\r\n\t1. 90% of girls fully vaccinated with HPV vaccine by age 15 years. \r\n\t2. 70% of women are screened with a high-performance test by 35 years and again by 45 years \r\n\t3. 90% of women identified with cervical disease receive treatment (90% of women with precancer treated, and 90% of women with invasive cancer managed
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book “glows in teal”, committing itself, to the noble task of elimination of HPV infections and related cancers. This book has, well experienced and dedicated scientists from all over the world, contributing chapters in the fields of Epidemiology of HPV; HPV Vaccination – Efficacy – acceptance, affordability and policies; Pathophysiology and carcinogenesis of HPV; Hi-Tech screening protocols, methodologies for HPV testing; Diagnosis and treatment of Pre cancers and invasive cancers due to HPV; Prevention and control of Papillomaviridae infections and related Cancers of Cervix, Vagina, Vulva, Penis, Anus and Oropharynx.
\r\n
\r\n\tWe, firmly hope that the knowledge shared in this book would immensely contribute to the global goal of elimination of Papillomavidae and related cancers, and serve as a beacon of “teal light” symbolizing cancer eradication, from the lighthouse of Scientific wisdom and Social welfare, The InTech publishers."
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b7612146e5bd35247afd8bb1b6913be8",bookSignature:"Dr. Rajamanickam Rajkumar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11370.jpg",keywords:"Incidence, Prevalence, Determinants, Awareness, Transmission, Pathophysiology, Oncogenesis, Host Cell Changes, DNA Alterations, HPV Screening, HPV Vaccination, Types of Vaccines",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 11th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 31st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 30th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Dr. Rajamanickam Rajkumar, is a Champion for the cause of Cervical Cancer Elimination HPV Research, in rural India, from 2000, in collaboration with the IARC/WHO, The Ohio State University Medical Center -USA, and The Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology Singapore.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"120109",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajamanickam",middleName:null,surname:"Rajkumar",slug:"rajamanickam-rajkumar",fullName:"Rajamanickam Rajkumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120109/images/system/120109.png",biography:"Rajamanickam Rajkumar is an international frontline scientist in cervical cancer and HPV prevention with a Ph.D. in Cancer Epidemiology. He is currently a professor at Meenakshi Medical College, Kanchipuram, India, and a Ph.D. mentor for several medical universities. He was the principal investigator of one of the largest cervical cancer screening programs in India, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC/WHO) funded by The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Dr. Rajkumar conducted the first study in South India on the community prevalence of HPV. He trained in colposcopy and cancer epidemiology in France, Ireland, the United Kingdom, and Singapore. He was a consultant to The Ohio State University Medical Center for cervical cancer screening. 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I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors, and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing or reviewing.\nI assist authors in preparing their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines to ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"42628",title:"The Performance Evaluation of Anaerobic Methods for Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Treatment: A Review",doi:"10.5772/54331",slug:"the-performance-evaluation-of-anaerobic-methods-for-palm-oil-mill-effluent-pome-treatment-a-review",body:'
1. Introduction
Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is an important source of inland water pollution when released into local rivers or lakes without treatment. In the process of palm oil milling, POME is generated through sterilization of fresh oil palm fruit bunches, clarification of palm oil and effluent from hydro-cyclone operations [Borja et al.,1996a]. POME is a viscous brown liquid with fine suspended solids at pH ranging between 4 and 5 [Najafpour et al., 2006]. In general appearance, palm oil mill effluent (POME) is a yellowish acidic wastewater with fairly high polluting properties, with average of 25,000 mg/l biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 55,250 mg/l chemical oxygen demand (COD) and 19,610 mg/l suspended solid (SS). This highly polluting wastewater can cause several pollution problems. Therefore, direct discharge of POME into the environment is not encouraged due to the high values of COD, BOD and SS.
Over the past 20 years, the technique available for the treatment of POME in Malaysia has been biological treatment, consisting of anaerobic, facultative and aerobic pond systems [Chooi,1984], and [N. Ma, 1999]. Anaerobic digestion has been employed by most palm oil mills as their primary treatment of POME [Tay, 1991]. More than 85% of palm oil mills in Malaysia have adopted the ponding system for POME treatment [Ma et al., 1993], while the rest opted for open digesting tanks [Yacop et al., 2005]. These methods are regarded as a conventional POME treatment method involving long retention times and large treatment areas. High-rate anaerobic bioreactors have also been applied in laboratory-scaled POME treatment such as up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors [Borja el al., 1994a]; up-flow anaerobic filtration [Borja et al., 1994b]; fluidized bed reactors [Borja et al., 1995a], [Borja et al., 1995b] and up-flow anaerobic sludge fixed-film (UASFF) reactors [Najafpour et al., 2006]. Anaerobic contact digesters Ibrahim et al. (1984) and continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) have also been studied for PMOE treatment Chin (1981). Other than anaerobic digestion, POME has also been treated using membrane technology [Ahmad et al., 2006; 2007] and [Fakhru’l-Razi, 1994].
2. Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is the most suitable method for the treatment of effluents containing high concentration of organic carbon such as POME [Borja et al.,1996a]. Anaerobic digestion is defined as the engineered methanogenic anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. It involves different species of anaerobic microorganisms that degrade organic matter [Cote et al., 2006]. In the anaerobic process, the decomposition of organic and inorganic substrate is carried out in the absence of molecular oxygen. The biological conversion of the organic substrate occurs in the mixtures of primary settled and biological sludge under anaerobic condition followed by hydrolysis, acidogenesis and methanogenesis to convert the intermediate compounds into simpler end products as methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) [Gee et al., 1994], [Guerrero et al., 1999], and [Gerardi, 2003]. Therefore, the anaerobic digestion process offers great potential for rapid disintegration of organic matter to produce biogas that can be used to generate electricity and save fossil energy [linke, 2006]. The suggested anaerobic treatment processes for POME include anaerobic suspended growth processes, attached growth anaerobic processes (immobilized cell bioreactors, anaerobic fluidized bed reactors and anaerobic filters), anaerobic blanket processes (up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors and anaerobic baffled reactors), membrane separation anaerobic treatment processes and hybrid anaerobic treatment processes.
2.1. Anaerobic and alternative POME treatment methods
Currently available alternative methods for POME treatment are: aerobic treatment, membrane treatment systems and the evaporation method. The advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic and alternative treatment methods are shown in Table 1. In terms of energy requirement for POME treatment operation, anaerobic digestion has a greater advantage over the other alternative methods as it does not require energy for aeration. Furthermore, anaerobic POME treatment produces methane gas (CH4) which is a value-added product to digestion that can be utilized in the mill to gain more revenue in terms of CER. For example, the open digesting tank for POME treatment without land application, the capital cost quoted by [Gopal et al., 1986] for a palm oil mill processing 30 tons FFB/h is RM 750,000. Based on the chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index [Ulrich et al., 2004] the capital cost for this system is estimated to be US 370,272 in 2006. Comparing this to the capital cost for a membrane system in POME treatment for a palm oil mill processing 36 tons FFB/h at RM 3,950,000 [Chong, 2007], it is obvious that the former anaerobic treatment has better advantage over other treatment methods in terms of capital cost. The disadvantages of anaerobic treatment are (a) long retention times and (b) long start-up period. However, the problem of long retention times can be rectified by using high-rate anaerobic bioreactors while the long start-up period can be shortened by using granulated seed sludge [McHugh et al., 2003], utilizing seed sludge from same process [Yacob et al., 2006b] or maintaining suitable ph and temperature in the high-rate anaerobic bioreactor for growth of bacteria consortia [Liu et al., 2002].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Treatmenttypes
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAdvantages\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDisadvantages\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Membrane
\n\t\t\t
Produce consistent and good water quality after treatment, smaller space required for membrane treatment plants, can disinfect treated water
\n\t\t\t
Short membrane life, membrane fouling, expensive compared to conventional treatment
\n\t\t\t
[Ahmad et al.,2006] [Metcalf et al., 2003]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic
\n\t\t\t
low energy requirements (no aeration),Producing methane gas as a valuable end product, generated sludge from process could be used for land applications
\n\t\t\t
Long retention time, large area required For conventional digesters, slow start-up (granulating reactors)
\n\t\t\t
[Metcalf et al., 2003] [Borja et al., 2006a]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Evaporation
\n\t\t\t
solid concentrate from process can be utilized as feed material for fertilizer manufacturing
\n\t\t\t
High energy consumption
\n\t\t\t
[ MA et al., 1997]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Aerobic
\n\t\t\t
Shorter retention time, more effective in handling toxic wastes
\n\t\t\t
High energy requirement (aeration), rate of pathogen inactivation is lower in aerobic sludge compared to anaerobic sludge, thus unsuitable for land applications
\n\t\t\t
[Jr et al., 1999] [Doble et al., 2005]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Advantages and disadvantages between anaerobic and alternative treatment methods
2.2. Anaerobic treatment methods
2.2.1. Anaerobic filtration
Anaerobic digestion has existed as a technology over 100 years. It gradually evolved, from an airtight vessel and a septic tank, to a temperature controlled, completely mixed digester, and finally to a high rate reactor, containing a density of highly active biomass. The microbiology of methane digestion has been examined intensively in the last decade. It has been established that three physiological groups of bacteria, converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide or acetate to methane. In contrast to aerobic degradation, which is mainly a single species phenomenon, anaerobic degradation proceeds as a chain process, in which several sequent organisms are involved. Anaerobic conversion of complex substrates requires the synergistic action of the micro-organisms involved. A factor of utmost importance, in the overall process, is the partial pressure of hydrogen and the thermodynamics linked to it. This fact has been recognized and discussed by researchers [Bryant et al., 1967]; [Boone and Bryant, 1980]; [McInerney et al. 1979]; [Hickey and Switzenbaum 1988]. Anaerobic filter were favor for wastewater treatment because (a) high substrate removal efficiency (b) it requires a smaller reactor volume which operates on a shorter hydraulic retention times (HRT), [Borja et al., 1994b], (c) the ability to maintain high concentration of biomass in contact with the wastewater without affecting treatment efficiency [Reyes et al., 1999], [Wang et al. (2007)], and (d) tolerance to shock loadings [Reyes et al., 1999], [Van Der Merwe et al., 1993]. Besides, construction and operation of anaerobic filter is less expensive and small amount of suspended solids in the effluent eliminates the need of solid separation or recycle [Russo et al. 1985].
Another factor of fundamental importance has been the identification of new methanogenic species, and the characterization of their physiological behaviour. Of particular interest was the determination of the substrate affinity constants of both hydrogenotrophic and acetotrophic methanogens. While the first exhibit quite high substrate affinities and remove hydrogen down to ppm levels, the second group appears to contain species with only low substrate affinities [Zehnder et al., 1980]; [Huser et al., 1982]. This limited substrate affinity has,, an important consequence for anaerobic wastewater treatment.
