Proximate composition of macauba fruit. Source: Lira et al. [36].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9246",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences",title:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Being a vital modern technology, satellite systems for navigation, telecommunication, and geosciences have developed rapidly in the last 25 years. Modern satellite technologies have become a base of our civilization and support our day-to-day activity in both practice and geosciences. This book is devoted to GNSS-remote sensing for ionosphere research, modeling and mitigation techniques to diminish the ionosphere and multipath impacts on GNSS, and survey of the modern satellite missions and technologies. We hope that the experts’ opinions presented in the book will be interesting for the research community and students in the area of satellites and space missions as well as in engineering and geoscience research.",isbn:"978-1-78985-996-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-995-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-301-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83246",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"satellites-missions-and-technologies-for-geosciences",numberOfPages:182,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f23d04613b089dae40f81342c3e7c7f4",bookSignature:"Vladislav Demyanov and Jonathan Becedas",publishedDate:"July 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9246.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8144,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:84,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 10th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"154597",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Demyanov",slug:"vladislav-demyanov",fullName:"Vladislav Demyanov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/154597/images/system/154597.jpeg",biography:"Professor Vladislav Demyanov graduated from Irkutsk Military Aviation Engineering Institute as an electronic engineer in 1993, received his PhD in radio-wave physics from Irkutsk State University in 2000 and his doctorate of science degree in Engineering from Siberian Federal University (Krasnoyarsk, Russia) in 2011. \nHe has been working for the Institute of Solar and Terrestrial Physics and for Irkutsk State Transport University as a senior researcher and as a Professor. As an expert in his field, he is a member of the Radio-engineering Science Council of Siberian Federal University and a Head of State Examination Commission of Moscow State Aviation University.\nHis research interests are: ionosphere scintillation research, science education, navigation solutions for transport, and space weather impacts on GNSS.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"213157",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Becedas",slug:"jonathan-becedas",fullName:"Jonathan Becedas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213157/images/system/213157.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Jonathan Becedas is an Electrical Engineer and Industrial Engineer who graduated with honors. He holds a Master in Research and a PhD in Mechatronics from the University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM), Spain. He is the author of nearly 100 fully refereed scientific papers and has participated in over 20 competitive research projects, many of them for NASA, ESA, and the European Commission. He held a position of Researcher and Associate Professor at the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) from 2002 until 2009 and was a Research Associate at the University of Leicester (United Kingdom) from 2009 until 2011. He was Head of the Robotics Department in Ixion Industry and Aerospace from 2011 until 2013. In that year he joined Elecnor Deimos Satellite Systems as Research Manager. He is currently R&D Manager and Head of the Projects Department in Elecnor Deimos Satellite Systems, where he coordinates R&D projects and satellite missions.",institutionString:"Elecnor Deimos Satellite Systems",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"637",title:"Spatial Analysis",slug:"spatial-analysis"}],chapters:[{id:"70189",title:"GNSS High-Rate Data and the Efficiency of Ionospheric Scintillation Indices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90078",slug:"gnss-high-rate-data-and-the-efficiency-of-ionospheric-scintillation-indices",totalDownloads:745,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The work discusses the efficiency of different ionospheric scintillation indices. The new index D2fi based on the GNSS carrier phase observable was introduced. We analyze the accuracy of the phase measurements, in particular its dependence on the GNSS equipment thermal noises, multipath and external noises, and presettings of Phase Lock Loop and Code Delay Discriminator. The performance of DROTI, S4, σφ, and D2fi was considered for the case of high-rate data. The “sensitivity” and reliability of each index differs significantly and depends on the time resolution of the carrier phase data. The new index D2fi advantages are that it is easily derived and has a clear dependence on GNSS hardware and software features. D2fi was proven to be a useful tool to detect the small-scale ionospheric disturbances based on high-rate GPS carrier phase measurements.",signatures:"Vladislav V. Demyanov, Maria A. Sergeeva and Anna S. Yasyukevich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70189",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70189",authors:[{id:"154597",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladislav",surname:"Demyanov",slug:"vladislav-demyanov",fullName:"Vladislav Demyanov"},{id:"299487",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Sergeeva",slug:"maria-sergeeva",fullName:"Maria Sergeeva"},{id:"307343",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Yasyukevich",slug:"anna-yasyukevich",fullName:"Anna Yasyukevich"}],corrections:null},{id:"68567",title:"The Influence of the Lower Ionospheric Disturbances on the Operating Conditions of Navigation Satellite Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88552",slug:"the-influence-of-the-lower-ionospheric-disturbances-on-the-operating-conditions-of-navigation-satell",totalDownloads:746,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study of the impact of ionospheric disturbances on the conditions of functioning of satellite communication and navigation systems and the development of methods to reduce this effect requires the development of methods for evaluating the parameters of ionospheric disturbances and their spatial and temporal distribution. Studies show that electron concentration disturbances, which can have a significant impact on the functioning of transionospheric radio channels, can occur both in the upper and lower ionosphere. At the same time, the methods of studying the dynamics of ionospheric disturbances in the lower ionosphere are not enough developed, and the interrelation of the lower and upper perturbations of the ionosphere is insufficiently studied. The aim of the work is an experimental study of disturbances of the upper and lower ionosphere in order to clarify the mechanisms of their relationship and study the spatiotemporal distribution of mid-latitude disturbances. The results obtained show that the contribution of the electron density disturbances in the D region to the total electron content of the ionosphere can be significant and considerably depends on the type of heliogeophysical processes.",signatures:"Boris Gavrilov, Yuriy Poklad and Iliya Ryakhovskiy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68567",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68567",authors:[{id:"300632",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",surname:"Gavrilov",slug:"boris-gavrilov",fullName:"Boris Gavrilov"},{id:"301271",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuriy",surname:"Poklad",slug:"yuriy-poklad",fullName:"Yuriy Poklad"},{id:"301272",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilya",surname:"Ryakhovskiy",slug:"ilya-ryakhovskiy",fullName:"Ilya Ryakhovskiy"}],corrections:null},{id:"70213",title:"Real-Time Monitoring of Ionospheric Irregularities and TEC Perturbations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90036",slug:"real-time-monitoring-of-ionospheric-irregularities-and-tec-perturbations",totalDownloads:876,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The ionosphere is a part of the upper atmosphere that is a threat to GNSS and satellite telecommunication systems. In this chapter, we will dive into the GNSS real-time monitoring of ionospheric irregularities and TEC perturbations, with a focus on the detection of small- and medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) for natural hazard applications. We will describe the Variometric Approach for Real-Time Ionosphere Observation (VARION) algorithm, which is capable of estimating TEC variations in real time, and it was used to detect tsunami-induced TIDs. In particular, the analytical and