Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
The core ideas developed in this is chapter were stimulated by two studies in which the authors explored how globalization is affecting higher education in the USA. The first was a study of how globalization has been transforming the faculty labor market in two-year community colleges (Mitchell, Nielsen & Batie, 2011). That study clarifies why these colleges have dramatically expanded their reliance on a part-time and task-contingent faculty workforce. The second study was a qualitative assessment of how faculty, students and administrators in a four-year research intensive public university computer science department are interpreting the globalization of intellectual, employment and student recruitment aspects of their work (Nielsen, 2011). This study documented ways in which research universities aggressively pursue internationalization of intellectual and organizational dimensions of their work while remaining largely unconscious of the extent to which these changes are related to political, social and economic globalization of the larger culture in which they are embedded.
With these studies as background, the body of this chapter examines the differences between internationalization and globalization in the contemporary development of higher education. Internationalization is seen as something higher education institutions do while globalization is something that is happening to them.
Virtually all institutions of higher education, public and private, are rapidly evolving into global actors, following a trend found in many other industries (Naidoo, 2006). The influence of ‘globalization’ and ‘internationalization’ on the character and behavior of higher education institutions has become a key theme in recent research (Enders, 2004; van der Wende, 2001). Unfortunately, the more frequently these terms are used, the more their meanings get mingled and confused (Enders, 2004). There remain some fundamental differences between these terms, however, and clarifying those differences is an important first step in understanding how higher education institutions are evolving.
Despite being a popular buzz word in the mainstream media, the nature and significance of globalization has proven hard to pin down with enough precision to see how it is influencing policies or practices in higher education. Globalization is an inherently complicated phenomenon, stubbornly resisting easy interpretation and application (Carnoy & Rhoten, 2002). Like globalization, internationalization is also a popular and frequently employed concept, used in varying contexts and for diverse purposes. But the operational meaning of this term remains equally vague and unclear (Knight, 1999; Stier 2003; Yang, 2002). Knight (1999) makes a helpful contribution toward distinguishing these two terms. She argues that: “globalization can be thought of as the catalyst while internationalization is the response, albeit a response in a proactive way” (p. 14).While we like the notion that internationalization is the active ingredient acting to express and reinforce globalization, we do have a minor quibble with Knight regarding his distinction. As the Nielsen (2011) study indicates, internationalization can be, and probably should be, thought of as a leading variable, encouraging and facilitating globalization, not just a response variable describing how institutions respond to the presence of globalization in the spheres of economics, politics, culture and social interactions.
In the next few paragraphs we explore in greater depth the nature and dynamics of globalization. This analysis is followed by a synthesis of ideas about internationalization.
2. Globalization
Structurally, globalization is made both possible and necessary by the development of two transforming technologies – transportation and communication (Boyd & Mitchell, 2005). From supertankers to supersonic aircraft, from superhighways to bullet trains, transportation advances have radically penetrated economic markets and breached cultural barriers, making access to material goods, social interactions and political relationships unimaginable two generations ago. Simultaneously, communication technologies carrying hundreds of simultaneous high-fidelity, real-time, voice and video channels by satellites and over the internet are giving global reach to political ideas, competitive price/value comparisons, instant news, social organization networks and dozens of other innovations in the way people access events, ideas, information and opinions. Transportation and communication technology innovations are no longer optional attributes to be used primarily by cultural or political elites. Ordinary citizens have nearly universal access to these technologies and are reaping substantial social, political, cultural and economic benefits. Virtually all important social institutions, as well as entrepreneurs, intellectual, political and cultural leaders, ignore the global reach of ideas and material things now available to nearly everyone at their peril. American economic dominance is being challenged as are the political ideas and cultural mores in all developed nations. From Tiananmen Square to the Arab Spring and the U.S. Occupy movement the world has seen a dramatic melding of technological and cultural change on an unprecedented scale – made possible by technological change, but driven by an emerging global consciousness.
2.1. Two dimensions of globalization
Although the term ‘globalization’ has been around since the early 1960s, developments in the last 20-30 years have largely shaped its character and impact. In recent literature the term is typically used either to characterize international spatial awareness or to highlight a transformation in the processes of interaction among individuals and groups. Tomlison, (1999) takes the first of these views – the spatial view – in his book “Globalization and Culture.” He argues that globalization refers to the world as a single place that serves as a common frame of reference for everyone. This notion is shared by many authors including Robertson, who was the first author to use it in the title of a sociological article in 1985 (cited in Currie, 1998). Robertson defined globalization as a compacted world where time and space are compressed (cited in Currie, 1998; see also Harvey, 1989). In this context, globalization also used to refer to the interconnections arising among mass cultures creating a consciousness of living in a “global village” (McLuhan, 1964; New World Encyclopedia, 2007). For observers emphasizing this geographic conceptualization, institutions of higher education are seen as at the center of this compressed world (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hillard, 2004). For these observers, the essence of globalization is found in new ways of thinking about space and time (Carnoy, 1999). Higher education institutions help to stimulate and clarify this new way of thinking (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hillard, 2004). Geographical space becomes increasingly measured by the time it takes to get from one location to another. As the time necessary to connect distinct geographical locations is reduced, distance or space undergoes psychological and cultural compression (Tomlison, 1999). Entrepreneurial institutions of higher education seek to capitalize on the shrinking geography, while less entrepreneurial ones find themselves pressured to adapt and respond (Carnoy, 2005).
The second view of globalization – the interaction process view – is found in the works of authors such as, Morrow & Torres (2000), Giddens (1994), Rizvi (2004), Altbach (2001), Beerkens (2003), Armstrong (2007) and Spring (2008). From this process view, globalization is defined as the practice of growing social interaction and connectivity among people around the world, creating economic, social, cultural, political, environmental, scientific and technological interdependence (Levin, 2001; Marginson, 2007). This type of interdependence has been described by Castells as creating a “network society” (1997). Not surprisingly, taking the spatial orientation toward globalization focuses attention more on transportation technologies while the process view tends to give priority to innovations in communication. One should not make too much of this distinction, however, since transportation innovations improve direct, face-to-face, communication while the virtually instant and increasingly high fidelity communications of the internet annihilate spatial barriers when information and idea sharing, rather than exchange of material goods, are the primary goals.
Globalization in both its spatial and process dimensions has been happening to the world for a long time. Only since the mid-twentieth century has its impact on the stability and viability of the modern system of nation-states become recognizable. Before the Second World War and the subsequent abandonment of European colonization of so-called third world nations the system of nation states was not thoroughly established and stable enough to seem to be the “natural order” of political institutions. Although de-colonialization is not yet complete, globalization and internationalization are shaking the foundations of the nation-state system of global political and economic organization.
2.2. Globalization challenges nation state integrity
Beerkens (2003, p.130) highlights key elements in the pressure system challenging nation-state political integrity. He sees four challenges arising from globalization. First, global is identified as, “a geographical concept distinguishing it from local.” This makes it necessary for nation-states to critique parochial policies, norms and practices by referencing them to those of other nations. Second, globalization is, “a concept of authority distinguishing it from territorial sovereignty.” This means that the global perspective is challenging the very idea of national sovereignty by asserting that nations are, and should be, held to an international accounting of their human rights practices, social welfare policies and protection of political liberties. Third, globalization is seen as, “a cultural concept distinguishing it from isolation.” Nowhere is this more visible than in the uprisings of the Arab Spring which produced a transnational sense of political solidarity or in the worldwide dissemination of popular music, folk art and dramatic films. Fourth, Beerkens (2003, p. 130) sees globalization as, “an institutional concept distinguishing it from national.” On this point, his summary formulation is a bit fuzzy, but the essential point is that social institutions of all types increasingly derive their legitimacy and, therefore, their social and political support, by reflecting worldwide standards of organization and operation. For our purposes in this chapter, this globalization of institutional forms can be applied directly to colleges and universities.
The political arena of globalization cannot be separated from social, cultural, and economic forces that shape the state’s position. While global processes are often seen as beyond the control of nation-states, the role of the state has remained key in the expression of social interests and representation of social groups or classes that benefit or suffer from public policy formation in response to globalization (Shaw, 1999; Morrow, Torres, 2000). As the control of the economy is transferred from the public to the private sector which is broadly the main argument of the neo-liberal economic agenda, there has been a shift in the political platform of institutions (Cohen, 2007). Higher education institutions that pursue an institutional integration to the new economy have benefited from these political processes (Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004).
An example of this can be seen in many states having legal requirements that faculties reveal patentable findings of research to make certain that colleges and universities have the opportunity to review them for commercial possibility (Chew, 1992). Another feature of globalization on institutional policies is the cross-national policy borrowing by institutions and forming international policies among institutions (Lingard, 2000). Appadurai (1996) argues that the policy ideas flowing globally are also linked to international political organizations such as the EU, World Bank, IMF, UN, UNESCO and OECD. These organizations or systems are largely institutionalizing mechanisms and they represent “a complex and ungovernable web of relationships that extends beyond the nation state” (Lingard, 2000; Waters, 2001).
2.3. Globalization is transforming higher education
From the social process transformation perspective, globalization is having a transformative effect on the core functions of institutions of higher education. Under the influence of social interaction globalization, higher educational institutions are developing a consumerist mentality which transforms education into a product exchangeable in an open market (Marginson & Considine, 2000; Altbach, 2004, Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). Slaughter and Leslie argue that “the academy has shifted from a liberal arts core to an entrepreneurial periphery,” in which “marketization” of the academics leads to the rise of “research and development with commercial purpose” (1997, p. 208). This commercial purpose allows higher education institutions to compete for the monetary or human resources available globally to benefit their institutions (Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004).