A technological advance of utmost importance in anaerobic digestion has been the development of methods to concentrate methanogenic biomass in the reactor, especially in very low solids concentration in the wastewater, 1 - 2%. Such higher concentration of biomass can be achieved using of autoflocculation and gravity settling as, for instance, in the UASB reactor [Lettinga et al. 1983], by attachment to a static carrier (anaerobic filter) [Henze and Harremoes, 1982]; [Van Den Berg and Kennedy 1981]; [Young and McCarty 1969], by attachment to a mobile carrier (fluidized bed) [Binot et Heijnen 1984]; [Bull et al., 1984] or by growth in and on a matrix [Huysman et al., 1983]. All these different methods are in full development
Anaerobic filters have been applied to treat various types of wastewater including soybean processing wastewater [H-Q et al., 2002a], wine vinases [Nebot et al., 1995], [Perez et al., 1998 ], land fill leachate [Wang et al., 2007], municipal wastewater [Bodkhe, 2008], brewery wastewater [Leal et al., 1998], slaughterhouse wastewater [Ruiz et al., 1997], drug wastewater [Gangagni et al., 2005], and beet sugar water [Farhadian et al., 2007]. However, filter clogging is a major drawback in the continuous operation of anaerobic filters [Bodkhe, 2008], [Jawed et al. 2000], [Parawira et al., 2006]. Clogging of anaerobic filter has only been reported in the treatment of POME at an organic loading rate (OLR) of 20 g COD/l/day [Borja et al., 1995b] and also in the treatment of slaughterhouse wastewater at 6 g COD/l/day. This because the other studies were conducted at lower OLRs which had lower suspended solid content compared to POME. In general, anaerobic filter s are capable of treating wastewaters to obtain good effluent quality with at least 70% of COD removal efficiency with methane gas composition of more than 50%. Table 2 illustrates the COD removal efficiency of some treated wastewater using anaerobic filtration based on highest achievable percentage of methane in the generated biogas. In terms of POME treatment, the highest COD removal efficiency recorded was 94% with 63% of methane at an OLR of 4.5 kg COD/m3/day, while overall COD removal efficiency was up to 90% with an average methane gas composition of 60% [Borja et al., 1994b]. Investigations have been done to improve the efficiency of anaerobic filtration in wastewater treatment. [Yu et al., 2002a] found that operating at an optimal recycle ratio which varies depending on OLR will enhance COD removal. However, methane percentage will be compromised with increase in optimal recycle ratio. Higher retention of biomass in the filter will also lead to a better COD removal efficiency.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTypes of Wastewater\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Operating OLR range(Kg COD/m3/day)
\n\t\t\t
COD removalefficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t
Highest methanecomposition (%)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Slaughterhouse wastewater
\n\t\t\t
1.0-6.5
\n\t\t\t
79.9 (91.5)
\n\t\t\t
51.1
\n\t\t\t
[Ruiz et al.,1997]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
POME
\n\t\t\t
1.2-11.4
\n\t\t\t
94.0 (94.0)
\n\t\t\t
63.0
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al. 1994b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Baker’s yeast factory effluent
\n\t\t\t
1.8-10.0
\n\t\t\t
69.0 (74.0)
\n\t\t\t
65.0
\n\t\t\t
[Van der et al. 1993]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Distillery wastewaters
\n\t\t\t
0.42-3.4
\n\t\t\t
91.0 (93.0)
\n\t\t\t
63.0
\n\t\t\t
[Russo et al., 1985]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Landfill leachate
\n\t\t\t
0.76-7.63
\n\t\t\t
90.8 (90.8)
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Wang et al., 2007]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Operating OLR range; COD removal efficiency in various wastewater treatments using anaerobic filtration based on highest % of methane production
() - number in bracket denotes highest COD removal efficiency. N/A- data unavailable.
2.2.2. Fluidized bed reactor
A fluidized bed reactor (FBR) is a type of reactor device that can be used to carry out a variety of multiphase chemical reactions. Fluidized bed reactor exhibits several advantages that make it useful for treatment of high-strength wastewaters. It has very large surface areas for biomass attachment [Borja et al., 2001], [Toldra et al., 1987] enabling high OLR and short HRTs during operation [Garcia et al., 1998], [Sowmeyan et al., 2008]. Furthermore, fluidized bed has minimal problems of channeling, plugging or gas hold-up [Borja et al., 2001], [Toldra et al. 1987]. Higher up-flow velocity of raw POME is maintained for fluidized bed reactor to enable expansion of the support material bed. Biomass will then attach and grow on the support on material. In this way, biomass can be retained in the reactor. Hickey and [Switzenbaum, 1988] reported on the development of the anaerobic expanded bed process, which was found to convert dilute organic wastes to methane at low temperatures and at high organic and hydraulic loading rates. This process was being evaluated in 1988, on a 10,000 gallons per day pilot scale, consisting of an anaerobic expanded bed followed by post- treatment. [Jeris, 1987] reported on a two year experiment, testing two pilot scale anaerobic fluidized bed reactors, treating primary effluent. One reactor used sand as a carrier, the other granular activated carbon (GAC). Seeding experiments indicated that the GAC developed a biofilm more quickly and had more attached biomass. In addition, better BOD removal was observed with the GAC reactor. He noted that removal efficiencies were essentially independent of organic volumetric loading rates. Over a twelve month period in temperate climates, effluent total BOD5 values were consistently around 40 mg/l.