physical implications of applying the VARION algorithm both to GNSS dual-frequency MEO (medium Earth orbit) and GEO (geostationary orbit) satellites will be provided, thus highlighting its relevance for natural hazard early warning systems and real-time monitoring of ionospheric irregularities.",signatures:"Giorgio Savastano and Michela Ravanelli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70213",authors:[{id:"303941",title:"Dr.",name:"Giorgio",surname:"Savastano",slug:"giorgio-savastano",fullName:"Giorgio Savastano"},{id:"303943",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michela",surname:"Ravanelli",slug:"michela-ravanelli",fullName:"Michela Ravanelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"72133",title:"GPS Signal Multipath Error Mitigation Technique",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92295",slug:"gps-signal-multipath-error-mitigation-technique",totalDownloads:631,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The performance of GPS receiver depends on the accuracy of the range measurements. The predominant errors in range measurements are due to propagation path delays, making the measured range longer than it would be, if the signal has not reflected or refracted while propagating. In this chapter, an algorithm is proposed to mitigate the multipath error on the pseudorange measured from L1 carrier frequency. The error is estimated considering the linear combination of the GPS measurements and carrier frequencies of L band, viz. L1 and L2. This algorithm exploits the random nature of the multipath error and it avoids complex calculations involving sensitive parameter like reflection coefficient of the nearby reflectors. The multipath error is mitigated for standalone GPS receiver located in Indian subcontinent. Implementation of the algorithm shows pseudorange error due to multipath varied from 7 to 52 m, where the signals of low elevation satellites are most affected. GPS receiver position is calculated by considering multipath error corrected pseudoranges of all the visible satellites. This resulted in maximum error reduction of 30 m in receiver position estimates. This mitigation technique will be useful in selecting the site for GPS receiving antenna, where reflection coefficients are difficult to measure.",signatures:"Bharati Bidikar, Babji Prasad Chapa, Mogadala Vinod Kumar and Gottapu Sasibhushana Rao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72133",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72133",authors:[{id:"227785",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharati",surname:"Bidikar",slug:"bharati-bidikar",fullName:"Bharati Bidikar"},{id:"227794",title:"Prof.",name:"Gottapu",surname:"Sasibhushana Rao",slug:"gottapu-sasibhushana-rao",fullName:"Gottapu Sasibhushana Rao"},{id:"312020",title:"Mr.",name:"Babji Prasad",surname:"Chapa",slug:"babji-prasad-chapa",fullName:"Babji Prasad Chapa"},{id:"320171",title:"Dr.",name:"Mogadala Vinod",surname:"Kumar",slug:"mogadala-vinod-kumar",fullName:"Mogadala Vinod Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70180",title:"The Impact of Space Radiation Environment on Satellites Operation in Near-Earth Space",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90115",slug:"the-impact-of-space-radiation-environment-on-satellites-operation-in-near-earth-space",totalDownloads:1261,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Energetic particles and electromagnetic radiation (EM) from solar events and galactic cosmic rays can bombard and interact with satellites’ exposed surfaces, and sometimes possess enough energy to penetrate their surface. Among other known effects, the scenario can cause accelerated orbit decay due to atmospheric drag, sporadic and unexplainable errors in functions of sensitive parts, degradation of critical properties of structural materials, jeopardy of flight worthiness, transient and terminal health hazard to both onboard passengers and astronauts, and sometimes a catastrophic failure that can abruptly end satellite mission. The understanding of the dynamics of the space radiation environment and associated effects is critically important for satellites design and operation in ionospheric plasma environment, in which satellites are designed to function. In this chapter we review some satellite anomalies associated with the space radiation environment and conclude with mitigation effort that can reduce such impact.",signatures:"Victor U. J. Nwankwo, Nnamdi N. Jibiri and Michael T. Kio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70180",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70180",authors:[{id:"94563",title:"Dr.",name:"Nnamdi",surname:"Jibiri",slug:"nnamdi-jibiri",fullName:"Nnamdi Jibiri"},{id:"300878",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Nwankwo",slug:"victor-nwankwo",fullName:"Victor Nwankwo"},{id:"310318",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Kio",slug:"michael-kio",fullName:"Michael Kio"}],corrections:null},{id:"69333",title:"Ionospheric Scintillation Modeling Needs and Tricks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88313",slug:"ionospheric-scintillation-modeling-needs-and-tricks",totalDownloads:469,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The wavelength of the radio-wave satellite signal is of the order of the minimal small-scale ionospheric irregularities (i.e., a few centimeters). As the satellite signal passes through the ionosphere, its interaction with the ionospheric irregularity structures causes refraction, reflection, and polarization in the satellite signal. Ionospheric irregularities degrade the trans-ionospheric radio-wave signal quality, between the satellite and the receivers, due to scintillation. The physics-based model often fails to produce global morphology during the extreme solar events, whereas empirical models based on the ionospheric scintillation data demonstrate better quality to forecast the scintillation effects during extreme solar event. It is really tricky to make a scintillation model that is sensitive to low and high solar activities as well as extreme solar events simultaneously. In the presented book chapter, we will discuss/review the needs and tricks of modeling ionospheric scintillation during extreme solar events as well as all weather and latitudinal cases. There are several aspects that influence the scintillation occurrence, its strength, and global distribution. The latitudinal dependence, local weather, solar/geomagnetic activity conditions, and local times are the widely accepted factors that control and influence ionospheric scintillation most. This book chapter discusses all these aspects and also suggests the ways to cast aside those factors that led to the wrong measure of scintillation indices.",signatures:"Shishir Priyadarshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69333",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69333",authors:[{id:"301174",title:"Dr.",name:"Shishir",surname:"Priyadarshi",slug:"shishir-priyadarshi",fullName:"Shishir Priyadarshi"}],corrections:null},{id:"70862",title:"Earth Observation Technologies: Low-End-Market Disruptive Innovation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90923",slug:"earth-observation-technologies-low-end-market-disruptive-innovation",totalDownloads:836,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"After decades of traditional space businesses, the space paradigm is changing. New approaches to more efficient missions in terms of costs, design, and manufacturing processes are fostered. For instance, placing big constellations of micro- and nano-satellites in Low Earth Orbit and Very Low Earth Orbit (LEO and VLEO) enables the space community to obtain a huge amount of data in near real-time with an unprecedented temporal resolution. Beyond technology innovations, other drivers promote innovation in the space sector like the increasing demand for Earth Observation (EO) data by the commercial sector. Perez et al. stated that the EO industry is the second market in terms of operative satellites (661 units), micro- and nano-satellites being the higher share of them (61%). Technological and market drivers encourage the emergence of new start-ups in the space environment like Skybox, OneWeb, Telesat, Planet, and OpenCosmos, among others, with novel business models that change the accessibility, affordability, ownership, and commercialization of space products and services. This chapter shows some results of the H2020 DISCOVERER (DISruptive teChnOlogies for VERy low Earth oRbit platforms) Project and focuses on understanding how micro- and nano-satellites have been disrupting the EO market in front of traditional platforms.",signatures:"Silvia Rodriguez-Donaire, Miquel Sureda, Daniel Garcia-Almiñana, Eloi Sierra, Jose S. Perez, Peter C.E. Roberts, Jonathan Becedas, Georg H. Herdrich, Dhiren Kataria, Ronald Outlaw, Leonardo Ghizoni, Rachel Villain, Alexis Conte, Badia Belkouchi, Kate Smith, Steve Edmondson, Sarah Haigh, Nicholas H. Crisp, Vitor T.A. Oiko, Rachel E. Lyons, Stephen D. Worral, Sabrina Livadiotti, Claire Huyton, Luciana