Economic globalization is also turning knowledge into a commodity; a commodity whose value depends on the ease and security with which it is created, stored and transferred from producers to users, as well on its utility in the production of other goods and services. As knowledge is being commodified, however, social, political and cultural globalization turn knowledge production and distribution into symbolic status and power resources with significant consequences. Seeking the power and prestige of symbolic knowledge, higher education institutions are encouraged to pursue internationalization of recruitment faculty and students and to secure recognition for knowledge production. Importantly, the Nielsen (2011) study shows, however, that the faculty and administrators pursuing this internationalization remain largely unconscious of how this activity is reinforcing the very globalization forces that are reshaping their work force and productive processes.
Globalization in academy also constitutes of a wide variety of components including higher education institutions, the academic fields, scholars, and students as contributing factors. These components each hold a different position in the identification of globalization in higher education.
2.4. Market competition divides as well as integrating institutions
The institution of higher education has always been international in scope with the exchange of ideas, scholars and students, but modern technology, the internet, communication technologies, the increasing flow of students and highly educated scientists from all over the world as well as scientific investments, patent activities and R & D make globalization more visible in the scientific field today (Heylin, 2006). The arrival of computer networks and systems, and the challenges they bring cannot be solved without international collaboration, such as adapting software usage around the world, the internet not having a single owner, overcrowding of the internet and selection of knowledge. For example, a software developer in California needs to collaborate with researchers in India in order to have adaptable products. At the center of these challenges are current national and international policies. For example, while developing technology with collaborations among different nations, agreements can be made to protect intellectual property but enforcements may not be possible. For example, the DVD copying is solved by having six different regions around the world. A DVD bought in Europe does not work in North America because of regional differences encrypted in the DVD. However, as digital technology advances and more and more information is online, controlling piracy again became an issue. As the concern over controlling technological innovations increase, we see more and more higher education institutions dealing with issues to manage R&D and protecting ownership. The way institutional policies are formed in the light of scientific and technological advancements reflect how the institutions respond to globalization. (Jenkins, 2003).
2.5. Globalization is transforming social relationships
Technological and economic changes have an influence on social and cultural structures. Globalization has created a new social environment (Kellner, 2002). This social environment has been described in terms of ‘the widening, deepening and speeding up of world-wide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life’ (Held et al., 1999, p. 2). It is a process which symbolizes a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and connections. These connections can be evaluated in terms of their amplitude, strength, speed and impact generating global or local flows and networks of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power (Held et al., 1999). Social groups get closer together but at the same time persistently try to maintain a more intentional focus on their localized identities (Chaney & Martin, 2004; Knight 2004; Yang, 2002) In social and cultural perspective, globalization can be seen as a double-edged sword. Chomsky refers to globalization as international integration (Chomsky, 2006). This simple explanation can hold divergent worldviews socially and culturally. For example, globalization can bring people who share certain beliefs, professions or causes together such as the professional cultures, Turkish pop music fans, holocaust survivors, Muslim extremists or human rights activists to form new forms of societies. At the same time, as the national communities get more pluralized, cultural and economic differences can form divisions among the people who share the same locality (Cevre, 1995; Hannerz, 2004).
2.6. Research universities play a prominent role
Armstrong (2007) introduced a new conceptual framework through which to examine the impact of globalization on US higher education institutions. His framing of the process of globalization in the international arena sees higher education institutions as hubs. Armstrong depicts a new model of institutions where students and faculty earn degrees from various international locales through global partnerships and satellite campuses thereby categorizing such institutions as non-traditional in the sense that they have no geographical borders. In this sense, institutions branch out and become global as opposed to just exchanging people and scholars with a fixed location. They expand their concept of being global as having international students, curriculum and activities, and having study abroad programs to a different order of having programs overseas which rely a great deal on the partnerships between the people from different educational institutions around the world (Armstrong, 2007; Scott, 2000).
When exploring globalization especially in the academics, we see that research universities play a particular role with global competition and high number of international students. Armstrong & Becker (2004) discuss in a lecture series on the subject of Higher Education and the Global Marketplace, the present situation, the emerging environment, and future positions of US research universities. Altbach and Knight’s (2007) article discusses the motivations behind the global activities of research universities. Armstrong and Becker explain the high cost associated with supplying research, instruction and social environment for students in undergraduate, master, and doctoral programs serving mostly traditional students (2004). Traditional students are identified as the ones that study on campus. Education in these universities is seen as investment in the future of a private market economy. Therefore, as the global economy depends on skilled workers, the need for educating more people to participate in this economy gains importance (Armstrong & Becker, 2004).
Altbach and Knight discuss the motivations of research institutions to participate in the global arena in a different light. They explain the motivation of expansion also includes enhancing research knowledge and capacity as well as to increase cultural awareness in these organizations (Altbach & Knight, 2007). Both articles stress the point that the higher education institutions, particularly research institutions that participate in the global arena do so not only with the traditional ways of having international students and curricula, but also expanding to different locales in the world by branch campuses and online collaborations.
In sum, this brief analysis of globalization reveals that wide-ranging interconnectedness trends are evident, and they directly have an influence on higher education institutions (Altbach, 2004). Many of these institutions, however, struggle as they have to respond to an ever-increasing set of global challenges such as competition or handling increasing international populations while remaining confined by institutional structural principles passed on from an earlier, more state-centered world
(Najam, Runnalls & Halle, 2007). Academic systems and institutions try to accommodate these developments in different ways; internationalization is one way of responding to globalization (Altbach, 2001).
3. Internationalization: The engine of globalization
As distinguished from globalization with its emphasis on worldwide conditions that influence perceptions of space, mobility of actions, the nature of communication and orientations to social interaction, internationalization focuses attention on the intentional actions of individual, groups and social institutions as they actively seek to cross national borders in pursuit of social, economic, political or cultural benefits. Looking at higher education institutions, Knight (1999) offers a working definition of internationalization in this domain. She sees internationalization as a matter of integrating transnational elements into the, “purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education” (p. 2). That is, colleges and universities are internationalizing their behavior when they reshape their purposes to attract international students, to deploy their programs across national borders, concentrate on internationally advantageous educational program niches, restructure work roles or compensation systems to recruit, retain or manage employees, etc.
3.1. World citizenship consciousness
One of the more powerful ways in which internationalization of action arises is through reconceptualization of citizenship. Rather than seeing themselves as citizens of a region, cultural subgroup or nation state, ordinary people are increasingly seeing themselves as entitled to, and ready to participate in, opportunities for interaction, work and consumption on an international scale. Individuals see themselves as citizens of the world, free to move about, trade experiences, seek educational opportunities, and pursue work or entertainment. Once they acquire this world consciousness they begin to find national borders inconvenient annoyances, inhibiting rather than enhancing security and opportunity. Though new and rapidly expanding in many domains, for students and faculty of higher education institutions, this kind of internationalization is not new. Since the medieval times, universities have been internationally oriented. For example, academics and students moved from Cairo to Bologna to Oxford in order to take advantage of the academic elites of those locations (Stier, 2003). Contemporary internationalization of higher education has its roots in this academic mobility of students and scholars (Scott, 2006). Scholarly exchange of faculty and students involved with scholarly inquiry has been a hallmark of university internationalization throughout their history (Vestal, 1994).
Internationalization has become more complex and comprehensive in recent decades. As noted during Congressional hearings on the International Education Act (IEA) of 1966 there is now a broad consensus that internationalization of education encompasses three major areas: a) movement of scholars and students seeking training and research, b) convergence in curricular content, and c) structural arrangements that provide cross-border technical assistance and educational cooperation programs (IEA, 1966). In 1994, Kerr, Gate & Kawaoka gave less emphasis to the structural components of international cooperation, but otherwise reaffirmed these components of internationalization, In research reports prepared for ACE (2002) and the International Association of Universities (IAU) (2003) the mobility of students and faculty were seen as the primary mechanisms of internationalization (Knight, 2003).
3.2. Collaborative science and scholarship
Internationalization in higher education is also evident in scholarly collaboration and the development of international standards in academic writing. Students move to other countries for training and researchers join forces internationally for collaborative research and a substantial number cross international borders (often several times) during the course of their academic careers. Moreover, by the start of the twenty-first century most prominent academic journals were routinely accepting submissions from any part of the world and trying to apply universal criteria in reviewing them (Martin, 2007).
There are many ways by which technology is influencing this international collaboration (Castells, 1999). “Big Science” like that involving collaborative space exploration or the CERN collider in Geneva, Switzerland routinely involves multinational teams of researchers and multinational financial support. Science oriented industrial processes are also transformed into international endeavors by new forms of technology such as nanotechnology, biotechnology, biometrics, network technology, and information technology (Taylor, 2001). These developments require a more educated work force and open up global markets for products and ideas, encouraging higher education institutions to take an international stance in order to respond (Carnoy, 2005; Carnoy & Rhoten, 2002; Altbach, 2004; Marginson, 2007).
The internationalization of higher education institutions focused on research and cross-national teaching is facilitated by multinational research and development agreements with international business and industry organizations (Marginson & Considine, 2000; Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). Such agreements call for the movement of personnel and facilities as well as ideas.
3.3. Dispersal of operations: Campus and center establishment
One prerequisite for success in the global marketplace is decentralization of service delivery so that the specialized needs and preferences of customers and clients can be served efficiently and effectively. This decentralization, combined with the centralization of production standards, is achieved by having a long list of highly standardized products and services that are mixed and matched by front line workers (Wallace & Brady, 2001). In computer manufacture, for example, a wide variety of highly standardized parts are produced in manufacturing plants all over the world. The parts are to exacting standards so that they are delivered ready for “off the shelf” assembly into highly individualized personal computers (Levinson, 2005). Labels like “made in China” or “made in America” no longer make sense as parts are manufactured in many different countries and their assemblage no longer has a singular national identity (Griffin, 2004, p.251).