Investigations have been done on the application of fluidized bed to treat cutting-oil wastewater [Perez et al., 2007]; real textile wastewater [Sen et al., 2003]; slaughterhouse wastewater [Toldra et al., 1987]; wine and distillery wastewater [Garcia et al. 1998], [Sowmeyan et al., 2008]; ice-cream wastewater [Borja et al., 1995a], [Hawkes et al., 1995]; pharmaceutical effluent [Saravanane et al., 2001], and POME [Borja et al., 1995b]. OLR ranges and COD removal efficiencies of various wastewater treatments using fluidized bed is tabulated in Table 3. Based on Table 3, it can be concluded that anaerobic fluidized bed can typically remove at least 65% and up to more than 90% of COD. Inverse flow anaerobic fluidized bed is capable of tolerating higher OLRs compared to up-flow configuration.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTypes of Wastewater\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Operating OLR range(Kg COD/m3/day)
\n\t\t\t
COD removalefficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t
Reactorconfiguration
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Protein production from extracted
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Sunflower flour effluent
\n\t\t\t
0.6-9.3
\n\t\t\t
80.0-93.3
\n\t\t\t
UF
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 2001]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
POME
\n\t\t\t
10.0-40.0
\n\t\t\t
78.0-94.0
\n\t\t\t
UF
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1995b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ice-cream wastewater
\n\t\t\t
3.2-15.6
\n\t\t\t
94.4
\n\t\t\t
UF
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al.,1995a]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Distillery effluent
\n\t\t\t
6.11-35.09
\n\t\t\t
80.0-92.0
\n\t\t\t
DF
\n\t\t\t
[Sowmeyan et al., 2008]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Brewery wastewater
\n\t\t\t
0.5-70.0
\n\t\t\t
80.0-90.0
\n\t\t\t
DF
\n\t\t\t
[Alvarado et al., 2008]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Real textile wastewater
\n\t\t\t
0.4-5.0
\n\t\t\t
78.0-89.0
\n\t\t\t
UF
\n\t\t\t
[Sen et al., 2003]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Operating OLR range; COD removal efficiency of various wastewater treatments using fluidized bed reactor
The type of support material in the fluidized bed plays an important role to determine the efficiency of the entire treatment system [Garcia et al., 1998], [Sowmeyan et al., 2008] for both inverse flow and up-flow systems. Studies using fluidized bed to treat ice-cream wastewater showed different COD removal efficiencies when different support materials were used. Researcher [Hawkes et al., 1995] found that fluidized bed using granular activated carbon (GAC) gave about 60% COD removal while [Borja et al., 1995a] obtained 94.4% of COD removal using ovoid saponite. Thus suitable support material needs to be selected to obtain high COD removal efficiency in the system.
Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) technology, normally referred to as UASB reactor, is a form of anaerobic digester that is used in the treatment of wastewater. UASB was developed by [Lettinga et al., 1980] whereby this system has been successful in treating a wide range of industrial effluents including those with inhibitory compounds. The UASB reactor is a methanogenic (methane-producing) digester that evolved from the anaerobic clarigester. A similar but variant technology to UASB is the expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) digester. The underlying principle of the UASB operation is to have an aerobic sludge which exhibits good settling properties [Lettinga, 1995]. So far, UASB has been applied for the treatment of potato wastewater [Kalyuzhnyi et al., 1998], [Lettinga et al., 1980], [Parawira et al., 2006]; domestic wastewater [Barbosa et al., 1989], [Behling et al., 1997]; slaughterhouse wastewater [Sayed et al., 1984]; POME [Borja et al., 1994c]. UASB has a relatively simple design where sludge from organic matter degradation and biomass settles in the reactor. Organic matter from wastewater that comes in contact with sludge will be digested by the biomass granules. Table 4 shows some performances of wastewater treatment using UASB system. For potato wastewater treatment [Kalyuzhnyi et al., 1998] and [Parawira et al., 2006] both observed foaming and sludge floatation in the UASB reactor when operating at higher OLRs (> 6.1kg COD/m3 day). The ability of UASB to tolerate higher OLR for potato wastewater investigated by [Lettinga et al., 1980] compared due to the fact that the latter two studies were conducted at laboratory scale. In general, UASB is successful in COD removal of more than 60% for most wastewater types except for ice-cream wastewater. Researcher [Hawkes et al., 1995] suggested that the lower COD removal percentage from ice-cream wastewater was due to design faults in the reactor’s three phase separator and high contents of milk fat that were hard to degrade.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTypes of Wastewater\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Operating OLR range(Kg COD/m3/day)
\n\t\t\t
COD removalefficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t
MethaneComposition(%)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
POME single-stage two-stage
\n\t\t\t
1.8-13.9
\n\t\t\t
63.0-81.0
\n\t\t\t
54.0-67.0
\n\t\t\t
[Kalyuzhnyi et al 1998]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
(based on methanogenic reactor)
\n\t\t\t
1.5-6.1
\n\t\t\t
92.0-98.0
\n\t\t\t
59.0-70.0
\n\t\t\t
[Parawira et al. 2006]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Domestic sewage
\n\t\t\t
3.76
\n\t\t\t
74.0
\n\t\t\t
69.0
\n\t\t\t
[Barbosa et al. 1989]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ice-cream wastewater
\n\t\t\t
0.5-50
\n\t\t\t
50.0
\n\t\t\t
69.6
\n\t\t\t
[Hawkes et al. 1995]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Sugar – beet
\n\t\t\t
4.0-5.0
\n\t\t\t
95.0
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Lettinga et al. 1980]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pharmaceutical wastewater
\n\t\t\t
0.27-2.0
\n\t\t\t
26.0-69.0
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Stronach et al. 1987]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Slaughter wastewater
\n\t\t\t
7.0-11.0
\n\t\t\t
55.0-85.0
\n\t\t\t
65.0-75.0
\n\t\t\t
[Sayed et al. 1984]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Confectionary wastewater
\n\t\t\t
1.25-2.25
\n\t\t\t
66.0
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Forster et al. 1983]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 4.