A. Sinpetru, Rosa M. Domínguez, David González, Francesco Romano, Yung-An Chan, Adam Boxberger, Stefanos Fasoulas, Constantin Traub, Victor Jungnell, Kristian Bay, Jonas Morsbøl, Ameli Schwalber and Barbara Heißerer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70862",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70862",authors:[{id:"213157",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Becedas",slug:"jonathan-becedas",fullName:"Jonathan Becedas"},{id:"29453",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Rodriguez-Donaire",slug:"silvia-rodriguez-donaire",fullName:"Silvia Rodriguez-Donaire"},{id:"43527",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Garcia-Almiñana",slug:"daniel-garcia-alminana",fullName:"Daniel Garcia-Almiñana"},{id:"213159",title:"MSc.",name:"David",surname:"González",slug:"david-gonzalez",fullName:"David González"},{id:"300754",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",surname:"Sureda",slug:"miquel-sureda",fullName:"Miquel Sureda"},{id:"300755",title:"Mr.",name:"Santiago",surname:"Perez",slug:"santiago-perez",fullName:"Santiago Perez"},{id:"301368",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Eloi",surname:"Sierra Salvadó",slug:"eloi-sierra-salvado",fullName:"Eloi Sierra Salvadó"},{id:"307268",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Roberts",slug:"peter-roberts",fullName:"Peter Roberts"},{id:"307269",title:"Dr.",name:"Georg",surname:"Herdrich",slug:"georg-herdrich",fullName:"Georg Herdrich"},{id:"307270",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhiren",surname:"Kataria",slug:"dhiren-kataria",fullName:"Dhiren Kataria"},{id:"307271",title:"Mr.",name:"Leonardo",surname:"Ghizoni",slug:"leonardo-ghizoni",fullName:"Leonardo Ghizoni"},{id:"307272",title:"Mr.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Villain",slug:"rachel-villain",fullName:"Rachel Villain"},{id:"307273",title:"Ms.",name:"Barbara",surname:"Heißerer",slug:"barbara-heisserer",fullName:"Barbara Heißerer"},{id:"307274",title:"Ms.",name:"Ameli",surname:"Schwalber",slug:"ameli-schwalber",fullName:"Ameli Schwalber"},{id:"307275",title:"Mr.",name:"Jonas",surname:"Morsbøl",slug:"jonas-morsbol",fullName:"Jonas Morsbøl"},{id:"307276",title:"Mr.",name:"Kristian",surname:"Bay",slug:"kristian-bay",fullName:"Kristian Bay"},{id:"307277",title:"Mr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Jungnell",slug:"victor-jungnell",fullName:"Victor Jungnell"},{id:"307278",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Traub",slug:"constantin-traub",fullName:"Constantin Traub"},{id:"307279",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefanos",surname:"Fasoulas",slug:"stefanos-fasoulas",fullName:"Stefanos Fasoulas"},{id:"307281",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",surname:"Boxberger",slug:"adam-boxberger",fullName:"Adam Boxberger"},{id:"307283",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Romano",slug:"francesco-romano",fullName:"Francesco Romano"},{id:"307285",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas",surname:"Crisp",slug:"nicholas-crisp",fullName:"Nicholas Crisp"},{id:"307286",title:"Dr.",name:"Vitor",surname:"Oiko",slug:"vitor-oiko",fullName:"Vitor Oiko"},{id:"307415",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexis",surname:"Conte",slug:"alexis-conte",fullName:"Alexis Conte"},{id:"307417",title:"Ms.",name:"Badia",surname:"Belkouchi",slug:"badia-belkouchi",fullName:"Badia Belkouchi"},{id:"307419",title:"Dr.",name:"Steve",surname:"Edmondson",slug:"steve-edmondson",fullName:"Steve Edmondson"},{id:"307420",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah",surname:"Haigh",slug:"sarah-haigh",fullName:"Sarah Haigh"},{id:"307421",title:"Ms.",name:"Kate",surname:"Smith",slug:"kate-smith",fullName:"Kate Smith"},{id:"307422",title:"Ms.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Lyons",slug:"rachel-lyons",fullName:"Rachel Lyons"},{id:"307423",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Worrall",slug:"stephen-worrall",fullName:"Stephen Worrall"},{id:"307424",title:"Ms.",name:"Sabrina",surname:"Livadiotti",slug:"sabrina-livadiotti",fullName:"Sabrina Livadiotti"},{id:"307425",title:"Ms.",name:"Claire",surname:"Huyton",slug:"claire-huyton",fullName:"Claire Huyton"},{id:"307426",title:"Ms.",name:"Luciana",surname:"Sinpetru",slug:"luciana-sinpetru",fullName:"Luciana Sinpetru"},{id:"307428",title:"Ms.",name:"Rosa María",surname:"Domínguez",slug:"rosa-maria-dominguez",fullName:"Rosa María Domínguez"},{id:"307430",title:"Dr.",name:"Yung-An",surname:"Chan",slug:"yung-an-chan",fullName:"Yung-An Chan"},{id:"307431",title:"Mr.",name:"Ron",surname:"Outlaw",slug:"ron-outlaw",fullName:"Ron Outlaw"}],corrections:null},{id:"72354",title:"A Survey on Small Satellite Technologies and Space Missions for Geodetic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92625",slug:"a-survey-on-small-satellite-technologies-and-space-missions-for-geodetic-applications",totalDownloads:923,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advances in microelectronics, materials, combined with affordable and frequent launch opportunities has led to a revolution which consists of small satellite missions used for technology validation, Earth observation, space exploration. Small satellites are now being developed in large volumes for mega-constellations for Earth observation, Internet of Things (IoT) and low latency communications (internet) thus democratizing space and making new space applications a reality. Advances in small satellite platforms, miniaturization of instruments and the availability of low-cost launches for small satellites, can enable new, geodetic missions which can benefit from the use of constellations of small satellites. An overview of some of the most important small satellite based geodetic missions is presented, along with a brief overview of new mission concepts which can significantly enhance our knowledge in the geodetic field.",signatures:"Vaios Lappas and Vassilis Kostopoulos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72354",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72354",authors:[{id:"276932",title:"Dr.",name:"Vassilis",surname:"Kostopoulos",slug:"vassilis-kostopoulos",fullName:"Vassilis Kostopoulos"},{id:"312076",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaios",surname:"Lappas",slug:"vaios-lappas",fullName:"Vaios Lappas"}],corrections:null},{id:"69962",title:"Nanosatellites and Applications to Commercial and Scientific Missions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90039",slug:"nanosatellites-and-applications-to-commercial-and-scientific-missions",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the past two decades, a silent revolution has taken place in the space domain, leading to what today is known as “New Space.” We have passed from a selected group of countries, space agencies, and big industries building, launching, and operating satellites and other spacecrafts, of a scenario in which many universities and research institutes can do it. The key of this was the definition of the “CubeSat” standard, back to 1999. In 2013, it all took off on the commercial Earth Observation sector with the first launches from two companies that are now running 100+ CubeSat constellations for optical imaging or weather prediction, with very low revisit times. Today, the same revolution is taking place in the fields of Telecommunications, and Astronomical Scientific missions. In this chapter, the evolution of the space sector is briefly revised until the arrival of the CubeSats. Then, the CubeSat intrinsic limitations are discussed as they are key to understand the development and current situation of the CubeSat sector. NASA and ESA strategies are also presented. 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The world population growth brings great challenges regarding food security and environmental sustainability [1]. In this scenario, increasing the production of vegetable oils by developing resilient and sustainable cropping systems may be a promising approach. The global production of vegetable oil is dependent on the production of tropical perennial oilseed plants, in particular the African palm (
In this context, the identification of oilseed plant species that contain oils with triacylglycerol composition similar to palm oil, high production yield, and greater resistance to adverse edaphoclimatic conditions is a challenge. Macauba [
This plant species grows preferably in tropical and subtropical regions with high rainfall and solar irradiation [11]. However, it is able to adapt well to other environments, including subtropical and semiarid conditions [9]. In Brazil, there is a large quantity of degraded land or land in process of degradation or desertification caused by human action or natural phenomena. Land degradation is the loss of productivity due to factors such as soil erosion, reduction of soil fertility, and loss of natural vegetation [12]. The fact that macauba has a great capacity to adapt to extreme edaphoclimatic conditions has led to the proposal that this plant could contribute to the recovery of degraded lands [13].