Sharing knowledge and production of finished goods is rapidly leading to the “spatialization” of work. “Spatialization” is a term coined by Wallace & Brady (2001) to characterize work that is no longer bound to a particular geographical location (cited in Mitchell, Yildiz & Batie, 2011).This spatialization is reflected in the explosion of on-line, distance education programs, and the proliferation of satellite research centers and instructional campuses, and the restructuring of professional work into limited obligation, contingent contracts that commission the teaching of courses one at a time and remove full-time and tenured status from the working contracts of many teachers and staff specialists. An example, is seen in the number of students Turkey’s Anadolu University is serving in many different countries – their numbers have more than doubled in the last decade; they are now serving more than a million students (International Center for Distance Learning, Anadolu University). The University of London and Stanford University are also in the top ten of distance education universities in the world each with students living in over 180 countries (ICDL).
Studies have identified that in order to give way to cultural convergence; institutions must consciously increase their internationalization efforts (U.S. Department of Education, 1979; Clarke, 2004). Consequently, internationalization is both a response to globalization and a causal force hastening its further development. By having a chance to share cultural differences or personal similarities by studying in the same academic fields, people from distant locations in the world converge toward a common culture and loyalty to the same institutions (UNESCO, 2004).
3.4. International entrepreneurialism
Development of an international market for college level research and teaching has stimulated a sharp increase in university entrepreneurialism. Increased availability of knowledge creates competition among higher education institutions to keep up with the growth in specialized knowledge and control a market share in its development and distribution. Institutional status depends on being able to contribute to acquisition and dissemination of knowledge at its frontiers. To remain competitive, higher education institutions require increasingly substantial fiscal resources. And gaining needed financial support, requires establishing and maintaining a reputation for academic excellence. This reputation, in turn, is enhanced by pursuing the very best student and faculty talents even if it means investing heavily in recruiting across national borders.
Academic capitalists seek to accumulate information resources and to control flows of information within and across national boundaries. As a particular type of economic capital information can be compared with physical capital that is relatively static often tied to a specific location and fiscal capital that is easier to move and leverage for marketplace advantage but remains scarce and difficult to reproduce or pirate. Information capital, by contrast, is much more volatile than other forms of capital because it is relatively easy to replicate and thus be moved to a new location without disappearing in its current location. Thus, information is hard to hoard or otherwise control without very strong transorganizational and transnational agreements on patents, copyrights, and access to institutions of advanced education. It is for these reasons that the internationalization of higher education and the movement to contingency employment of higher education faculty are playing a vital role in facilitating and directing the progress of globalization.
During the Cold War, the motivation behind internationalization in United States higher education institutions was highly political and contradictory. Although the drive for internationalization was seen as a sign of American imperialism by the rest of the world; US policymakers’ presentation was on the lines of an initiative for peace and mutual understanding (de Wit, 1995). This view of international education as a force for peace has been a dominant one in US politics and higher education over the past 50 years. Following World War II, this political rationale was the dominant one in initiatives to internationalize higher education and stimulated investments like the European Marshall Plan the OECD and UNESCO. But with the end of the Cold War, political emphasis slowly gave way to an economic rationale (Knight, 2003). Economically, there is an argument that globalization is changing the goals of higher education in order to mirror markets. This notion is labeled as “academic capitalism” to symbolize a systematic creation of policies to make marketable activities possible, changes in the connections with the states, private organizations to support research; basically a change that prioritizes potential revenue generation rather than general expansion of knowledge (Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). This change in the establishment of higher education institutions can be interpreted as a result of economic globalization. Advanced knowledge is seen as raw material that can be owned, marketed and sold. In addition, rising private corporations need well educated workers that influence the curricular selections (Schmidt, 2002; Slaughter & Leslie, 1997).
Partly because the core concepts of globalization have become an ideology driving organizational development and management strategies, and partly because measures of standardized educational attainment are now seen as reliable and appropriate, community colleges are being intensely pressured to adopt globalized marketing principles in their policy and management processes (Levin, 2001). Unfortunately, community colleges have only been able to develop systems for responding to half of the globalized equation – they produce an enormous variety of specialized educational programs, responding to virtually any recognizable community preference or demand. Cain (1999, p. 3) makes this point by comparing community colleges to Wal-Mart stores, saying, “The community college extends the one-stop shopping idea to education. If a need exists, a community college administrator is searching for a way to meet it”. But the colleges are sorely lacking in the capacity to centralize the standards for producing these educational programs. Lack of standardization is partly the result of the traditional emphasis on academic freedom in all colleges and universities. More often, however, it is simply the result of an inability to clearly specify what instructional standards are required, and a general weakness in the ability of college administrators to hold faculty accountable for meeting whatever standards they are able to specify (Grubb, 1999; Levinson, 2005).
3.5. Neo-liberal managerialism: The mechanism of competition for resources
Internationalization of higher education has generated an important shift toward a much more aggressive managerialism, often referred to as neo-liberalism. This aggressive managerialism is aimed at transforming the nature of work and restructuring relationships between employers and workers. Ideas pioneered by David Gordon (Gordon, 1980) and creatively advanced by Wallace and Brady (2001) depict the development of the new economy as grounded in the inevitable tensions between labor and management as they seek to establish workplace rights and responsibilities within the evolving technologies of production and management. These scholars argue that industrialization, with its advancing complexity and intensification of workplace technologies continues to create distinctive restructuring of labor/management relationships. In an early industrial period direct supervision of workers by the owner/entrepreneurs for whom they worked was made both possible and necessary as industry needed to separate workplaces from domiciles. Supervisory control was simple and direct because the entrepreneurs were craftsmen themselves and typically worked alongside their employees. This served to obscure social class differences while generating loyalty from the workers (Gordon et al, 1982).
As production technologies grew, a distinctive managerial class came into existence, creating a new framework for labor management relations and work supervision. The idea of “scientific management” emerged. Scientific management focused on technical control over worker activities through the disaggregation of tasks and utilizing “time and motion” studies of how each component task can be most efficiently performed to guide managerial supervision. Worker organizations were craft unions empowering skilled workers performing the same generic tasks (D. Gordon, 1980, Sennett, 1998). As intelligence gradually moved from the workers into their machines, however, supervision became more bureaucratic, and there arose a sharp distinction between the “primary labor market” for skilled and professional workers whose tasks required autonomy and managerial support (rather than supervisory direction) and a “secondary labor market” for unskilled workers who were managed through direct supervision. Until industrial unions developed, unskilled workers could be, and often were, easily replaced to control costs and discourage worker collusion (Gordon, Edwards, & Reich, 1982). Public sector unions, including those embraced by community college faculty, adopted the industrial union paradigm.
Wallace and Brady (2001) argue that we are now moving into a fourth period in which labor/management relationships are driven by the technologization of the work itself. They call this fourth period the period of work “spatialization” to highlight two key components of the new worker/manager relationship. First, spatialization highlights the fact that the application of advanced digital technologies has resulted in work that is no longer place bound to a particular factory or work site. Management, through detailed specification of measurable work standards, can farm out various components of almost any production process to far away places and still maintain tight control over its quality, quantity and cost. This broad distribution of work components enables managers to both seek the most economical venue for production and, simultaneously, undercut the power of worker organizations by simply moving production away from organized worker environments (Burris, 1993; Harrison, 1994; Vallas & Beck, 1996; Wallace & Brady, 2001).
With the emergence of internationalism in higher education labor/management relationships are shifting rapidly away from permanent, full-time jobs and toward work that involves contingent, intermittent, task contracting that is not tied to specific work locations. New managerial technologies make it possible to supervise outcomes rather than task performance, and to employ workers only for the amount of time needed to complete specified tasks (Iversen, 2004; Sennett, 2006; Carnoy, 2000). This strategy has dramatic consequences for work role definitions as workers are no longer expected to develop loyalty to their firms or to require fringe benefit packages that keep them tied to a particular firm. “Loyalty is dead” Sennett (1998, p. 65) asserts, and, therefore, “each vigorous employee ought to behave like an entrepreneur”. Crucial to this redesign of work, however, is the development of managerial tools for actually monitoring production results (and assigning responsibility for those results to specific workers), rather than supervising the execution of specific tasks (Applebaum & Albin, 1989). Think, here, about the new strategies for building products as diverse as automobiles, computers and household appliances. These products are now designed to consist of highly standardized modular parts whose production can be spatially distributed. Construction, repair and maintenance of these products consists of assembling or replacing the appropriate modular components. This work can be monitored remotely and technologically (Griffin, 2004). Diagnostic instruments identify problematic modules, and worker training focuses on reading the diagnostic instruments and adjusting or replacing the appropriate module. Moreover, management can fairly easily test whether any given worker knows how to undertake the identification and proper installation of modular parts. Thus workers can be hired contingently, performing tasks on a “piece work” basis.
The shift is also visible in the large scale shift of manpower and capital from material manufacturing to information processing industries (Reich, 1992; Rifkin, 1995). As manufacturing production jobs decline in the highly industrialized countries, these jobs are replaced by new jobs that require higher levels of education to keep up with the everchanging technology (Carnoy, 2000). As one economist observed three decades ago, the average machine has at least a high school diploma and is learning more every year (Theobold, 1972). The widely noted shrinkage of the American middle class is, no doubt, substantially linked to the awesome gap that has developed between what it takes to tend the new production machinery and what it takes to finance, design, build and manage it. That said, the real impact of technology on skills according to Spenner (1985), Freeman & Soete (1994) and Carnoy (2000) depends on the distinct qualities of the labor force and the relation between the economy and the educational system. As Carnoy (2000) puts it “Technology seems simultaneously to de-skill and re-skill the labor force” (p.43).
