SM). The GM considers the elementary particles of the SM to be composite particles and this substructure leads to new paradigms for both mass and gravity, which in turn lead to an understanding of several cosmological problems: the matter-antimatter asymmetry of the universe, dark matter and dark energy. The GM provides a unified origin of mass and the composite nature of the leptons and quarks of the GM leads to a solution of the cosmological matter-antimatter asymmetry problem. The GM also provides a new universal quantum theory of gravity in terms of a residual interaction of a strong color-like interaction, analogous to quantum chromodynamics (QCD). This very weak residual interaction has two important properties: antiscreening and finite range, that provide an understanding of dark matter and dark energy, respectively, in the universe.",book:{id:"5918",slug:"trends-in-modern-cosmology",title:"Trends in Modern Cosmology",fullTitle:"Trends in Modern Cosmology"},signatures:"Brian Albert Robson",authors:[{id:"102886",title:"Prof.",name:"Brian Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Robson",slug:"brian-albert-robson",fullName:"Brian Albert Robson"}]},{id:"61637",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76283",title:"Gamma Ray Bursts: Progenitors, Accretion in the Central Engine, Jet Acceleration Mechanisms",slug:"gamma-ray-bursts-progenitors-accretion-in-the-central-engine-jet-acceleration-mechanisms",totalDownloads:927,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The collapsar model was proposed to explain the long-duration gamma ray bursts (GRBs), while the short GRBs are associated with the mergers of compact objects. In the first case, mainly the energetics of the events is consistent with the proposed progenitor models, while the duration, time variability, as well as the afterglow emission may shed some light on the detailed properties of the collapsing massive stars. In the latter case, the recent discovery of the binary neutron star (NS-NS) merger in the gravitational wave observation made by LIGO (GW170817) and the detection of associated electromagnetic counterparts, for the first time, gave a direct proof of the NS-NS merger being a progenitor of a short GRB. In general, all GRBs are believed to be powered by accretion through a rotationally supported torus, or by fast rotation of a compact object. For long ones, the rotation of the progenitor star is a key property in order to support accretion over relatively long activity periods and also to sustain the rotation of the black hole itself. The latter is responsible for ejection of the relativistic jets, which are powered due to the extraction of the BH rotational energy, mitigated by the accretion torus, and magnetic fields. The jets must break through the stellar envelope though, which poses a question on the efficiency of this process. Similar mechanisms of powering the jet ejection may act in short GRBs, which in this case may freely propagate through the interstellar medium. The power of the jets launched from the rotating black hole is at first associated mostly with the magnetic Poynting flux, and then, at large distances it is transferred to the kinetic and finally radiative energy of the expanding shells. Beyond the radiative processes expected to take place in the jet propagation phase after the stellar envelope crossing, the significant fraction of the jet acceleration is expected to take place inside the stellar envelope and just right after it in the case of a significant decrease of the exterior pressure support. The implications of the hot cocoon formed during the penetration of the stellar body and the interaction of the outflow with the surrounding material are crucial not only for the outflow collimation but also provide specific observational imprints with most notorious observed panchromatic break in the afterglow lightcurves. Thus a significant number of models have been developed for both matter and Poynting dominated otuflows. In this chapter, we discuss these processes from the theoretical point of view and we highlight the mechanisms responsible for the ultimate production of electromagnetic transients called GRBs. We also speculate on the possible GRB-GW associacion scenarios. Finally, in the context of the recently discovered short GRB and its extended multiwalength emission, we present a model that connects the neutron-rich ejecta launched from the accreting torus in the GRB engine with the production of the unstable heavy isotopes produced in the so-called r-process. The radioactive decay of these isotopes is the source of additional emission observed in optical/infrared wavelengths and was confirmed to be found in a number of sources.",book:{id:"6768",slug:"cosmic-rays",title:"Cosmic Rays",fullTitle:"Cosmic Rays"},signatures:"Agnieszka Janiuk and Konstantinos Sapountzis",authors:[{id:"239614",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:null,surname:"Janiuk",slug:"agnieszka-janiuk",fullName:"Agnieszka Janiuk"},{id:"240376",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Sapountzis",slug:"konstantinos-sapountzis",fullName:"Konstantinos Sapountzis"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54580",title:"The Importance of Cosmology in Culture: Contexts and Consequences",slug:"the-importance-of-cosmology-in-culture-contexts-and-consequences",totalDownloads:3284,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Scientific cosmology is the study of the universe through astronomy and physics. However, cosmology also has a significant cultural impact. People construct anthropological cosmologies (notions about the way the world works), drawing in scientific theories in order to construct models for activities in disciplines, such as politics and psychology. In addition, the arts (literature, film and painting, for example) comment on cosmological ideas and use them to develop plot lines and content. This chapter illustrates examples of such work, arguing that scientific cosmology should be understood as a significant cultural