The energy capacity of macauba is due to the high productivity and quality of the pulp and kernel oils. Macauba oils have a different fatty acid profile and minority compounds. The pulp oil has a predominance of unsaturated fatty acids and bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids and tocopherols [14]. In turn, kernel oil is rich in saturated fatty acids, mainly lauric acid. These notable differences confer distinct market potential for both products [15].
In the last decade, studies on
Due to the essentially extractive nature of macauba cultivation, in many cases, good practices for harvesting and storing the raw material are not followed, and this directly impacts the quality of the fruits and oils obtained [10]. In Brazil, there are several commercial cultivation programs demonstrating that it is a viable strategy, although it is still far from competing with commodities. The processing of macauba oils begins with the process of extraction by continuous pressing to obtain the crude oil [20]. Subsequently, the oils must undergo a refining process in order to eliminate undesirable substances that compromise both the oxidative stability of these oils and their organoleptic qualities [20]. Once refined, oils can have several applications both in the food and oleochemical areas and can still undergo modifications to expand their range of applications [15]. Figure 1 outlines the complete macauba oil production chain from the palm tree to the lipid modified.
Representation of the macauba oil production chain: Palm, fruit bunches, open fruit, processing of oils, and lipids modification (photos source: S. Oleum).
Excellent studies on the biology of macauba have been reported, including the factors that influence productivity, domestication processes, and genetic improvement, aiming for the development of commercial crops, and genetic variability, among others. Recently, Vargas-Carpinteiro et al. have published an exhaustive review on
Macauba is a palm species that belongs to the Arecaceae family, which includes approximately 189 genera and about 3000 species, which are classified into five subfamilies, as follows: Calamoideae, Nypoideae, Coryphoideae, Ceroxyloideae, and Arecoideae [21]. The latter is the most representative family since it contains species of great economic interest such as
Currently, nine species are included within the genus
Macauba is a perennial, halophytic, tree-like palm species with a solitary, aerial, cylindrical, and spindle-shaped stem that can reach 10–15 m in height and 20–30 cm in diameter. The stipe is often covered by the bases of the petioles, which remain attached for many years. The node region is covered with dark and sharp spines and is approximately 10 cm long [31].
The
Macauba flowering is seasonal and annual. In Brazil, it blooms from September to February, with peak flowering in November and December [33]. However, fruiting occurs throughout the year and the fruits mature approximately 1 year after fertilization [33]. Macauba generates inflorescences with bulky clusters that contain 300–600 drupaceous fruits, weighing about 66 g/each, resulting in a highly productive plant [13].
The fruits can be 3.0–5.0 cm in diameter, are edible, spherical, and do not ferment immediately after ripening [5]. The fruit contains approximately 20% epicarp (peel), 40% mesocarp (pulp), 33% endocarp, and 7% kernel [34]. The epicarp ruptures easily when ripe. The mesocarp is fibrous, mucilaginous, sweet-tasting, edible, and rich in glycerides, yellow or whitish in color. The endocarp is strongly adhered to the pulp, with a black bony wall, and an edible oily kernel covered by a thin layer of the tegument. Each fruit usually contains a seed surrounded by a hard, dark endocarp approximately 3-mm thick [30, 35]. Macauba has two economically important kinds of oil, stored in the fruit pulp and its kernel. The pulp contains up to 75% of the total lipids, while the kernel may contain up to 65%, both on a dry basis [34]. Table 1 shows the proximate composition of
Kernel % | Pulp % | |
---|---|---|
Dry matter | 83.11 | 42.65 |
Ash | 1.29 | 2.03 |
Crude protein | 5.66 | 1.15 |
Lipids | 47.76 | 32.05 |
Crude fiber | 62.79 | 51.70 |
Mineral matter | 0.39 | 0.66 |
Carbohydrates | 33.40 | 18.10 |
Moisture | 3.18 | 45.42 |
Proximate composition of macauba fruit. Source: Lira et al. [36].
Macauba, like most palm species, has an essentially extractive cultivation system, leading to habitat fragmentation, increasing inbreeding, and decreasing genetic diversity [37]. Both the domestication process and the development of breeding programs for
There is great morphometric and genetic variability among macauba plants native to the Brazilian Cerrado and Pantanal regions of Brazil and Costa Rica, characterized by fruit biometry and oil yield [34, 40, 41]. However, these factors are not correlated [40]. Biometric studies of Costa Rican varieties have suggested a possible environmental effect on oil composition and yield [41]. Dos Santos et al. [42] studied the accumulation of metabolites in fruits coming from three Brazilian regions (Southeast, Northeast, and Midwest) characterized by having different lipid contents. The authors concluded that, despite the anatomical differences between mesocarp and endocarp, in both tissues, a similar trend of metabolite accumulation was observed toward ripening. In the mesocarp, total soluble proteins, free amino acids, sucrose, starch, and total lipids accumulate toward maturity, with a decrease in glucose and fructose contents. The endosperm differed from the mesocarp only for the amino acid contents, which decreased in mature fruits. The results pointed out that fruits from the Southeast region (Minas Gerais) may be of interest for breeding studies due to their higher lipid contents [42].
Genomics-based strategies allow access to the genetic potential of natural populations, germplasm characterization, phylogenetic analysis, etc. [38]. The availability of public databases (www.ncbi.nhi.gov) of genomic sequences of
The embryo culture of
In this context, the development of genetic improvement programs for macauba to allow systematic cultivation and commercialization on a large scale in the near future is required. Initiatives to cultivate macauba in Brazil for commercial purposes have been undertaken, including the programs Entaban Brazil, Solea, and Inocas, with production destined for national consumption [5].
The harvest and storage stages of fruits are determinants of the quality of agricultural products. Both the harvest method and the development stage of macauba fruit at the time of harvest directly impact the quality of the oil [16]. The storage time of the fruits before the oil extraction also has a great impact on the product quality, which is determinant in humid tropical countries [37]. In the extractive cultivation system of macauba, the fruits are collected directly from the soil, after the natural fall at the end of the fruiting period, and stored with no controlled humidity and temperature conditions, resulting in low-quality oils and yield [16].
Data have shown an increase in oil content at the end of the maturation period of macauba fruits, thus harvesting bunches at the end of this phase is recommended. However, the proportions of fatty acids and triacylglycerols of both pulp and kernel oils do not vary [48]. A very important peculiarity of the macauba fruit is the additional oil synthesis after abscission, which differentiates it from other palm species, including
The acidity index is a measure of the free fatty acids content in the oil. Oils with acidity levels >5% expressed as free fatty acids compromise the later stages of processing and commercialization [49]. The increase in free fatty acids in the oil from the mesocarp is due to the action of lipases (E.C. 3.1.1.3; glycerol ester hydrolases) that hydrolyze triacylglycerols in the presence of water. These enzymes are produced by plants, animals, and microorganisms [50], and the latter are recognized as potential producers of extracellular lipases [51]. Cavalcanti-Oliveira et al. analyzed the origin of lipases involved in the hydrolysis of macauba pulp oil [52]. The results suggested that the oil from the mesocarp is hydrolyzed by lipases produced by microorganisms that contaminate the fruit when in contact with soil, rather than the action of endogenous lipases. Some authors have reported that macauba fruits harvested directly from the bunch or naturally fallen fruits with no contact with the soil can be stored under ambient conditions for up to 20 days, without exceeding 5% acidity [16, 18, 53]. However, a varied microbiota can be found in the epicarp and mesocarp of macauba fruits without contact with the soil [16].