Performance of UASB in various wastewater treatments
N/A – data unavailable.
POME treatment has been successful with UASB reactor, achieving COD removal efficiency up to 98.4% with the highest operating OLR of 10.63 kg COD/m3 day [Borja et al., 1994c]. However, reactor operated under overload conditions with high volatile fatty acid content became unstable after 15 days. Due to high amount of POME discharge daily from milling process, it is necessary to operate treatment system at higher OLR. UASB reactor is advantageous for its ability to treat wastewater with high suspended solid content [Fang et al. 1994]; [Kalyuzhnyi et al., 1998] that may clog reactors with packing material and also provide higher methane production [Kalyuzhnyi et al., 1996]; [Stronach et al., 1987]. However, this reactor might face long start-up periods if seeded sludge is not granulated.
2.2.4. Anaerobic contact digester
The anaerobic contact process is a type of anaerobic digester. Anaerobic digesters are the aerobic equivalents of activated sludge process and are currently used for treating effluents from sugar processing, distilleries, citric acid and yeast production, industries producing canned vegetables, pectin, starch, meat products, etc. This process has been implemented in POME [Ibrahim et al., 1984]; ice-cream wastewater, alcohol distillery wastewater [Vlissidis et al., 1993] and fermented olive mill wastewater treatment [Hamdi et al. 1991]. Concentrated wastewaters are suitable to be treated by anaerobic contact digestion since relatively high quality effluent can be achieved [Jr et al., 1999]. In the study of fermented olive mill wastewater treatment, anaerobic contact was capable of reaching steady state more quickly compared to anaerobic filter; however, more oxygen transfer in the digester (due to mixing) causes this process to be less stable.
2.2.5. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
CSTR run at steady state with continuous flow of reactants and products; the feed assumes a uniform composition throughout the reactor, exit stream has the same composition as in the tank. The mechanical agitator provides more area of contact with the biomass thus improving gas production. In POME treatment, CSTR has been applied by a mill under Keck Seng (Malaysia) Berhad in Masai, Johor and it is apparently the only one which has been operating continuously since early 1980’s [Tong et al., 2006]. Other applications of CSTR on wastewater treatment include dilute dairy wastewater [Chen et al., 1996]; jam wastewater [Mohan et al., 2008] and coke wastewater [Vazquez et al., 2006].
The CSTR in Kek Seng’s Palm oil mill has COD removal efficiency of approximately 83% and CSTR treating dairy wastewater has COD removal efficiency of 60%. In terms of methane composition in generated biogas, it was found to be 62.5% for POME treatment and 22.5-76.9% for dairy wastewater treatment.
2.2.6. Anaerobic contact digestion
Presently there are three categories of anaerobic treatment systems. The first category is the conventional anaerobic digester, which includes two basic designs and another that combines the two. The standard rate digester is the most basic treatment system. It mixes the waste is solely by the movement of gas up through the solid matter and into the top of the tank; there is no external mixing. This process is highly inefficient, for it utilizes only 50 percent of the total waste volume, and requires a very long solid retention time (SRT), usually greater than 30 days; this process has been implemented in POME [Ibrahim et al., 1984]; ice-cream wastewater, alcohol distillery wastewater [Vlissidis et al., 1993] and fermented olive mill wastewater treatment [Hamdi et al., 1991]. Concentrated wastewaters are suitable to be treated by anaerobic contact digestion since relatively high quality effluent can be achieved [Jr et al., 1999]. In the study of fermented olive mill wastewater treatment, anaerobic contact was capable of reaching steady state more quickly compared to anaerobic filter; however, more oxygen transfer in the digester (due to mixing) causes this process to be less suitable.
2.2.7. Membrane separation anaerobic treatment process
Membrane separation has been considered for anaerobic reactors but the technology is still in a development stage. Several studies on membrane anaerobic processes for the treatment of various wastewaters including POME [Fakhru’l et al., 1999] have been performed [Fakhru’l et al., 1994]; [Nagano et al., 1992]; [Pillay et al., 1994]. For example, an ultrafiltration (UF) membrane with a molecular cut-off (MWCO) of 200,000 was used by [76] for biomass/effluent separation in conjunction with an anaerobic process for the treatment of POME. A lower operating pressure (1.5-2 bars) but a higher cross-flow velocity (2.3 m/s) was applied in this study in order to control fouling and to reduce solid deposition on the membrane surfaces. A high COD removal could be obtained in the membrane anaerobic system (MAS), but the permeate displayed a high color content with a low turbidity (less than 10 NTU), including that the color was due to dissolved solids with molecular weights lower than 200,000 g/mol. The particular organics retained in the reactor could be liquefied and decomposed because of the long solid retention time, which was independent of the HRT. The HRT was mainly influenced by the UF membrane flux rates which directly determined the volume of influent that could be fed to the reactor.
2.3. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
The mechanism is seen by many as a trailblazer. It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emission offset instrument, CERs. Besides helping to reduce carbon emission to the environment, CDM has the advantage to offer developing countries such as Malaysia to attract foreign investments to sustain renewable energy projects [Menon, 2002]. Thus, palm oil mills could earn carbon credits as revenue by the utilization of methane gas as renewable energy from anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent. There is a lot of attention has been give to develop anaerobic treatment for POME since the implementation of CDM.