For many Americans, community colleges are the point of entry into the information age economy. “The ‘technical revolution’ created a plethora of specialized, high-skilled jobs that fueled a need for workforce training, which community colleges were willing and able to provide expeditiously” (Levinson, 2005, p.47). They sort and assign their students to future roles in that economy. Their task, already enormous and growing more difficult all the time, is to assist their students in moving from service and production workers, who live to support the information economy infrastructure, into the ranks of knowledge workers who are capable of organizing and managing the information systems on which it is based (Griffith & Connor, 1994; Cain, 1999; Levinson 2005). Business thinker Peter Drucker commented on this subject in 1977, saying that “The substitution of knowledge for manual effort as the productive resource in work is the greatest change in the history of work, which is, of course, a process as old as man himself…Education has moved from having been an ornament, if not a luxury, to becoming the central economic resource of technological society” (cited in Griffith & Connor, 1994, p.78). To respond to these changes, the community colleges need a faculty that is both smarter than the average machine and capable of teaching students how to become reasonably efficient lifelong learners (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). This task is doubly daunting because community college faculty have high workloads, low levels of professional support, and typically are working with students who have a lot to learn just to catch up with more advantaged peers who are attending the nation’s four-year colleges and universities (Grubb, 1999; McGrath & Spear, 1991; Kozeracki, 2002).
3.6. Neo-institutionalism: Prioritizing legitimacy in the nation-state
Another dimension of internationalization is the development of organizational designs often characterized as a “neo-institutionalism.” This new framework for organizational theory is replacing bureaucratic organizational theory as the dominant paradigm for analyzing complex organizations. Beginning in the 1970s with a seminal article by John Meyer and Brian Rowan (Meyer & Rowan, 1977), organizational sociologists increasingly emphasized the fact that many organizational activities often are not rationally linked to productivity goals. Instead, they emerge as a means of securing and maintaining organizational legitimacy in the eyes of governmental, professional and community groups (Powell & DiMaggio, 1991).
Early in the twentieth century the German sociologist Max Weber (Weber, Henderson, & Parsons, 1947) convincingly characterized rational bureaucracies as the archetypical modern social organizations. In this conception, organizational design is directed toward realizing production goals. Fredrick Taylor (Taylor, 1911) applied the Weberian concepts and used the idea of rational organization to develop guidelines for “scientific management” of bureaucratic production (Ray & Reed, 1994). By the 1970s, however, there developed a substantial reconceptualization of how complex social organizations are created and sustained. Research revealed that, within their boundaries, organizations are cultural systems with traditions, moral (or perhaps immoral) value systems, and a rich set of symbols and rituals for creating and expressing shared meanings capable of establishing social identities (not just work roles) for organizational members (Senge, 1990; Bolman & Deal, 2003). Beyond the organizational boundaries, emergent scholarship was documenting the broad dependencies of all organizations on the ways in which environmental actors – civic governments, professional associations and community groups – are willing to endorse their legitimacy by embracing their organizational missions and approving their operational routines. As a result, contemporary organizational sociology has raised to central significance the institutional rather than the bureaucratic aspects of complex social organizations (Rowan & Miskel, 1999; Scott, 1992). By “institutional” these sociologists mean that the moral, normative and symbolic dimensions of organizational behavior are more important to organizational stability and success than are rational, means-ends productivity considerations. In short, the new organizational sociology proclaims that “legitimacy has trumped productivity” as the fundamental standard for evaluation and support (Mitchell, 1996; Powell & DiMaggio, 1991). The internationalization of universities puts this need for a coherent culture at the center of organizational effectiveness, creating significant tensions between the entrepreneurialism and neo-liberal managerialism with their emphasis on competitive processes and the neo-institutional corporate need for a more collaborative and culture building process which is more fragile in character and requires more substantial social interaction than is often produced in international educational ventures.
Neglect of the neo-institutional aspects of international cooperation was seen In the Nielsen study, where a major finding is that research university faculty did not consider cultural globalization to be something emerging from their international actions. They intellectually recognize globalization with world citizen consciousness as a phenomenon encountered in their international relationships, but do not see that their actions are building that citizenship consciousness. They do not account for the actions of their academic department in terms of global consciousness or interaction. Rather, they interpret their actions almost entirely in terms of competitive entrepreneurialism – raising the institutional ranking of the department, conducting good research, getting good students, getting more grants (money), etc.
Internationalization of student recruitment and competitive knowledge production reinforces the entrepreneurial side of international behavior, and deflect attention away from the impact of this competition on the development of multinational globalized and institutionalized forms of collaboration. As a result, observers note the emergence of global norms and cultures, while the students, faculties and university administrators who are producing these changes see themselves acting in largely self-interested and nationalistic ways. Ironically, it appears that the harder universities strive to mobilize human capital resources and achieve national prestige and reputations for excellence, the more they succeed in globalizing the higher education culture and produce a higher education ranking system which has common international metrics of success.
For the less prestigious community colleges, the competition of resources, students and high status internationalized programs leads to dramatically higher levels of neo-liberal management behavior through part-time contingent faculty employment and rapid changes in instructional program emphases. For these institutions, the reality of globalized educational norms means unrelenting pressure to advance instructional programs in response to global knowledge dissemination and secure control over the employment and assignment of teachers to allow for sharply increased managerial control.
3.7. The yin and yang of internationalization and globalization in higher education
We started this chapter with an explanation of globalization, arguing that internationalization is both a response to, and a contributing factor facilitating, globalization. This was illustrated with examples from two studies exploring globalization and internationalization in higher education settings. Like the Yin and Yang forces in ancient Chinese philosophy internationalization and globalization work together to transform the self-understanding and organizational activities of both research universities and community colleges. Grounded in a revolution in transportation and communication technologies, globalization and internationalization operate together to create a global interdependence in economics, politics and culture.
With the Nielsen (2011) study of a research university department, we see international faculty and students moving freely around the world, contributing to globalization. Internationalization of higher education allows them to cross borders and institutions, challenging their national loyalties while strengthening their intellectual and institutional loyalties. Institutions like this rely on this shift in loyalties to bring top talent from around the world to work at a prestigious university. Loyalty to institution and field of endeavor are proving stronger than loyalty to national culture, orienting university scholars to pursue international legitimacy and prestige.
In Community colleges, it is not the loyalty to the field that provides the institution the legitimacy for survival. It is meeting a market need. The contingency of labor is legitimate because it benefits the institution financially and enables it to survive in the highly competitive global economy. The institution strives for ever greater flexibility to respond to rapidly changing market conditions and, in doing so, the community colleges operating in a global culture needing to quickly respond to technological advances and the changing job opportunities brought about by the globalization of market structures.
In sum, globalization is allowing a new order in the world of higher education. Going from political to economical purposes, nationalism giving way to world citizenship, culture depending on the identified groups more than geographical locales, organizational legitimacy more and more depending on global name recognition and expansion, allegiance to the organization giving way to entrepreneurialism and most of all control of knowledge dissemination; these forces have altered the fabric of higher education. Adaptation is a survival tool. Higher education organizations that fit, participate and welcome global changes will survive the best.
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1. Introduction
Globally, the severe problem humanity is facing today is the availability of fresh water, wastewater generation and energy supply. As the continuous use of fossil fuel are depleting day by day the natural stock of fossil fuels. This natural energy reserve may end in next 45–50 years. This depletion is posing stress to continue the various anthropogenic activities i.e. industry, agriculture, production of precious chemicals for food, and pharmaceutical which directly affects the global economics due to shortage of energy sources. In these circumstances, this is the high time to identify and develop alternative, cost-effective, efficient renewable energy resources for enhancing the sustainability of anthropogenic activities. Algal biomass could be utilized to generate extensively energy support as algae bear high productivity of biomass [1]. The more concentration for diversification of agro-ecosystem from food to fuel is also fulfilled by the algal biofuel as these living being are also not required agricultural land due to their aquatic nature. As per the report of the Central Pollution Control Board of India [2], 71853 MLD [million liters per day] wastewater (considering both sewage and industrial discharge) is discharged into the water bodies of India and out of which only 37% get treated. In these days, pollution of natural resources especially water is also at alarming point and the climate change making it more serious. Thus, minimum contamination/waste of water and reuse of the contaminated/waste/used water is also the highly required. The presently available technologies of wastewater treatment are not only costly but also generate huge amount of sludge. The generated sludge after wastewater treatment essentially need to be treated and disposed, these two requirements further increases the financial effectiveness of the any technology [3, 4]. The algae mediated wastewater treatment is an environmentally sustainable and efficient approach and can be integrated with secondary wastewater treatment process. Algae are the small, mostly aquatic, photosynthetic (converts sunlight into the oil form stored energy) organisms, currently, getting more attention due to their capabilities to address the different environmental issues including energy. Microalgae have been noted for their enormous potential to remediate waste water i.e. Phyco-remediation. Phycoremediation is the utilization of alga culture to remove/biotransformation of pollutants, nutrients, xenobiotic from waste water. Phycoremediation can handle more than one environmental problem such as pH correction, BOD, COD and TDS removal simultaneously over the chemical methods. Phycoremediation consider highly eco-friendly as did not cause secondary pollution. Presently, biodiesel production utilizing microalga is not economically sound due to its cost. Thus, algal biorefinery concept can serve an important option to minimize the microalgal biofuel cost. Algal biorefinery is the analogous concept to present petroleum refinery as petroleum refinery produces multiples products including fuels from petroleum. Algal biorefinery is having potential to increase the values of the products obtained from the biomass feed stocks. Algal biorefinery can be integrated among biomass conversion process, fuels (low value, but high volume), intermediate compounds (low volume, but high value) and value added chemicals along with electricity generation through advanced technologies such as combined heat and power (CHP) technology. Microalgae are having high capacity to convert the solar energy to chemical energy per unit land than terrestrial phototrophs due to their high productive rate. Thus, microalgae can address the increasing energy demands as well as growing environmental issues such as climate change. Beside this, microalgae having some advantages as feedstock for value added product generation. The microalgae are capable of synthesize huge quantity of lipids (20–50% dry cell weight). The growth of algae is very fast compared to terrestrial plants (double the biomass within 20–25 days), so can be used for bioremediation [4]. Algae do not require arable land and fresh water for the growth. Algal biomass can also contribute significantly to reduce the enhanced atmospheric carbon. Keeping this view, the present chapter is focused towards the utilization of algae in wastewater treatment, biofuel, biofertilizer production, CO2 sequestration, bioremediation and challenges with future perspective through algal biorefinery interventions.