Thus, efficient harvesting methods and rapid fruit processing are required to slow pulp decomposition and oil acidification [54]. Fresh macauba fruit has high-quality mesocarp oil, even when it is dried immediately after harvest, provided that good harvesting and processing practices are applied [55]. Drying the fruit after harvest decreases the moisture content and reduces the hydrolysis efficiency of lipases in addition to facilitating pulping with simultaneous separation of the peel [56]. The combination of drying and autoclaving processes of macauba fruits allowed the storage of crude oil for 180 days, preserving the original acidity and the triacylglycerol profile [52]. It is worth noting that under good harvesting and storage practices, the acidification process of macauba pulp oil is slower than palm oil [55]. Other methods of treating the fruit immediately after harvest have been used to extend the shelf life of the fruit and the oil quality, including the use of ozone gas, irradiation, and different drying methods [53, 57, 58].
Evaristo et al. [16] reported a significant increase in the oil content of the mesocarp after the fruits were detached from the bunch, suggesting that macauba has climacteric behavior. The authors showed that harvesting macauba fruit directly from the bunch and the immediate storage under controlled humidity and temperature conditions, as well as the treatment with fungicides, resulted in higher fruit quality and therefore longer postharvest shelf life [16].
Improvements in fruit processing steps that positively impact the quantity and quality of the extracted oil can increase productivity and make the macauba more commercially competitive [56].
Three important steps should be considered for obtaining the crude oil, which directly affects the oil quality and product yield, including the storage of the raw material, preparation, and extraction of the crude oil. The variation in moisture content and temperature during fruit storage can trigger enzymatic and oxidation reactions, leading to a reduction in the quality of the oil extracted due to the increase in free fatty acids and other degradation compounds, known as peroxides [20].
The proximate composition of the macauba fruit consists of 47.76% and 32.05% lipids in the kernel and pulp, respectively; thus, continuous pressing is the most suitable method for oil extraction due to the high lipid contents [36, 59].
The screw-type press, also known as screw expeller, is a continuous press in which the fruit pulp or kernel is fed into a thick-walled cylinder containing a rotating, polished screw with gradually decreasing size. The oil from the plant cell is in the form of globules covered by a cell membrane. A typical characteristic of plant cells is the presence of thick cell walls; thus, the cell wall should be broken down to get the oil globules out. For that, the pulp or kernel cluster is fed continuously into the press and compressed at high pressure (4–35 MPa). In turn, while the oil is extracted, the compressed fruit cake is discarded at the end of the stretch. The high-energy consumption generated during shearing can considerably increase the temperature of both the oil and cake [20].
Chemically, oils and fats are mixtures composed mainly of triacylglycerols formed from a glycerol molecule esterified with three fatty acids. The crude oil usually contains monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, free fatty acids, waxes, phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, terpenes, sterols, tocopherols, and carotenoids as minority compounds [20]. The unsaponifiable matter consists of solubilized minority compounds in oils and fats that are extractable with organic solvents after saponification [60]. Nunes (2013) found 0.76% unsaponifiable matter in crude macauba pulp oil, while Breves (2018) found 2% unsaponifiable matter in crude macauba kernel oil [61, 62].
The macauba kernel oil is characterized by the predominance of oleic acid and lauric acid, and presents a translucent aspect, while the pulp oil has an orange color and is characterized by a high concentration of oleic acid and carotenoids, which may provide high oxidative stability [63, 64]. Table 2 presents the fatty acids profile of macauba pulp and kernel oils.
Fatty acids | Pulp (%) | Kernel (%) | |
---|---|---|---|
C4:0 | Butyric | Traces | 0.91 |
C6:0 | Caproic | 0.22 | 0.27 |
C8:0 | Caprylic | 0.11 | 3.67 |
C10:0 | Capric | Traces | 2.79 |
C12:0 | Lauric | 0.39 | 32.58 |
C14:0 | Myristic | 0.38 | 9.71 |
C16:0 | Palmitic | 24.6 | 8.25 |
C16:1 | Palmitoleic | 4.27 | — |
C18:0 | Stearic | 1.08 | 2.24 |
C18:1 | Oleic | 52.57 | 36.27 |
C18:2 | Linoleic | 13.80 | 3.82 |
C18:3 | Linolenic | 2.26 | — |
C20:0 | Arachidic | Traces | — |
C22:0 | Behenic | Traces | — |
C24:0 | Lignoceric | 0.32 | — |
Ʃ saturated | — | 27.10 | 59.92 |
Ʃ unsaturated | — | 72.90 | 40.09 |
Fatty acid profile of macauba oils (pulp and kernel). Source: Coimbra and Jorge [14].
The low content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic—C18:2 and linolenic—C18:3) can also affect the oxidative stability of the pulp oil, corresponding to 15%. On the other hand, the kernel oil presents a peculiar fatty acid composition, because although it has 32.58% of lauric acid (C12:0), which is a lower level when compared to conventional lauric oils, such as coconut, palm kernel, and babassu, it has more than 35% of oleic acid, an unusual content among all vegetable oils of this class.
The macauba pulp oil presents a smaller range of carbon groups, comprising 48–54 carbon groups. Fourteen distinct triacylglycerols were identified, corresponding to 17.07% OOO, 6.36% OOL, 28.53% POO, and 10.53% PLP [65]. Lieb et al. analyzed macauba pulp oil from Costa Rica and found 20.8% OOO, 10.4% OOL, 13.0% POO, and 1.5% PLP (P: palmitic; Po: palmitoleic, S: stearic; O: oleic; L: linoleic) [48]. This divergence of values is due to the different origins of the fruits and the extraction method used to obtain the crude oil.
Natural antioxidants found in vegetable oils, such as tocopherols and tocotrienols, have four isomers, designated as alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ), depending on the number and position of methyl groups in a chromanol ring. Tocopherols are characterized by a saturated side chain, while tocotrienols present an unsaturated side chain, and they also have a vitamin E activity in humans. They are also recognized for slowing down the lipid oxidation process. The antioxidant activity of tocopherols in food increases progressively for the δ, β, γ, and α isomers. On the other hand, tocotrienols are less effective than their corresponding isomers [66].
Carotenoids constitute a diverse group of lipophilic compounds that provide yellowish to red color to oils and are also known as bioactive compounds with proven health benefits [66].
Coimbra and Jorge characterized the macauba kernel and pulp oils for the concentration of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and tocopherols, and the findings are shown in Table 3 [14].
Macauba pulp oil (mg kg −1) | Macauba kernel oil (mg kg −1) | |
---|---|---|
Phenolic compounds | 2.21 | 4.38 |
Total carotenoids | 300.1 | 1.82 |
Total tocopherol | 221.95 | 23.10 |
α-Tocopherol | 143.70 | 14.35 |
β-Tocopherol | 3.25 | 0.85 |
γ-Tocopherol | 57.83 | — |
δ-Tocopherol | 8.15 | 7.90 |
Tocopherols, carotenoids, and phenolics concentrations in macauba oils.
Source: Coimbra and Jorge [14].
Factors that affect or catalyze the lipid oxidation include the presence of unsaturated or double bonds in fatty acids, light, temperature, prooxidants and antioxidants, enzymes, and storage conditions. In addition, the oxidative stability reflects the quality of the raw material from harvest to processing, leading to undesirable flavors that reduce the quality and shelf life of oils [67].
Breves [62] studied the oxidative stability of macauba kernel and pulp oils according to ISO 6886, and reported 41.35 and 16.36 min at 110°C, respectively. It is worth noting that the stability of the pulp oil is relatively lower than that of the kernel oil, due to the higher number of unsaturated fatty acids [62].