influence.",book:{id:"5918",slug:"trends-in-modern-cosmology",title:"Trends in Modern Cosmology",fullTitle:"Trends in Modern Cosmology"},signatures:"Nicholas Campion",authors:[{id:"200410",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas",middleName:null,surname:"Campion",slug:"nicholas-campion",fullName:"Nicholas Campion"}]},{id:"55416",title:"Constraining the Parameters of a Model for Cold Dark Matter",slug:"constraining-the-parameters-of-a-model-for-cold-dark-matter",totalDownloads:1269,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter aims at reviewing how modeling cold dark matter as weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) gets increasingly constrained as models have to face stringent cosmological and phenomenological experimental results as well as internal theoretical requirements like those coming from a renormalization-group analysis. The review is based on the work done on a two-singlet extension of the Standard Model of elementary particles. We conclude that the model stays viable in physically meaningful regions that soon will be probed by direct-detection experiments.",book:{id:"5918",slug:"trends-in-modern-cosmology",title:"Trends in Modern Cosmology",fullTitle:"Trends in Modern Cosmology"},signatures:"Abdessamad Abada and Salah Nasri",authors:[{id:"54894",title:"Prof.",name:"Salah",middleName:null,surname:"Nasri",slug:"salah-nasri",fullName:"Salah Nasri"},{id:"61340",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdessamad",middleName:null,surname:"Abada",slug:"abdessamad-abada",fullName:"Abdessamad Abada"}]},{id:"69434",title:"Applications of the Abelian Vortex Model to Cosmic Strings and the Universe Evolution",slug:"applications-of-the-abelian-vortex-model-to-cosmic-strings-and-the-universe-evolution",totalDownloads:775,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Due to the wide range of applications and effects of the Abelian vortex model of Nielsen and Olesen in the many areas of physics, ranging from condensed matter to astrophysical effects, some work in the literature is necessary to approach this topic in a succinct form that the undergraduate student in both physics and related areas has the possibility to know and understand. The mechanisms associated with this vortex model indicate him as a strong candidate for the source for the topological defects proposed by Vilenkin.",book:{id:"7357",slug:"new-ideas-concerning-black-holes-and-the-universe",title:"New Ideas Concerning Black Holes and the Universe",fullTitle:"New Ideas Concerning Black Holes and the Universe"},signatures:"Mikael Souto Maior de Sousa and Anderson Alves de Lima",authors:[{id:"274390",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikael Souto",middleName:null,surname:"Maior De Sousa",slug:"mikael-souto-maior-de-sousa",fullName:"Mikael Souto Maior De Sousa"},{id:"284103",title:"Dr.",name:"Anderson",middleName:null,surname:"Alves De Lima",slug:"anderson-alves-de-lima",fullName:"Anderson Alves De Lima"}]},{id:"54849",title:"Superfluid Quantum Space and Evolution of the Universe",slug:"superfluid-quantum-space-and-evolution-of-the-universe",totalDownloads:1779,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"We assume that dark energy and dark matter filling up the whole cosmic space behave as a special superfluid, here named “superfluid quantum space.” We analyze the relationship between intrinsic pressure of SQS (dark energy's repulsive force) and gravity, described as an inflow of dark energy into massive particles, causing a negative pressure gradient around massive bodies. Since no superfluid has exact zero viscosity, we analyze the consequences of SQS’s viscosity on light propagation, and we show that a static Universe could be possible, by solving a modified Navier-Stokes equation. Indeed, Hubble’s law may actually refer to tired light, though described as energy loss due to SQS’s nonzero viscosity instead of Compton scattering, bypassing known historical problems concerning tired light. We see that SQS’s viscosity may also account for the Pioneer anomaly. Our evaluation gives a magnitude of the anomalous acceleration aP = −HΛc = −8.785°10−10 ms−2. Here, HΛ is the Hubble parameter loaded by the cosmological constant Λ. Furthermore, the vorticity equation stemming from the modified Navier-Stokes equation gives a solution for flat profile of the orbital speed of spiral galaxies and discloses what one might call a breathing of galaxies due to energy exchange between the galactic vortex and dark energy.",book:{id:"5918",slug:"trends-in-modern-cosmology",title:"Trends in Modern Cosmology",fullTitle:"Trends in Modern Cosmology"},signatures:"Valeriy I. Sbitnev and Marco Fedi",authors:[{id:"93881",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeriy",middleName:null,surname:"Sbitnev",slug:"valeriy-sbitnev",fullName:"Valeriy Sbitnev"},{id:"200600",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Fedi",slug:"marco-fedi",fullName:"Marco Fedi"}]},{id:"60002",title:"Cosmic Ray Muons as Penetrating Probes to Explore the World around Us",slug:"cosmic-ray-muons-as-penetrating-probes-to-explore-the-world-around-us",totalDownloads:1379,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Secondary cosmic muons provide a powerful probe to explore various aspects of the world around us. Various physical processes have been employed over the last years for such applications. Muon absorption was used to probe the interior of natural and man-made structures, from the Egypt pyramids to big volcanoes, contributing to interdisciplinary studies. Multiple scattering was employed to reconstruct the location of scattering centres, producing 2D and 3D images of the interior of hidden volumes (muon tomography). Additional possibilities of cosmic muons have been exploited even for the alignment of large civil structures and in the study of their stability. All these applications benefit from the development of advanced detection techniques and improvement in software algorithms. This contribution surveys the state of the art of these applications, with special emphasis on