2. Wastewater characteristics and their treatment
Due to industrialization, population expansion and modern life style the wastewater generation is increasing day by day. The discharged of wastewater without proper treatment in to waterbodies are continuously overloading the fresh water bodies and minimizing their self-cleaning capacity. This overloading of waste into the freshwater bodies, disturbing the nutrient recycling process along with the disturbance in biogeochemical cycles i.e. nitrogen, carbon and water cycles through physical (evaporation, precipitation etc.), ecological (eutrophication, bio-magnification etc.) and biological process (photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, respiration etc.). Availability of fresh water/irrigation water for fulfillment of daily requirement of the human society is also decreasing in the present changing environment [5]. To meet out the current demand of water for various anthropogenic activities, this is very necessary to increase the water reuse potential. This can be achieved through proper treatment of the wastewater generated during different activities. Wastewater is generally composed of water and wastes originate from commercial, industrial, home and institution activities. Wastewater at the point of origin contains high organic load, colorants, pesticides, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, numerous pathogens, toxic compounds and nutrients. The minimum treatment of this generated wastewater is required and recommended before disposing into the environment. The mechanistic understanding of the environmental effects, influencing factors, controls and effective utilization of the treatment process is essential to design the treatment process and its operation. There are three methods which are used to treat wastewater. These methods are physical, chemical and biological methods. The treatment of waste water is general divided into three systems of treatment i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary based on the capacity to remove the different contaminants. The general wastewater treatment process details are depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
General wastewater treatment process.
3. Algae mediated wastewater treatment
Algae are autotrophic organism however; there are some other algae, which are heterotrophy or mixotrophy in nature. The dominant mode of microalgae metabolism in wastewater is heterotrophic (approximately 50%) in nature. The heterotrophic microalgae metabolize organic components in wastes, and convert them into organic biomass along with inorganic components. Microalgae contribute approximately 50% of global primary production (GPP) i.e. most efficient convertor of solar energy to chemical energy and act as producer of aquatic food chain [6]. The quantity and quality of bioactive compounds of microalgae is based on the ambient environmental, ecological factors and taxonomic position. The removal of this generated algal biomass results in the purification of wastewater as their removal decreases the biological oxygen demand especially in case of their death to minimizing the chance of back release of nutrients in the ecosystem.
In 1960s Oswald and Gotta, [7] reported the potential role of microalgae for the removal of pollution load from the tertiary wastewater treatment by algae. Phycoremediation is the removal/biotransformation of pollutants such as nutrients, xenobiotics from wastewater and CO2 from air. Thus, phycoremediation can be used for to extract nutrient from municipal wastewater/effluents which are rich in organic matter; to complete removal/transformation and degradation of xenobiotic compounds utilizing as biosorbent; to treatment of acidic wastewaters; to sequestrate CO2; and to detect toxic compounds using algae-based biosensors. There are various studies which recommends the removal of nitrogen and phosphorous from wastewater to protect the waterbodies from eutrophication [5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. The controlled growth of algae in wastewater leads to reduction of contamination load on natural resources and can also be enhance reuse efficiency. The utilization of algae in the treatment of different waste such as agro-based industrial wastes, sewage, industrial wastes (metal finishing, paper, and textile) and even landfill leachate [10, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Waste mitigation potential of an algal species entirely depends on the algal productivity, nutrient and pollutant removal efficiency, and cost of biomass harvest [16, 17, 18]. In addition to removal of pollutant load from wastewater, algae make available oxygen (O2) to bacteria (heterotrophic aerobic) for mineralization of pollutants and CO2 produces by bacterial catabolism is subsequently consumed by the photosynthetic activity of algae (Figure 2). The photosynthetic process of algae is reduces the pollutant volatilization through mechanical aeration and contribute to reduce the cost of operation directly. Thus, the dual purpose utilization of microalgae in biorefinery approaches is providing high sustainable solution to the long standing environmental concerns than any other equivalent approaches. The important products of the algal biorefinery are biomanure, biodiesel, ethanol, pharmaceutical, fish feed, biohydrogen and several other valuable products [19, 20, 21, 22]. The role of various microalgae in the remediation of wastewater is given in Table 1.
Figure 2.
Principle of photosynthetic oxygenation in BOD removal.
S. No
Microalgae
Waste
Culture system
Biomass productivity
Reduction of pollutants
References
1.
Chlorella minutissima
Primary treated sewage wastewater
Race way ponds
0.44 ± 0.04 g/L
Reduction of TDS, P, NH4+, NO3−, BOD and COD by 94.3%, 67.4%, 48.2%, 88.8%, 93.2% and 80.5%, respectively
C. minutissima, Scenedesmus spp N. muscorum and Consortium
Sewage wastewater
20 L capacity of plastic bottles
0.4 g/L dry biomass of Chlorella
Chlorella reduces NH4+-N (92%), NO3−N (87%), PO43− -P (85%), and reduces TDS (96%), BOD (90%) and COD (81%). Scenedesmus spp removed 72% TDS and 92% NH4+-N. Out of selected C. minutissima performed better
Selective examples of the microalgae for wastewater treatment along with system utilized biomass productivity and targeted pollutants.
*SWW-Sewage wastewater; **PAM-polyacrylamide.
4. Algal bio-refinery based production
Algal biorefinery approach aims to promote harvesting of several value-added products from the algae feedstock, towards economic and environmental effectivity of algal based technology. There are plenty of the research efforts has been made to harness the algal biomass to produce biofuel, biofertilizer, biodiesel, pharmaceutical products as well as for wastewater remediation. The industrial production of the biofuel through algal biomass utilizing different photobioreactors could be possible to burden off the current energy demand. The basic process of biodiesel production through bio-refinery is explained in Figure 3. Additionally, the nutrient qualities such as carbohydrates, proteins, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and other nutrients of the algal biomass can also be utilized as nutrient feed for animal as well as for fish etc. The algal dry biomass composition contains up to 46% Carbon (C), 10% Nitrogen (N) and 1% Phosphates (P) and 1 kilogram (kg) of dry algal biomass utilizes up to 1.7 kg carbon dioxide (CO2) (Hu et al., 2008). The algal biomass after remediation of wastewater having vast potential as biofertilizer. The N,P and K content in microalgae algae biomass varies from 7 to 9%, 1–2% and 0.1–1%, respectively [5, 13]. The algal biomass can also be used as biofertilizer in agro-ecosystems. The algal biomass not only provides essential nutrients to the agricultural crops but also significantly contribute to improve the soil carbon and soil fertility [5, 13]. Sharma et al. [5] in a study conducted on the impact of algae biomass as manure on the nitrate leaching reported that microalgal manure are slow releasing in nature and less leaching of nitrate as compared to chemical fertilizer was observed, so application of microalgae biomass also results in reduction of nitrate leaching from agricultural fields as compared to chemical fertilizer, hence prevent eutrophication of the water bodies. Thus based on the available literature and recent research it can be concluded and put forward that algal biorefinery is one of the most promising cutting-edge economic alternative of existing traditional technologies to cater the environment through direct reduction of the primary and/or secondary pollutants as well as sustainable solution for essential required developmental process.
Figure 3.
A conceptual process (Biorefinery based) for producing microalgae biofuels for better economy.
5. Microalgae as potential source of biofuels
Microalgae has a potential to deliver renewable energy resources such as biofuels. Due to the problem of global warming (burning of fossil fuels) and day-to-day surge in petroleum, prices the role of microalgae has been rethink by various domains for using as a source of clean energy. The reason behind microalgal biomass as suitable feedstock for biofuel as the algae has high biomass productivity, high lipid content and high photosynthetic efficiency than terrestrial plant. Algae is considered as third generation biofuel and have advantage over first and second generation biofuel in terms of readily available, ability to grow throughout the year, water consumption is very less, can grow on wastewater, ability to grow under harsh condition, and high biomass production. The oil content of algae compared to first and second generation biofuel is given in Table 2. In this section we will discussed the important product obtained from algae as biodiesel, biofertilizer and biochar.
5.1 Biodiesel
The recent research developments in microalgae reveals that microalgal biomass is one of the promising sources of biodiesel, which partially could met the demand of transportation sector. Using microalgae to produce biodiesel will not compromise production of food, fodder and other products derived from crops. The microalgae species such as Kirchneriella lunaris, Ankistrodesmus fusiformis, Chlamydocapsa bacillus, and Ankistrodesmus falcatus are prominent species for biodiesel production as they contain high polyunsaturated FAME [29]. The comparison of various oil yielding crops is given in Table 2. Thus, considering the potential of the algal based biodiesel production, it can be concluded that the biodiesel can be used to displace fossil diesel partially/completely. The oil percentage in various algae are in the range of 20–50% (Table 3) and increase in oil content can be achieved >80% by weight of dry biomass in microalgae. The oil productivity of microalgae is the mass of oil produced per unit volume of the microalgal broth per day, depends on the algal growth rate and the oil content of the biomass.