Refining can be defined as a series of distinct steps aimed at reducing undesirable substances from crude oils that can affect the stability and sensory properties. It removes colloidal substances, phosphatides, free fatty acids, natural pigments, such as chlorophyll and carotenoids, inorganic substances, such as calcium salts, metals, and phosphates, among others, and volatile compounds, such as peroxides, hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and low-molecular weight esters, and water [20].
The selection of the adequate refining process is directly related to the free fatty acid content (%) of the crude oil and can be done through a chemical or physical process. The chemical process is not indicated for high acidity oils since significant losses of neutral lipids may occur due to saponification or soapstock dragging. For acidic oils, physical refining is indicated and should be performed under high temperature and low pressure, volatilizing and removing free fatty acids with reduced loss of neutral lipids [68].
In addition, phospholipid contents are the second factor to be considered before selecting the refining process. Chemical refining is indicated for high phosphorus levels, while the physical refining process is more usual for oils with low phosphorus levels [60]. For macauba pulp oil, both types of refining can be used due to its non-standardization as acidic oil (Figure 2).
Schematic diagram of the typical process for obtaining refined oil from the raw material of interest.
Degumming is the first step for obtaining the refined oil, either for physical or chemical processes, in which phospholipids are converted into oil-insoluble hydratable gums that are easily separated by sedimentation, filtration, or centrifugation through the addition of water and/or acid solution. This step is important for the removal of phospholipids, which can precipitate during the storage, affecting the quality of the oil and the subsequent refining steps. Additionally, it is possible to obtain lecithin, which is a by-product of high commercial value due to its emulsifying effect [20, 60].
Neutralization is carried out during the chemical refining and consists of neutralizing and thus reducing the free fatty acids content by adding an alkaline solution. Diluted caustic soda is usually used in concentrations between 10 and 24° Bé (degrees Baumé). The concentration of caustic soda and its excess is dependent on the free fatty acids (FFA) content of the degummed oil to be neutralized, avoiding saponification of the oil [69].
The next step is known as clarification or bleaching. Its main objective is to remove pigments to obtain clear oils (an important factor for commercialization), in addition to removing other constituents, such as oxidation products, metal traces, phospholipids, and soaps, resulting from the chemical refining. According to Kaynak et al. [70], these impurities, when present in the oil, can contaminate the hydrogenation and interesterification catalysts, darken the oil, and decrease oxidative stability [20, 70].
The efficiency of the process is determined by adding clarifying clays, either natural or activated, via adsorption. Part of the pigments is adsorbed onto the clarifying clay through surface attraction forces, known as “Van de Waals forces.” Other components are chemically bound to the surface of the clarifying clays by covalent or ionic bonds. Part of the impurities present in the oil is removed by trapping their molecules in the pores of the clay. Some minor components, such as oxidation compounds and pigments, are chemically altered during clarification due to the catalytic activity of some clays [69].
Deodorization is the last step of chemical refining, with the elimination of volatile compounds such as remaining free fatty acids and peroxides that give the oil an unpleasant aroma and flavor. The deodorization is done through steam distillation, removing volatile substances through a high vacuum [69].
In physical refining, the last step consists of distillation, with oil deacidification through the removal of free fatty acids, volatiles, and oxidation products [69]. The process is carried out through the association of high temperature and low absolute pressure, favoring the acceleration of distillation and preserving the oil from atmospheric oxidation [61].
According to the CODEX Alimentarius CXS 210-199 for vegetable oils, refined oils should have a maximum acidity of 0.6 mg KOH/g oil and up to 10 mEq O2 kg−1 [71].
It is estimated that a great amount of industrialized vegetable products, corresponding to 15–20%, are not used. The volume of these residues can reach even higher levels depending on the raw material, the processing applied, equipment used, and process yield, among others. All these factors induce the generation of by-products for food, fertilization, and feed production. Researchers have attempted to use by-products from the processing of vegetable raw materials, including vegetable oils, and once besides adding value to the by-products, it reduces the disposal in nature, helps in the environmental preservation, and promotes the integral use of the vegetable sources [72].
In addition to the refined oil, the distillate is obtained during the refining process, known as vegetable oil deodorization distillate (VODD). It is a by-product of the industrial processing of vegetable oils and is considered a low-cost source rich in health-giving components, such as tocopherols and phytosterols, in addition to FFA with numerous industrial applications. The distillates from physical refining have FFA contents above 70% and lower levels of unsaponifiable materials [73].
The research team of the Laboratory of Oils and Fats of the Faculty of Food Engineering—UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil, studied the distillates from the deodorization of macauba kernel and pulp oils from physical refining. The kernel distillate presented 14.49 mg/100 g of γ-tocopherol and 0.79 mg/100 g of γ-tocotrienol. In turn, the pulp distillate presented 80.27 mg/100 g of γ tocopherol, 25.84 mg/100 g of β tocopherol, and 5.64 mg/100 g of γ tocotrienol (unpublished data).
According to Tay et al. [74], the free fatty acid content of palm oil deodorized distillate ranged from 72.7% to 92.6%. The author studied the co-product of palm oil refining and found VODD content of 86.4% [74]. These valuable components can be used in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic formulations [73].
The great potential of macauba has led to the development of several processing technologies for kernel and pulp oils. Favaro et al. studied the aqueous extraction of oil from fresh macauba pulp using the commercial enzyme Cellic® CTec3 and reported that the aqueous extraction was effective for obtaining high-quality oil [75]. Rosa et al. evaluated the effectiveness of ethyl acetate as a solvent in macauba kernel oil extraction by ultrasound-assisted extraction. Increasing the amount of solvent, the higher temperatures, and longer extraction times led to a higher amount of oil extracted [76]. Trentini et al. extracted macauba pulp oil by low-pressure solvent extraction and reported higher yields by using isopropanol as a solvent [77]. Prates-Valério et al. [78] studied different mechanical extraction conditions for obtaining pulp oil, aiming to produce an extremely productive raw material. The fruit pressed at 34°C resulted in higher oil quality when compared to other temperatures studied [78]. Favaro et al. evaluated the extraction efficiency and quality of pulp oil extracted using aqueous media from wet fruits and reported an acidity of 0.45% oleic acid [79]. Malaquias et al. estimated macauba yield by regression models using the variables bunch volume, length, and length/diameter ratio [80]. Colombo et al. studied the physicochemical characteristics of macauba and reported the high potential of this fruit [5].
To meet market demands and provide varied and uniform raw materials, lipid modification processes allow flexibility and contribute to reducing the gap between production site, demand, and availability. The most commonly used modification processes include hydrogenation, fractionation, and interesterification, using analytical or computational methods to ensure process efficiency [20, 69].
The fractionation process consists of a thermomechanical separation in which the lipid material is separated into two or more fractions with different physical and chemical properties, due to the difference in the melting point of triacylglycerols. A fraction called olein is obtained, composed of a greater amount of triacylglycerols with a lower melting point, which is present in liquid form, and a semisolid fraction called stearin, composed of triacylglycerols with a higher melting point [81, 82]. Magalhães et al. [83] performed the fractionation of macauba kernel oil and evaluated the olein and stearin fractions for thermal behavior and consistency. The authors concluded that fractionation allowed obtaining fractions with different degrees of oxidative stability and different physical properties for various applications [83].
The presence of double bonds interferes with the chemical and physical properties of oils and fats. The hydrogenation reaction is a physicochemical process that leads to the saturation of the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids through the addition of hydrogen atoms [20, 69].