2.4. Comparison of various anaerobic treatment methods in POME treatment
Table 5 shows the performance of several of anaerobic digestion or treatment methods under both mesophilic and thermophilic conditions of POME. As can be seen from Table 5, the fluidized bed reactor has the ability to treat POME at very high organic loading rates; OLR with a short retention time, biogas capture is not emphasized using this process. Therefore, it can be concluded that USFF currently gives the best performance in POME treatment, achieving high COD removal efficiency and high OLR methane production at relatively short hydraulic retention time, HRT compared to conventional and other available anaerobic treatment methods.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
retention(days)
\n\t\t\t
Operating OLR(Kg COD/m3/day)
\n\t\t\t
COD removalefficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t
Hydraulictime
\n\t\t\t
Methanecomposition(%)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic pond 40
\n\t\t\t
1.4
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
97.8
\n\t\t\t
54.4
\n\t\t\t
[Perez et al., 2001]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic digester
\n\t\t\t
2.16
\n\t\t\t
80.7
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
36
\n\t\t\t
[Yacop et al., 2005]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic filtration
\n\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t
94.0
\n\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t\t
63
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1994b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Fluidized bed
\n\t\t\t
40.0
\n\t\t\t
78
\n\t\t\t
0.25
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1995b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
UASB
\n\t\t\t
10.63
\n\t\t\t
98.4
\n\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t
54.2
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1994c]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
UASFF
\n\t\t\t
11.58
\n\t\t\t
97
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
71.9
\n\t\t\t
[Najafpour et al., 2006]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
CSTR
\n\t\t\t
3.33
\n\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t
18
\n\t\t\t
62.5
\n\t\t\t
[Tong et al., 2006]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic contact processa\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3.44
\n\t\t\t
93.3
\n\t\t\t
4.7
\n\t\t\t
63
\n\t\t\t
[Ibrahim et al., 1984]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 5.
Performance of various anaerobic treatment methods on POME treatment
N/A: data unavailable.
a In terms of BOD.
Table 6 shows the advantages and disadvantages of each anaerobic treatment method. It can clearly seen that conventional methods are lacking in terms of treatment time, area required for treatment and facilities to capture biogas. However, these methods are more economically viable and have the capacity to tolerate a wider range of OLR. High-rate bioreactors are more effective in biodegradation as shorter retention times are needed, producing higher methane yield while compromising the OLR, capital and operating cost.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTreatment processes\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tadvantages\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tdisadvantages\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReferences\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ponding system
\n\t\t\t
Reliable and stable Anaerobically digested POME from the ponds could be used to culture algae. Cheap, simple to construct, low maintenance costs, the energy needed to operate a ponding system is minimal.
\n\t\t\t
large area of land are required, making it unsuitable for factories located in the near urban and other developed areas. no facilities to capture biogas long retention time.
\n\t\t\t
[Chooi et al. 91984]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic filtration
\n\t\t\t
Small reactor volume Producing high quality effluent, short hydraulic times, able to tolerate shock Loadings, retain high biomass Concentration in the packing
\n\t\t\t
lower methane emission, Clogging at high OLRs, High media and support cost Unsuitable for high suspended solid wastewater
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1994b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Fluidized bed
\n\t\t\t
Most compact of all high-rate Processes, very well mixed Conditions in the reactor, large Surface area for biomass Attachment
\n\t\t\t
high power requirements for bed fluidization, high cost of carrier media, not suitable for high suspended solid wastewaters
\n\t\t\t
[Jr et al., 1997]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
UASB
\n\t\t\t
Useful for treatment of high suspended solid wastewater Producing high quality effluent No media required (less cost)
\n\t\t\t
Performance dependent on sludge settleability, foaming and sludge floatation at high OLRs, long start up period if granulated, seed sludge is not used
\n\t\t\t
[Lettinga, 1995]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
UASFF
\n\t\t\t
Higher OLRs achievable compared to operating UASB or anaerobic filtration alone, problems of clogging eliminated Higher biomass retention, more Stable operation, ability to tolerate Shock loadings, suitable for diluted Wastewater.
\n\t\t\t
Granulation inhibition at high volatile fatty acid concentration Lower OLRs when treating suspended solid wastewaters
\n\t\t\t
[Ayati et al., 2006]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
CSTR
\n\t\t\t
Provides more contact of wastewater with biomass through mixing, increased gas production compared to conventional method
\n\t\t\t
Less efficient gas production at treatment volume. Less biomass retentio
\n\t\t\t
Hamdi et al., 1991]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 6.
Advantages and disadvantages of various treatment processes for POME
Biogas coming from biomethanization or anaerobic digestion represents an attractive strategy for both biomass waste treatment and recycling and is of great interest from an environmental point of view and may benefit society by providing a clean fuel source from renewable energy. This technology is accomplished by a series of biochemical transformations, which can be toughly separated into a first step where hydrolysis, acidification and liquefaction take a place and second step where acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide are transformed into biogas with methane content between 60-80%, which cover a large part of energy. Many factors govern the performance of anaerobic digesters where adequate control is required to prevent reactor failure. These factors are operating temperature, pH, mixing, nutrients for bacteria and organic loading rates into the digester.