Source
Oil (Liter/ hectare)
Algae
1,00,000
Oil Palm
1413
Coconut
2684
Jatropha
741
Rapeseed/Canola
1187
Peanut
1057
Sunflower
954
Safflower
776
Soybeans
636
Hemp
364
Corn
172
Table 2.
Comparison of algae with different crops for biofuel.
The microalgae can assimilate excess N&P from the wastewater and convert it into the valuable biomass which has potential as a manure for the agricultural crops. Various researches have reported that %N content in the dry algae biomass is significantly higher than the available organic manure (cow dung, farmyard manure etc.) [10, 13, 36]. The NPK content of dry algae biomass ranged from 3 to 7%, 0.5–2% and 0.4–0.8%, respectively [13, 14, 36, 37]. The algal based fertilizers are composed of high OC which support to increase the moisture retention capacity and nutrient bioavailability than chemical fertilizers and other organic inputs such as farm yard manure [38]. Algal bio-fertilizer being rich in carbohydrates, soluble protein contents and other important plant organic nutrients, ensure higher vegetative yield [39, 40]. The algal-biofertilizer input also enhance the microflora of the soils along with the availability of inorganic nutrients [13]. Renuka et al. [41] confirms that the microalgae-based biofertilizer decreases the nutrient losses as nutrients are slowly release into the soil and available to the crop in longer periods than the synthetic fertilizers. In a leaching experiment conducted by Sharma et al. [5] the application algae biomass (C. minutiisma) after harvesting from sewage wastewater results in reduction of nitrate leaching in spinach crops as compared to application of chemical fertilizer, hence prevent eutrophication in water bodies. The immobilization and mineralization of any fertilizer depends on its C:N ratio. If the C:N ratio of any fertilizer is more than 20, it promotes immobilization and therefore not advisable for application in soil. The C:N ratio of phycoremediated algae manure is around 9.16, hence its application promotes mineralization in the soil [13]. In addition, algae fertilizer also reported to reduce nitrate leaching from the agricultural fields than synthetic fertilizer [5, 21]. Therefore, it can be summarized that phycoremediation of sewage wastewater with biofertilizer production is a resource conservation approach and recycling of wastewater as well as nutrient for improvement in crop quality.
5.3 Biochar
Algae biomass is potential feedstock for various value added products. Since last decades, interest has been raised in production of biochar from microalgae biomass. As biochar is rich in organic carbon, so its application enhances carbon sequestration and improving the soil quality [42, 43, 44]. Generally, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur content in biochar is 48.45, 1.78, 1.47, and 0.78 (wt%) and it varies with the feedstock [45]. The microalgae derived biochar (Chlorella vulgaris FSP-E) is slightly alkaline in nature having carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur content (% dry wt) is 61.32,3.55, 9.76, 11.92, and 0.02% [46]. Similarly, Chaiwong et al. [47] reported volatile matter 16.8%, carbon 62.4%, and nitrogen 2.1% in spirogyra microalgae derived biochar. Generally, compared to lignocellulosic biochar, algae derived biochar have low organic carbon content and CEC, but having high nitrogen, P, K, Ca and Mg content [48]. Due to its high nutrient content and ion exchange capacity, algae biochar can be utilized for agricultural inputs and adsorbents in wastewater remediation [42]. Being an alkaline in nature, algae biochar could be used as amendment in acidic soil. Due to high biosorption capacity of associated with the large amount of functional group, microalgae biochar results enhancing the efficiency for the removal of organic contaminants [49]. Producing algae biochar also results in sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, hence prevent global warming. Biochar is the carbon-enriched (coke) obtained after pyrolysis under temperatures (600–700°C) and under anaerobic conditions. The produce yield from pyrolysis is related to parameters, such as temperature, heating rate, and residence time [50]. The yield of biochar increased with decrease in pyrolysis temperature, and with increase in the duration. Chen et al. [45] showed that the yield of biochar algae in terrified microalgae residue at the temperature ranged from 200 to 300°C with a residence time of 15–60 min. Similarly, the yield of 50.8–95.7% in microalgae Chlamydomonas sp. JSC4 under the temperature of 200–300°C for 15–60 min [51]. Hence, it can be concluded that, production of algal biochar is expected to contribute to a further sustainable environment in the future.
5.4 Carbon dioxide sequestration
Global climate is a challenging issue, and reason behind is increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in atmosphere. Currently, CO2 concentration in the atmospheres is around 400 ppm and it may reach to 750 ppm by the end of century [52]. CO2 is well known greenhouse gases contributing climate change and global warming. The industrialization, and population expansion is the main cause of greenhouse gases emission. Several technologies has develop for capturing CO2, although biological capture of CO2 is a potential and attraction alternative. The algae mediated CO2 fixation coupled with wastewater treatment is gaining attention as compared to terrestrial plants [53]. The microalgae that are effective in CO2 sequestration generally belongs to Chlorococcum, Chlorella, Scenedesmus and Euglena genus. The carbon dioxide sequestration potential of microalgae is around 10–50 times higher than terrestrial plants [54]. The nutrients content in wastewater (N & P) can be utilized by microalgae for source of food and resulting biomass could be utilized for biofuel, biofertilzer, biochar and value added products. Microalgae can be grown in photobioreactor by carbon dioxide from the point sources such as industry, cement kiln, thermal power plant etc. Tang et al. [55] conducted a study on the impact of CO2 concentration on biomass productivity of algae Chlorella pyrenoidosa in a photobioreactor and found that at 10% CO2 concentration, biomass production was highest (1.8 g/L). However the process is cumbersome and faced problem in down streaming process (harvesting). Open pond system and closed PBR are generally suggested for the purpose of growing algae. Open pond system/raceway ponds are cost effective, but significant amount of CO2 loss to the atmosphere as compared to closed PBR. The CO2 sequestration with remediation of wastewater thorough algae is cost efficient, sustainable, and recycling approach.
6. Microalgal biomass production
6.1 Open ponds
Cultivation of algae in open pond is oldest and simple practice in which algae are cultivated in similar condition as external environment. This type of system was first introduced in 1950s [56, 57]. Open pond consists of close loop system for circulation which is around 0.3 m depth with a paddlewheel constructed as clay, or plastic-lined ponds. Paddlewheel is used for circulation of water and for proper aeration. Open pond system is still used for large scale production of algae in outdoor condition. With time various designs has emerged for open-pond systems, but three designs (race-way ponds, circular ponds, and unstirred ponds) succeeded for mass multiplication of algae (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Open pond system for algae biomass production.
6.2 Closed photobiorector
As name suggest, growing of algae in closed system. Closed photobioreactor can produce higher biomass than closed system, but it is not cost effective. The most common cultivation technology in closed system is the photobioreactor (PBR) (Figure 5). Typically, closed reactors include tubular and flat bioreactors. The system consists of glass or plastic, although glass PBR is frequently used for large scale production [58]. In closed system, glass tubes are arranged normally in vertical, helical of in horizontal manner and mechanical pumps fixed to allow CO2 and O2 exchange. Closed PBR has advantage over open system as it harnesses more sunlight and hence enhance productivity (from 20 to 40 g/m /d) in short span of time, although it is costly due to complexity in structure [59]. The advantages and disadvantages between open pond and closed bioreactor is given in Table 4.
Figure 5.
Tubular photobioreactor with parallel tubes.
Method of cultivation
Advantages
Disadvantages
Open system
Cost effective, easy to maintain
Biomass production is low, low light use efficiency, high risk of contamination of other microorganism, not suitable for all sensitive microalgae species
Closed system
High biomass yield, high sunlight use efficiency, less space is required, can be suitable, highly suitable for monoculture and sensitive species
High cost in construction as well as in maintenance including cleaning of reactor
Table 4.
Comparison between open and closed photobioreactor system.
Despite of the importance of algae mediated wastewater treatment and further production of several bioproducts form harvested algae biomass such as (fuel, feed, food, ferilizer), some challenges are also associated with algae technology. Various microbial contaminants can also be act as inhibitors to algae growth. The pH and organic impurities such as i.e. lignin and tannins present in wastewater can affects the algal growth negatively and the concentration of heavy metals above the permissible levels can unfit the products for subsequent utilization of the pharmaceutical products. The microbe (bacteria, protozoa) present in wastewater may affect the growth of algae, there pre-treatment methods such as autoclaving, filtration is not feasible at large scale production. Therefore, advanced technologies are required for the removal of pathogens particularly for the commercial scale production. The major problem associated with conventional wastewater treatment process is generation of sludge. The algae mediated wastewater treatment process overcomes the problem of sludge generation as sludge contains only algae biomass [61]. Different types of wastewater has different composition in terms of pollution load like TDS, heavy metals contents, dissolved oxygen, so the selection of microalgae and its strain should be according to the source of the wastewater, resistibility to the pollution load, easily accessible and achieve the goal of preferred outcome. The harvesting methods of microalgae from wastewater are tedious, costly and laborious too, particularly for the unicellular microalgae. But with scientific development, biotechnological approach and emergence of advanced technology, the problem of microalgae harvesting would be elucidated. Genetic modifications of microalgae hold a great potential for biofuel production from commercialization point of view. However, there are certain challenges that need to be overcome for its large scale production. Hence, more and more studies are required to unfold the enzymatic pathway of lipid/ biofuel production to understand the mechanism involved in the process. To date, several metabolic engineering processes have been developed for enhanced production of algal biofuel, high carbohydrate and lipid content in algal biomass and improving the photosynthetic efficiency of algal species through the cellular expression or down regulation of various genes encoding a specific enzyme [62, 63, 64]. The complex nature of fatty acid biosynthetic pathway and lack of molecular transformation techniques for most of the oleaginous microalgae is cumbersome for genetic engineering process. Moreover, enhanced lipid production through genetic manipulation are not fully evolved and recent advancement in the genetic engineering methodology and techniques still promising to reach the desired goal. For the commercial purpose, mass multiplication of microalgae is required. The growth of microalgae is governed by the temperature, seasonal variations and climatic conditions. The laboratory facility with controlled condition of temperature, humidity and invariable seasonal variation is required for the mass multiplication. By viewing the importance of microalgae in the wastewater treatment, production of various valuable products and its combination with the other emerging technologies would definitely overcome the current challenges and cost in near future.