Hydrogenation takes place in hermetic tanks, in which hydrogen gas is mixed with the raw material in the presence of a nickel catalyst, at high temperatures and high pressure. During partial hydrogenation, part of the double bonds of fatty acid is saturated, while some
Various harmful effects have been associated with the consumption of
The interesterification of liquid oils and fully hydrogenated vegetable oils has been the main alternative to produce fats with specific properties [84]. During the reaction, although the fatty acids remain unchanged, there is a redistribution of fatty acids in the triacylglycerol molecules, leading to changes in the triacylglycerol composition [88].
Two technological processes can be used for the interesterification of oils, including chemical and enzymatic interesterification. The chemical interesterification uses an alkaline catalyst, with no control over the fatty acid distribution, that is, it has a random nature. In turn, the enzymatic interesterification uses lipases with specific activities and selectivity, thus with greater control over the fatty acid distribution in triacylglycerol molecules [89]. Our research group developed interesterified fractions from macauba oil, which led to a patent application with the National Institute of Intellectual Property (INPI), registered under the number BR 102020 026665 9 [89].
The macauba potential for industrial applications is due to the high productivity and quality of pulp and kernel oils and can be grouped into four industrial segments, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and energy [15].
Both the macauba pulp and kernel are edible and have high nutritional value, allowing their insertion into the food industry [15]. The pulp can be added directly to food or as flour [92]. Other parts of the fruit can also be used. The biomass resulting from the macauba oil extraction is pressed to form cakes as an alternative for animal feed, as they do not present toxic components [93]. The pulp cake contains 9% protein, while the kernel cake has 32% [15]. Residues from the oil extraction from the macauba endocarp have been used for the production of higher quality vegetable carbon when compared to carbon from eucalyptus, with wide application in the steel industry [5, 94].
The differential composition of macauba pulp and kernel oils concerning the fatty acid profile and minor components (tocopherols, carotenoids, antioxidants, and phenolic compounds) provides a differentiated market for both products [15]. Pulp oil has a higher content of oleic and linoleic acids, with a recognized role in disease prevention and health promotion, including the role of oleic acid in the prevention of breast cancer and linoleic acid in the cognitive abilities of the elderly [95, 96]. Additionally, the macauba pulp oil has a higher content of carotenoids and tocopherols when compared to kernel oil. Traesel et al. reported no cytotoxic, genotoxic, or mutagenic effects of macauba pulp oil in rats [97].
Studies have shown that pulp oil, both in its raw and microencapsulated form, has diuretic and anti-inflammatory potential. It was also found that the microencapsulated pulp oil maintained the stability of the active ingredient and exhibited antiedematogenic activity [98]. Recent research has suggested that macauba pulp oil can be a promising high-quality raw material for the production of functional ingredients and foods with nutraceutical properties [99].
The kernel oil presents high content of saturated fatty acids (74%) with a predominance of lauric acid (44%) [99], which can be a promising approach for use in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries [9]. Studies have shown the hypoglycemic effect of kernel oil in rats with type 2 diabetes when administered orally [100]. Dario et al. showed that kernel oil can be an alternative adjuvant in the development of a nanocarrier, enhancing the photoprotective activity [101]. Macauba kernel oil has also shown potential for use as a lipid ingredient in margarines and mayonnaises [102].
The macauba mesocarp oil is a promising raw material for biodiesel production due to the predominance of unsaturated fatty acids (±73%), mainly oleic acid (±52%) [14]. Biodiesel is defined as methyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or fats [103]. As reported by Coimbra and Jorge, biodiesel derived from
Xavier and Costa [15] performed a scientific and technological mapping on the characteristics and applications of macauba oil, showing the important contribution of Brazil in this area, and the participation of Brazilian universities in the valorization of native raw material. The technological segments most represented in this analysis of patents were energy, cosmetics, and agriculture [15].
Macauba is an emerging species with scientific interest concerning the distribution and genetic diversity of the species, plant development, oil production, crop management, harvest techniques and fruit treatment, extraction, processing, and modification of oils to obtain more plastic lipid bases for various applications. The high productivity of the macauba and the resilience of the crop along with the need to search for vegetable oils with potential use as alternative raw materials for biofuel production have encouraged further studies on this species. Although it is a very promising plant for the sustainable production of vegetable oil on a large scale, there are still scientific and technological challenges. The main challenges include obtaining commercial varieties, developing sustainable cultivation models, efficient fruit processing techniques, standardized refining protocols, and effective analytical techniques for oil characterization. This chapter summarizes the recent studies on
This study was supported by grants of CNPq, 310936/2021-7, and the Post-graduation Program in Food Technology—Oil and fats Laboratory—of Campinas State University, Capes Code 001.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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and fun way in rehabilitation. Its first known use in rehabilitation published by Max North named as “Virtual Environments and Psychological Disorders” (1994). Virtual reality uses special programmed computers, visual devices and artificial environments for the clients’ rehabilitation. Throughout technological improvements, virtual reality devices changed from therapeutic gloves to augmented reality environments. Virtual reality was being used in different rehabilitation professions such as occupational therapy, physical therapy, psychology and so on. In spite of common virtual reality approach of different professions, each profession aims different outcomes in rehabilitation. Virtual reality in occupational therapy generally focuses on hand and upper extremity functioning, cognitive rehabilitation, mental disorders, etc. Positive effects of virtual reality were mentioned in different studies, which are higher motivation than non‐simulated environments, active participation of the participants, supporting motor learning, fun environment and risk‐free environment. Additionally, virtual reality was told to be used as assessment. This chapter will focus on usage of virtual reality in occupational therapy, history and recent developments, types of virtual reality technologic equipment, pros and cons, usage for pediatric, adult and geriatric people and recent research and articles.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Orkun Tahir Aran, Sedef Şahin, Berkan Torpil, Tarık Demirok and\nHülya Kayıhan",authors:[{id:"172938",title:"Prof.",name:"Hulya",middleName:null,surname:"Kayihan",slug:"hulya-kayihan",fullName:"Hulya Kayihan"},{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"196848",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Orkun Tahir",middleName:null,surname:"Aran",slug:"orkun-tahir-aran",fullName:"Orkun Tahir Aran"},{id:"197159",title:"Mr.",name:"Tarık",middleName:null,surname:"Demirok",slug:"tarik-demirok",fullName:"Tarık Demirok"},{id:"197312",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Berkan",middleName:null,surname:"Torpil",slug:"berkan-torpil",fullName:"Berkan Torpil"}]},{id:"61806",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78312",title:"Executive Functions and Neurology in Children and Adolescents",slug:"executive-functions-and-neurology-in-children-and-adolescents",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical and methodological issues of creating a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Focusing on school periods, this section outlines the development of the basic components of EF—inhibition, working memory, and attention. Cognitive and neurophysiological evaluations show that despite the emergence of EF in the first few years of life, it continues to grow significantly in childhood and adolescence. The components vary slightly according to their developmental sequence. The chapter links findings to long-standing developmental issues (i.e. developmental sequences and processes) and suggests the necessary research to establish a developmental framework covering early childhood throughout adolescence.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Gokcen Akyurek",authors:[{id:"197265",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokcen",middleName:null,surname:"Akyurek",slug:"gokcen-akyurek",fullName:"Gokcen Akyurek"}]},{id:"56049",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69101",title:"Measurement of Participation: The Role Checklist Version 3: Satisfaction and Performance",slug:"measurement-of-participation-the-role-checklist-version-3-satisfaction-and-performance",totalDownloads:2820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Participation in society is an area of interest to both clinicians and population researchers. Measurement of participation is therefore important, yet differences in definition, in terms of both content and scope, have made general agreement on one instrument tool elusive. What is recognized is the need for a theoretically based tool that captures both the insider and the outsider perspective. The outsider perspective, inclusive of the generally held views of a society, supports the utility for aggregating population data, whereas the insider perspective provides the internally held views of an individual needed for client-centered treatment planning. The Role Checklist Version 3 modifies one of the most commonly used assessment tools in occupational therapy practice, has good preliminary psychometric properties, and is theoretically consistent with both the ICF and the Model of Human Occupation. The Model of Human Occupation is the most widely used theoretical model in occupational therapy. This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical development, empirical testing, and implications for use of this participation measure by occupational therapists along with implications for population researchers.