their possibilities and limitations.",book:{id:"6768",slug:"cosmic-rays",title:"Cosmic Rays",fullTitle:"Cosmic Rays"},signatures:"Paola La Rocca, Domenico Lo Presti and Francesco Riggi",authors:[{id:"18197",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Riggi",slug:"francesco-riggi",fullName:"Francesco Riggi"},{id:"18200",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola",middleName:null,surname:"La Rocca",slug:"paola-la-rocca",fullName:"Paola La Rocca"},{id:"243971",title:"Dr.",name:"Domenico",middleName:null,surname:"Lo Presti",slug:"domenico-lo-presti",fullName:"Domenico Lo Presti"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"221",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"82362",title:"Studies on the Short-Term Effects of the Cease of Pesticides Use on Vineyard Microbiome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105706",signatures:"Simona Ghiță, Mihaela Hnatiuc, Aurora Ranca, Victoria Artem and Mădălina-Andreea Ciocan",slug:"studies-on-the-short-term-effects-of-the-cease-of-pesticides-use-on-vineyard-microbiome",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"82297",title:"The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus in Drylands of Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103905",signatures:"Zenebe Mekonnen",slug:"the-climate-change-agriculture-nexus-in-drylands-of-ethiopia",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",signatures:"André J. Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"11475",title:"Food Security Challenges and Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11475.jpg",hash:"090302a30e461cee643ec49675c811ec",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 5th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11450",title:"Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic on the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11450.jpg",hash:"a58c7b02d07903004be70f744f2e1835",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11477",title:"Public Economics - New Perspectives and Uncertainty",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11477.jpg",hash:"a8e6c515dc924146fbd2712eb4e7d118",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 27th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"414400",title:"Dr.",name:"Habtamu",surname:"Alem",slug:"habtamu-alem",fullName:"Habtamu Alem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",hash:"8df7150b01ae754024c65d1a62f190d9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"317087",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Samec",slug:"pavel-samec",fullName:"Pavel Samec"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11474",title:"Quality of Life Interventions - Magnitude of Effect and Transferability",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11474.jpg",hash:"5a6bcdaf5ee144d043bcdab893ff9e1c",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 7th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11473",title:"Social Inequality - Structure and Social Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"82362",title:"Studies on the Short-Term Effects of the Cease of Pesticides Use on Vineyard Microbiome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105706",signatures:"Simona Ghiță, Mihaela Hnatiuc, Aurora Ranca, Victoria Artem and Mădălina-Andreea Ciocan",slug:"studies-on-the-short-term-effects-of-the-cease-of-pesticides-use-on-vineyard-microbiome",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"82297",title:"The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus in Drylands of Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103905",signatures:"Zenebe Mekonnen",slug:"the-climate-change-agriculture-nexus-in-drylands-of-ethiopia",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",signatures:"André J. Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",value:40,count:3,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Pollution",value:38,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:303,paginationItems:[{id:"313921",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan M.",middleName:null,surname:"Heshmati",slug:"hassan-m.-heshmati",fullName:"Hassan M. Heshmati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313921/images/system/313921.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hassan Massoud Heshmati is an endocrinologist with 46 years of experience in clinical research in academia (university-affiliated hospitals, Paris, France; Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN, USA) and pharmaceutical companies (Sanofi, Malvern, PA, USA; Essentialis, Carlsbad, CA, USA; Gelesis, Boston, MA, USA). His research activity focuses on pituitary tumors, hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancers, osteoporosis, diabetes, and obesity. He has extensive knowledge in the development of anti-obesity products. Dr. Heshmati is the author of 299 abstracts, chapters, and articles related to endocrinology and metabolism. He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. 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He is simultaneously working as a Researcher with Department of Agrochemistry, Soil Science, Microbiology and Plant Nutrition (FA), Mendel University Brno and Institute of Environmental Studies, Charles University Prague, Czechia. \nHis research is focused on soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation mechanisms, plant-microbe interactions, biochar production, and utilization for agricultural crop production and environmental remediation. He is actively involved in bioremediation of contaminated soils using organic and inorganic amendments in addition to exploiting plant-microbe interactions. He has published over 50 refereed journal articles, many of which sought to explore the effectiveness of innovative soil amendments and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for improving crop performance and soil resilience under various abiotic stresses. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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