2.5.1. Operating temperature
One of the most important factors affecting anaerobic digestion of organic waste is temperature. Anaerobic digestions can be developed at different temperature ranges including mesophilic temperatures (approximately 35ºC) and thermophilic temperatures ranging from 55 ºC to 60 ºC. Conventional anaerobic digestion is carried out at mesophilic temperatures (35–37 ºC), mainly because of the lower energy requirements and better stability of the process. POME is discharged at temperatures around 80-90 oC [Zinatizadeh et al., 2006] which actually makes treatment at both mesophilic and thermophilic temperature feasible especially in tropical countries like Malaysia. Effect of temperature on the performance of anaerobic digestion was investigated by [H-Q et al., 2002a] and found that substrate degradation rate and biogas production rate at 55 oC was higher than operation at 37 oC. Studies have reported that thermophilic digesters are able to tolerate higher OLRs and operate at shorter HRT while producing more biogas [Ahn et al., 2002], [Kim et al., 2006], and [Yilmaz et al., 2008]. However, failure to control temperature increase can result in biomass washout [Lau et al., 1997] with accumulation of volatile fatty acid due to inhibition of methanogenesis. At high temperatures, production of volatile fatty acid is higher compared to mesophilic temperature range [H-Q et al., 2002a].
2.5.2. pH
A pH (potential of Hydrogen) measurement reveals if a solution is acidic or alkaline (also base or basic). If the solution has an equal amount of acidic and alkaline molecules, the pH is considered neutral. The microbial communities in anaerobic digesters are sensitive to pH changes and methanogens are affected to a great extend [Jr et al., 1999]. Several cases of reactor failure reported in studies of wastewater treatment are due to accumulation of high volatile fatty acid concentration, causing a drop in pH which inhibited methanogenesis Parawira et al. (2006), [Patel et al., 2002]. Thus, volatile fatty acid concentration is an important parameter to monitor to guarantee reactor performance [Buyukkamaci et al., 2004]. It was found that digester could tolerate acetic acid concentrations up to 4000 mg/l without inhibition of gas production Stafford (1982). To control the level of volatile fatty acid in the system, alkalinity has to be maintained by recirculation of treated effluent [Najafpour et al., 2006], [Borja et al., 1996a] to the digester or addition of lime and bicarbonate salt [Gerardi, 2003].
2.5.3. Mixing
Distribution of bacteria, substrate, nutrients and temperature equalization by means of adequate mixing, are known to be crucial for the overall anaerobic digester (AD) process [Chapman, 1989]. Several investigations show that improvements in reactor performance can be achieved when changes in mixing intensity are imposed [Angelidaki et al., 2004]. According to [Gerardi, 2003] the main advantages of mixing in AD are: minimization of solids accumulation that may restrict reactor hydraulics, reduction of scum build up, elimination of temperature stratification and maintaining close contact between substrate particles and microbial communities. In a sequential experiment [Stroot et al., 2001] studied the feasibility of co-digestion of municipal solid waste, primary sludge and waste activated sludge (WAS) under mesophilic conditions in laboratory scale continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) under different OLR and mixing conditions.
2.5.4. Organic loading rates
Organic loading rate is defined as the application of soluble and particulate organic matter. It’s typically expressed on an area basis as pounds of BOD per unit area. Various studies have shown that higher OLRs will reduce COD removal efficiency in wastewater treatment systems [Torkian et al., 2003], [Sanchez et al., 2005]. However, gas production will increase with OLR until a stage when methanogens could not work quick enough to convert acetic acid to methane.
3. Conclusions
The performance of anaerobic treatment for POME and effects of organic loading rates were thoroughly reviewed. The palm oil industry is an indisputable source of pollution in Malaysia. In order to counteract the negative impact of this source, anaerobic digestion is an advantageous method for POME treatment as it generates valuable and product that can be exchanged into revenue when registered as a clean development mechanism CDM project. Furthermore, research can be done to develop a thermophilic anaerobic bioreactor with minimal control to ease system operation. Moreover, intensity of mixing in the thermophilic range should be investigated to obtain an optimum mixing rate that will keep microbial consortia in close proximity and at the same time improve the system efficiency. Furthermore, operation costs can be reduced through utilization of biogas for heat or electricity energy generation in the plant.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/42628.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/42628.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42628",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42628",totalDownloads:5518,totalViews:532,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:95,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 23rd 2012",dateReviewed:"October 14th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 27th 2013",dateFinished:"February 6th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/42628",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/42628",book:{id:"1269",slug:"international-perspectives-on-water-quality-management-and-pollutant-control"},signatures:"N.H. Abdurahman, Y.M. Rosli and N.H. Azhari",authors:[{id:"151817",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdurahman",middleName:"H",surname:"Nour",fullName:"Abdurahman Nour",slug:"abdurahman-nour",email:"nour2000_99@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151817/images/3309_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Pahang",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anaerobic digestion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Anaerobic and alternative POME treatment methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Anaerobic treatment methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4. Anaerobic contact digester",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.5. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.6. Anaerobic contact digestion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.7. Membrane separation anaerobic treatment process",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.3. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.4. Comparison of various anaerobic treatment methods in POME treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.5. Factors influencing anaerobic digester performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.5.1. Operating temperature",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.5.2. pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.5.3. Mixing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.5.4. Organic loading rates",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AhmadA. LM. FChongSBhatiaSIsmail2006Drinking water reclamation from palm oil Mill effluent (POME) using membrane technologyDesalination1913544'},{id:"B2",body:'AhmadA. LM. 