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Patricia J. Scott, Kelsey McKinney, Jeff Perron, Emily Ruff and Jessica\nSmiley",authors:[{id:"195495",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia J",middleName:null,surname:"Scott",slug:"patricia-j-scott",fullName:"Patricia J Scott"},{id:"208801",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelsey G.",middleName:null,surname:"McKinney",slug:"kelsey-g.-mckinney",fullName:"Kelsey G. McKinney"},{id:"208802",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey M.",middleName:null,surname:"Perron",slug:"jeffrey-m.-perron",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Perron"},{id:"208803",title:"Dr.",name:"Emily G.",middleName:null,surname:"Ruff",slug:"emily-g.-ruff",fullName:"Emily G. Ruff"},{id:"208804",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica L.",middleName:null,surname:"Smiley",slug:"jessica-l.-smiley",fullName:"Jessica L. Smiley"}]},{id:"55024",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68463",title:"Occupational Therapy in Oncology and Palliative Care",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-oncology-and-palliative-care",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cancer is a chronic disease that may occur in both children and adults. Occupational therapy focuses on the activity limitations and participation problems in their life. Oncology rehabilitation involves in helping an individual with cancer to regain maximum physical, psychological, cognitive, social, and vocational functioning with the limits up to disease and its treatments in an interdisciplinary team concept. These treatment options are associated with the risk of some side effects, including fatigue, pain, cognitive problems, decrease in bone density and muscle endurance, weight loss, and stress- or anxiety-related psychosocial problems. Occupational therapy approaches are a holistic view in a client center and use training in activities of daily living, assistive technology, education of energy conservation techniques, and management of treatment-related problems, such as pain, fatigue, and nausea. In palliative and hospice care, occupational therapists support clients with cancer by minimizing the secondary symptoms related to cancer and its treatments. At the end of life, occupational therapy offers to identify the roles and activities that are meaningful and purposeful to the client with cancer and try to determine the barriers that limit their performance. Clients with cancer who have childhood cancer or adult cancer can face problems about body structure and functions, activity, and participation, which may limit their participation to their daily life.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Sedef Şahin, Semin Akel and Meral Zarif",authors:[{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"183078",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu Semin",middleName:null,surname:"Akel",slug:"burcu-semin-akel",fullName:"Burcu Semin Akel"},{id:"198859",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Zarif",slug:"meral-zarif",fullName:"Meral Zarif"}]},{id:"70122",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89360",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2077,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55080",title:"Life Skills in Occupational Therapy",slug:"life-skills-in-occupational-therapy",totalDownloads:6076,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Occupational therapy is a health profession that uses the purposeful activities to achieve multiple and complex rehabilitation aims. The main goals of the occupational therapy are to support the reintegration of individuals in daily living skills as well as to increase their independence and autonomy. Interventions of occupational therapists have primarily focused on self-care, productivity, and leisure time activities. Since the life skills includes a wide range of abilities that enable a person to perform personal care and more complicated tasks such as traveling, shopping, community participation etc., occupational therapists provide life skills training programs to meet the needs of the clients. This chapter aims to contribute to the current understanding and practices of life skills from an occupational therapy perspective. The chapter starts with a brief discussion of the importance of life skills in occupational therapy. After this introduction, the first part takes a look at the definition of life skills and identifies core components of life skills. The second part describes assessment and interventions of life skills. The third one gives an overview about school life skills programs for children and adolescents. Finally, the last part explains some life skills programs in people with disadvantages.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Hatice Abaoğlu, Özge Buket Cesim, Sinem Kars and Zeynep Çelik",authors:[{id:"197551",title:"Dr.",name:"Hatice",middleName:null,surname:"Abaoğlu",slug:"hatice-abaoglu",fullName:"Hatice Abaoğlu"},{id:"205199",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Kars",slug:"sinem-kars",fullName:"Sinem Kars"},{id:"205200",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeynep",middleName:null,surname:"Celik",slug:"zeynep-celik",fullName:"Zeynep Celik"},{id:"205203",title:"Ms.",name:"Özge Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Cesim",slug:"ozge-buket-cesim",fullName:"Özge Buket Cesim"}]},{id:"62493",title:"Occupational Therapy in Forensic Settings",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-forensic-settings",totalDownloads:2543,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"It is necessary for a person to comply with the expectations of society and the rules of law to which these expectations are secured. Offenders turn back to the community after the penalty was executed by isolating from society and some occupations. An occupational imbalance is seen in the individuals, during this penalty period and afterward, because of limited occupational participation. As an occupational being, this affects their physical, mental and psychological well-being. Imprisonment is an important practice in criminal law to punish criminals. This may be necessary for the protection of society from criminals, but successful integration into a community after exiting the prison is the most important factor in preventing recidivism. Occupational therapy focuses on health and well-being by using meaningful and purposeful occupations. Occupation involves any activity that people perform or participate in, such as giving care to themselves or others, working, learning, playing games, and interacting with others. From this perspective, the role of occupational therapists in forensic settings is to determine the abilities of these individuals to congregate their deprived freedoms and use them to train them for an independent and autonomous life; to provide a professional orientation, career counseling, and self-esteem; to gain some habits for physical, spiritual and moral life and to reinforce.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Esma Ozkan, Sümeyye Belhan, Mahmut Yaran and Meral Zarif",authors:null},{id:"70122",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2083,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]},{id:"62210",title:"Occupational Therapy’s Role in the Treatment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders",slug:"occupational-therapy-s-role-in-the-treatment-of-children-with-autism-spectrum-disorders",totalDownloads:2756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Occupational therapists (OT) offer a wide range of therapies for individuals with ASD on the basis of specific deficits and difficulties. This chapter explores the role that OT plays, and the expertise, in relation to the interdisciplinary team. In addition, it discusses and presents empirical support for several therapeutic approaches commonly used by OTs working with individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Bryan M. Gee, Amy Nwora and Theodore W. Peterson",authors:null},{id:"55049",title:"Community Participation in People with Disabilities",slug:"community-participation-in-people-with-disabilities",totalDownloads:2436,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Despite the fact that participation is an important building and a valuable target, the conceptualization, identification and measurement methods vary widely. This chapter tried to gain an insider’s perspective from the obstacles that summarize what meaning participation means, how to characterize it, and what prevents and supports participation. Participation is seen as a right and a responsibility attributed to and attributed to both the person and the community. Participation does not take place in a vacuum; the environment dynamically influences participation. The effects of this conceptual framework are discussed for change at the level of evaluation, research and systems to support the participation of the people with disability.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Gokcen Akyurek and Gonca Bumin",authors:[{id:"32431",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonca",middleName:null,surname:"Bumin",slug:"gonca-bumin",fullName:"Gonca Bumin"},{id:"197265",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokcen",middleName:null,surname:"Akyurek",slug:"gokcen-akyurek",fullName:"Gokcen Akyurek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"198",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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