8. Conclusion
Algae are considered as a third generation biofuel, having high oil content than terrestrial crops. In the present scenario, biorefinery approach of microalgae is a promising approach towards reducing the cost of operation of decontamination as well as fuel production. Algae can easily grow on wastewater, which further preserving the resources (arable land and fresh water) for other purposes. In spite of producing various value added products from harvested algae biomass, it can act as a potential agent for wastewater remediation. Microalgae biomass production after wastewater remediation, could be a suitable fertilizer option. The microalgae biomass production reduces the organic load, and TDS, in wastewater which may further utilized as ferti-irrigation, hence reduces the burden on utilization of fresh water in a green circular economy. In addition, production of microalgae biochar which is rich in organic carbon, further enhances carbon sequestration and improving the soil quality and productivity. In this way, algae mediated wastewater treatment integrated with biochar, biodiesel and biofertilizer production from algae biomass is a recycling and resource conservation practice.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Dehradun for providing support.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this book chapter.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
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\n',keywords:"microalgae, wastewater, phycoemediation, biorefinery",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81839.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81839.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81839",totalDownloads:17,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 7th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 31st 2022",datePrePublished:"May 25th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 18th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In the recent years, due to heavy surge in the price of petrochemical products, researchers are getting interest towards renewable bioenergy resources such as algal-based biomass. In order to meet a world energy demand, current bioeconomy challenges and to produce valuable products, intensive and integrated research on algal biorefinery is highly required. Even though several research carried out study for the conversion of algae biomass to biofuel, but none of these proved economically viable. Hence, range of value added product (biodiesel, biochar, fertilizer, etc.) must be produced subsequently from algae. The utilization of microalgae for biomass production is better than agricultural crops as microalgae do not required fresh water for its growth, it can readily grow on wastewater throughout the year. Generation of wastewater is severe concern throughout the world and discharge of wastewater without proper treatment in to water bodies causes water pollution. Microalgae bear vast potential in significantly deescalating pollutant load (nitrate, TDS, ammonium, phosphate, organic load) from wastewater. The harvested algal biomass after remediation has significance role in producing biofuels and by-products in a sustainable way. In this chapter, emphasis would be given on role of algae in wastewater treatment and its biorefinary approach for sustainable energy development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81839",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81839",signatures:"Gulshan Kumar Sharma, Shakeel Ahmad Khan, Amit Kumar, Ittyamkandath Rashmi, Fayaz Ahmad Malla and Gopal Lal Meena",book:{id:"11366",type:"book",title:"Microalgae",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Microalgae",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka, Dr. Eduardo Jacob-Lopes and Dr. Mariany Costa Deprá",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-024-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-023-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-025-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Wastewater characteristics and their treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Algae mediated wastewater treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Algal bio-refinery based production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Microalgae as potential source of biofuels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Biodiesel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Bio-fertilizer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Biochar",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Carbon dioxide sequestration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Microalgal biomass production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1 Open ponds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.2 Closed photobiorector",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Challenges and future perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Yadav KK, Krishnan S, Gupta N, Prasad S, Amin AA, Cabral-Pinto MMS, et al. Review on evaluation of renewable bioenergy potential for sustainable development: Bright future in energy practice in India. ACS-Sustainable chemistry and Engineering. 2021. DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c03114'},{id:"B2",body:'CPCB [Central Pollution Control Board of India]. National Inventory of Sewage Treatment Plants, March 2021. Available from: https://cpcb.nic.in/status-of-stps/. [Accessed 27 January 2022].'},{id:"B3",body:'Bosnic M, Buljan J, Daniels RP. Pollutants in Tannery Effluents. 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Screening microalgae strains for biodiesel production: Lipid productivity and estimation of fuel quality based on fatty acids profiles as selective criteria. Bioenergy Research. 2013;6:1-13'},{id:"B30",body:'Demirbas A, Fatih DM. Importance of algae oil as a source of biodiesel. Energy Conversation Management. 2011;52:163-170'},{id:"B31",body:'Ahmad AL, Mat Yasin NH, Derek CJC, Lim JK. A review-microalgae as a sustainable energy source for biodiesel production. Renew Sustainable Energy Review. 2011;15:584-593'},{id:"B32",body:'Menegazzo LM, Fonseca GG. Biomass recovery and lipid extraction processes for microalgae biofuels production: A review. Renew. Sustainable Energy Review. 2019;107:87-107'},{id:"B33",body:'Deshmukh S, Kumar R, Bala K. Microalgae biodiesel: A review on oil extraction, fatty acid composition, properties and effect on engine performance and emissions. Fuel Processing Technology. 2019;191:232-247'},{id:"B34",body:'Ferreira GF, Rios Pinto LF, Filho RM, Fregolente LV. A review on lipid production from microalgae: Association between cultivation using waste streams and fatty acid profiles. Renewable Sustainable Energy Review. 2019;109:448-466'},{id:"B35",body:'Chisti Y. Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnology Advances. 2007;25:294-306'},{id:"B36",body:'Mulbry W, Kondrad S, Pizarro C. Biofertilizers from algal treatment of dairy and swine manure effluents: Characterization of algal biomass as a slow release fertilizer. International Journal of Vegetable. 2007;12(4):107-125'},{id:"B37",body:'Nayak M, Swain DK, Sen R. Strategic valorization of de-oiled microalgal biomass waste as biofertilizer for sustainable and improved agriculture of rice (Oryza sativa L.) crop. Science of Total Environment. 2019;682:475-484'},{id:"B38",body:'Kumar G, Bawaja P. Biofertilizer: A tool for sustainable agriculture in changing environment. In: Ansari MW, Kumar S, Kaula BC, Wattal RK, editors. Introduction to Challenges and Strategies to Improve Crop Productivity in Changing Environment. Dwarka: Public Pvt. Ltd; 2018. pp. 83-92'},{id:"B39",body:'Shaaban MM. Green microalgae water extract as foliar feeding to wheat plants. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 2001;4(6):28-632'},{id:"B40",body:'Abd El Moniem EA, Abd-Allah ASE. Effect of green algae cells extract as foliar spray on vegetative growth, yield and berries quality of superior grapevines. Journal of American European Agricultural and Environmental Science. 2008;4(4):427-433'},{id:"B41",body:'Renuka N, Guldhe A, Prasanna R, Singh P, Bux F. Microalgae as multi-functional options in modern agriculture: Current trends, prospects and challenges. Biotechnology Advances. 2018;36:1255-1273'},{id:"B42",body:'Sharma GK, Jena RK, Hota S, Kumar A, Ray P, Fagodiya RK, et al. Recent Development in Bioremediation of Soil pollutants through biochar for environmental sustainability. In: Singh J, Singh C, editors. Biochar Applications in Agriculture and Environment Management. Cham: Springer; 2020a. pp. 122-140'},{id:"B43",body:'Malyan SK, Kumar SS, Fagodiya RK, Ghosh P, Kumar A, Singh R, et al. Biochar for environmental sustainability in the energy-water-agroecosystem nexus. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2021;149:111379'},{id:"B44",body:'Gupta DK, Gupta CK, Dubey R, Fagodiya RK, Sharma GK, Keerthika A, et al. Role of biochar in carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas mitigation. Biochar Application Agricultural and Environmental Management. 2020:141-165. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-40997-5_7'},{id:"B45",body:'Chen Z, Li K, Pu L. The performance of phosphorus (P)-doped activated carbon as a catalyst in air-cathode microbial fuel cells. Bioresource Technology. 2014;170:379-384'},{id:"B46",body:'Yu KL, Show PL, Ong HC, Ling TC, Chen W, Amran M. Biochar production from microalgae cultivation through pyrolysis as a sustainable carbon sequestration and biorefinery approach. 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Bioresource Technology. 2016;214:574-581'},{id:"B51",body:'Yu KL, Lau BF, Show PL, Ong HC, Ling TC, Chen WH, et al. Recent developments on algal biochar production and characterization. Bioresource Technology. 2017;246:2-11'},{id:"B52",body:'International Panel of Climate Change [IPCC]. Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, eds R. K. Pachauri and L. A. Meyer (Geneva: IPCC), 2014.'},{id:"B53",body:'Razzak SA, Ali SAM, Hossain MM, deLasa H. Biological CO2 fixation with production of microalgae in wastewater – A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017;76:379-390'},{id:"B54",body:'Langley NM, Harrison STL, Van Hille RP. A critical evaluation of CO2 supplementation to algal systems by direct injection. Biochemical Engineering Journal. 2012;68:70-75'},{id:"B55",body:'Tang D, Han W, Li P, Miao X, Zhong J. CO2 biofixation and fatty acid composition of Scenedesmus obliquus and Chlorella pyrenoidosa in response to different CO2 levels. Bioresources Technology. 2011;102:3071-3076'},{id:"B56",body:'Meier RL. Biological cycles in the transformation of solar energy into useful fuels. In: Solar Energy Research. Madison, WI: University Wisconsin Press; 1955. pp. 179-183'},{id:"B57",body:'Golueke CG, Oswald WJ. Biological conversion of light energy to the chemical energy of methane. Applied Microbiology. 1959;7(4):219-227'},{id:"B58",body:'Brennan L, Owende P. Biofuels from microalgae-a review of technologies for production, processing and extractions of biofuels and coproducts. Renewable Sustainable Energy Review. 2010;14:557-577'},{id:"B59",body:'Buhrer H. Light within algal cultures; Implications from light intensities with lens. Aquatic Science. 2000;62:91-103'},{id:"B60",body:'Yaakob Z, Kamarudin KF, Rajkumar R, Takriff MS, Badar SN. The current methods for the biomass production of the microalgae from wastewaters: An overview. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2014;31(10):1744-1758'},{id:"B61",body:'Bhatia SK, Mehariya S, Bhatia RK, Kumar M, Pugazhendhi A, Awasthi MK, et al. Wastewater based microalgal biorefinery for bioenergy production: Progress and challenges. Science of Total Environment. 2021;751:141599'},{id:"B62",body:'Li K, Liu S, Liu X. An overview of algae bioethanol production. International Journal of Energy Research. 2014;38(8):965-977'},{id:"B63",body:'Rastogi RP, Pandey A, Larroche C, Datta M. Algal Green Energy – R&D and technological perspectives for biodiesel production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2018;82(3):2946-2969'},{id:"B64",body:'Ho SH, Chen CNN, Lai YY, Lu W, Chang JS. Exploring the high lipid production potential of a thermotolerant microalga using statistical optimization and semi-continuous cultivation. Bioresource Technology. 2014;163:128-135'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gulshan Kumar Sharma",address:"gulshansharma2222@gmail.com",affiliation:'
ICAR- Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Research Centre, India
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Shakeel Ahmad Khan",address:null,affiliation:'
Division of Environmental Sciences, ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, India
ICAR- Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Research Centre, India
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Stavropol Plague Control Research Institute, Head of the WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Plague, Head of Department of epizootic monitoring and forecasting. Expert in Plague of WHO. H-index: Research Gate - 7, Web of Science - 6, Scopus -7, Google Scholar -11.\nI specialize in epizootology and epidemiology zoonotic diseases as plague, tularemia and arthropodborne and hemorrhagic fever viruses. Before 2010 I worked for 25 years as a biologist and epidemiologist in the Central Asia natural plague foci. Now I am working in the Caucasus natural plague foci, CCHF and other viruses foci in Russia and continue to study Central Asia plague. My main scientific interests are mathematic modelling for forecasting of zoonotic diseases outbreaks and ranking territory by the risk of human infecting with using modern technology like remote sensing and imitation computer modelling. 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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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The study of crisis management from an academic point of view should be a multifaceted analysis, including a historical, a cultural, and an anthropological one, which determines the course of evolution and consequences of the crisis.",book:{id:"6620",slug:"crisis-management-theory-and-practice",title:"Crisis Management",fullTitle:"Crisis Management - Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Khaled Zamoum and Tevhide Serra Gorpe",authors:[{id:"230918",title:"Prof.",name:"T. Serra",middleName:null,surname:"Gorpe",slug:"t.-serra-gorpe",fullName:"T. 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This paper presents random forest (RF) and reduced error pruning tree (REP Tree) models for predicting settlement caused by liquefaction. Standard penetration test (SPT) data were obtained for five separate borehole sites near the Pohang Earthquake epicenter. The data used in this study comprise of four features, namely depth, unit weight, corrected SPT blow count and cyclic stress ratio. The available data is divided into two parts: training set (80%) and test set (20%). The output of the RF and REP Tree models is evaluated using statistical parameters including coefficient of correlation (r), mean absolute error (MAE), and root mean squared error (RMSE). The applications for the aforementioned approach for predicting the liquefaction-induced settlement are compared and discussed. The analysis of statistical metrics for the evaluating liquefaction-induced settlement dataset demonstrates that the RF achieved comparatively better and reliable results.",book:{id:"7712",slug:"natural-hazards-impacts-adjustments-and-resilience",title:"Natural Hazards",fullTitle:"Natural Hazards - Impacts, Adjustments and Resilience"},signatures:"Mahmood Ahmad, Xiaowei Tang and Feezan Ahmad",authors:[{id:"298331",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"mahmood-ahmad",fullName:"Mahmood Ahmad"},{id:"329439",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaowei",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"xiaowei-tang",fullName:"Xiaowei Tang"},{id:"333211",title:"Mr.",name:"Feezan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"feezan-ahmad",fullName:"Feezan Ahmad"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60813",title:"Crisis Management: A Historical and Conceptual Approach for a Better Understanding of Today’s Crises",slug:"crisis-management-a-historical-and-conceptual-approach-for-a-better-understanding-of-today-s-crises",totalDownloads:4710,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"We argue that the basic and contemporary concepts related to crisis management, especially in the communication field, share some similarities with what was practiced in ancient civilizations such as the importance of direct contact between the leadership and the public. Other similarities include the accurate diagnosis of the real causes of the crisis, the forbiddance of the dissemination of false news and the reassurance of the public opinion that there is a solution to the crisis, a sound management decision, and a good plan for its implementation. We link the past time crises to the contemporary era, providing a comparison framework. The history of crisis tends to show us that the study of crisis management cannot be linked to a specific civilization or era, especially when humanity had witnessed multiple and complex environmental, political, economic, and military crisis. Moreover, some of the problems and complex issues in the modern era are rooted in history. Thus, many geopolitical crises nowadays are the result of old causes. The study of crisis management from an academic point of view should be a multifaceted analysis, including a historical, a cultural, and an anthropological one, which determines the course of evolution and consequences of the crisis.",book:{id:"6620",slug:"crisis-management-theory-and-practice",title:"Crisis Management",fullTitle:"Crisis Management - Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Khaled Zamoum and Tevhide Serra Gorpe",authors:[{id:"230918",title:"Prof.",name:"T. Serra",middleName:null,surname:"Gorpe",slug:"t.-serra-gorpe",fullName:"T. 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Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"74444",title:"Flood Disaster Hazards; Causes, Impacts and Management: A State-of-the-Art Review",slug:"flood-disaster-hazards-causes-impacts-and-management-a-state-of-the-art-review",totalDownloads:786,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Floods are among disasters that cause widespread destruction to human lives, properties and the environment every year and occur at different places with varied scales across the globe. Flood disasters are caused by natural phenomena, but their occurrences and impacts have been intensified through human actions and inactions. The practice of flood disaster management have evolved over the years from traditional approaches of ad-hoc response measures to integrated approaches involving technologically advanced tools in flood disaster awareness, preparedness and response measures. This chapter proffers understanding into flood disaster awareness, preparedness and management, mitigation and adaptation strategies. Most importantly, the chapter presents a review on the relevance of modern technological tools namely Geographic Information System, Remote Sensing, Internet of Things and Big Data, that are available to flood managers, in the creation of efficient early warnings and Flood decision support systems that elevates the resilience of societies to flood disasters.",book:{id:"7712",slug:"natural-hazards-impacts-adjustments-and-resilience",title:"Natural Hazards",fullTitle:"Natural Hazards - Impacts, Adjustments and Resilience"},signatures:"Frank Jerome Glago",authors:[{id:"325046",title:"M.A.",name:"Frank Jerome",middleName:null,surname:"Glago",slug:"frank-jerome-glago",fullName:"Frank Jerome Glago"}]},{id:"64604",title:"Evidence-Based Contingency Planning to Enhance Local Resilience to Flood Disasters",slug:"evidence-based-contingency-planning-to-enhance-local-resilience-to-flood-disasters",totalDownloads:1507,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 addresses the importance of “Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction” as the fourth priority action. One of the practical tools to achieve effective preparedness for flood disaster response is evidence-based contingency planning, which is based on scientific approaches such as flood simulation and quantitative risk assessment. This method, however, is not always feasible to disaster-prone areas in Asia due to the lack of data on natural and social conditions. This chapter proposes a method with six steps for local communities to conduct contingency planning by assuming the dynamic change of inundation using flood simulation, assessing flood risk with key indicators, deciding response strategies against the identified flood risk and developing a contingency plan beforehand. This method was first applied to one of the Asian flood-prone areas, Calumpit Municipality in the Pampanga River basin of the Philippines, to verify its effectiveness in areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited.",book:{id:"8375",slug:"recent-advances-in-flood-risk-management",title:"Recent Advances in Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Miho Ohara, Naoko Nagumo, Badri Bhakta Shrestha and Hisaya Sawano",authors:[{id:"261112",title:"Dr.",name:"Miho",middleName:null,surname:"Ohara",slug:"miho-ohara",fullName:"Miho Ohara"},{id:"264405",title:"Dr.",name:"Badri",middleName:"Bhakta",surname:"Shrestha",slug:"badri-shrestha",fullName:"Badri Shrestha"},{id:"270525",title:"Mr.",name:"Hisaya",middleName:null,surname:"Sawano",slug:"hisaya-sawano",fullName:"Hisaya Sawano"},{id:"272127",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoko",middleName:null,surname:"Nagumo",slug:"naoko-nagumo",fullName:"Naoko Nagumo"}]},{id:"42656",title:"Conceptual Frameworks of Vulnerability Assessments for Natural Disasters Reduction",slug:"conceptual-frameworks-of-vulnerability-assessments-for-natural-disasters-reduction",totalDownloads:10040,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:75,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"Roxana L. Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1326",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. 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