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IZouboulis1993Thermophilic anaerobic digestion of alcohol distillery wastewatersBioresource Technology43131140'},{id:"B84",body:'VazquezIJRodriguezEMaranonLCastrillonYFernandez2006Simultaneous removal of phenol, ammonium and thiocyanate from coke wastewater by aerobic degradation.Journal of Hazardous MaterialsB: 13717731780\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B85",body:'Van Der MerweMT. JBritz1993Anaerobic digestion of baker’s yeast factory efficient using an anaerobic filter and hybrid digester. Bioresource Technology: 43169174'},{id:"B86",body:'WParawiraMMurtoRZvauyaBMattiasson2006Comparative performance of a UASB reactor and an anaerobic packed-bed reactor when treating potato waste leachateRenewable Energy31893903\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B87",body:'WangZC. JBanks2007Treatment of a high-strength substrate-rich alkaline leachate using an Aerobic filter. Waste Management 27359366'},{id:"B88",body:'YilmazTAYuceerMBasibuyukA comparison of the performance of mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic filters treating papermill wastewaterBioresource Technology (2008156 EOF163 EOF'},{id:"B89",body:'YacobSM. AHassanYShiraiMWakisakaSSubash2006aBaseline study of methane Emission from anaerobic ponds of palm oil mill effluent treatmentScience of the Total Environment366187196'},{id:"B90",body:'YacopSM. AHassanYShiraiMWakisakaSSubash2005Baseline study of methane Emission from open digesting tanks of palm oil mill effluent treatment. Chemosphere 5915751581'},{id:"B91",body:'YacobSYShiraiM. AHassanMWakisakaSSubash2006bStart-upoperation of semi-commercial closed anaerobic digester for palm oil mill effluent treatment. Process Biochemistry41962964'},{id:"B92",body:'ZinatizadehA. A. LA. RMohamedA. ZAbdullahM. DMashitahMHasnainIsa., G.D, Najafpour. 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Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
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1. Introduction
Serotonin syndrome is a drug-induced condition caused by medications that increase intrasynaptic serotonin levels. It is characterized by a triad of symptoms that includes neuromuscular hyperactivity, altered mental status and autonomic dysfunction.
The syndrome was first described in 1960 as “Indolamine syndrome” in patients on therapy with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) who develop symptoms of serotonin syndrome after taking tryptophan – a serotonin precursor [1]. Since then, the number of reported cases of serotonin syndrome has increased significantly. The medical community’s attention to serotonin syndrome was drawn in 1984 by the unusual death of 18-year-old Libby Zion in a New York City hospital, which may have been linked to the development of serotonin syndrome after concomitant use of an MAOI and opioid analgesic. The opioid analgesic pethidine was administered to the girl suffering from depression and taking the antidepressant phenelzine, which led to the development of a fatal serotonin syndrome [2, 3].
Of all serotonergic drugs, antidepressants are the most common cause of serotonin syndrome, and recent data suggest that the most common drug combination associated with serotonin syndrome is that between selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and opioids [2]. As a relatively rare adverse drug reaction, the incidence of serotonin syndrome is difficult to be calculated during randomized controlled trials [4]. Moreover, it is estimated that over 85% of physicians are unaware of the condition [5]. The non-specific manifestation of the syndrome leads to its difficult recognition and underreporting, which further complicates the determination of its incidence. It is considered that serotonin syndrome occurs in 15% of patients who overdose on selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The actual incidence of serotonin syndrome is thought to be significantly higher than reported [6, 7, 8].
2. Molecular mechanism of serotonin syndrome development
Serotonin syndrome results from an increase in intrasynaptic serotonin levels caused by overstimulation of both central and peripheral serotonin receptors [9, 10]. Theoretically, serotonin syndrome can occur as a result of stimulation of any receptor of all seven serotonin receptor families [11]. However, the role of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A is most often mentioned [6, 7, 11, 12]. Moreover, the 5-HT2A receptor is thought to mediate the most serious consequences of the serotonin syndrome (Table 1).
Receptor
Function related to serotonin toxicity
Type
Subtype
5-HT1
5-HT1A
neuronal inhibition, thermoregulation, hyperactivity associated with anxiety, hypoactivity associated with depression
Some authors suggest that the development of serotonin syndrome requires the accumulation of a critical amount of serotonin. However, studies show that this level of serotonin is probably different for each patient. Experimental studies in animal models of serotonin syndrome have shown that other neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline (NA), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and dopamine may also play a role in the development of serotonin syndrome but their role is not fully understood [6, 13].
It is shown that in serotonin syndrome CNS serotonin levels increase between 40 and 140 times. At the same time, dopamine levels are increased 10 to 44 times [14, 15]. Other studies indicate overactivation of the noradrenergic system with a rise in NA levels up to 15.9 times in serotonin syndrome, but the cause remains unknown. Some authors explain this increase in NA levels with activation of 5-HT2A receptors. This is supported by the fact that no significant increase in NA was observed with prior administration of ritanserin and pipamperone which act as antagonists of these receptors. On the other hand, there is evidence of the involvement of 5-HT1A receptors, although the administration of 5-HT1A antagonists does not prevent the increase in NA levels [14, 15]. The degree of NA increase may be related to the prognosis of serotonin syndrome, although it is not fully understood. At the same time, some of the observed symptoms of autonomic instability may be due to an overactivated noradrenergic system [14].
3. Implicated drugs
Drugs and substances that increase serotonin levels are known as serotonergic, and a mechanism by which they do that are as follows:
Increased serotonin synthesis
Increased serotonin release
Activation of serotonergic receptors
Serotonin reuptake inhibition
Inhibition of serotonin metabolism
The full list of all serotonergic substances is long, but antidepressants and, in recent years, some opioids take the central place. It is important to note that substances with serotonergic activity include not only antidepressants and opioids but also a number of other drugs used in everyday medical practice – some antibiotics, antiemetics, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, as well as over-the-counter drugs (OTC), dietary supplements, some illicit drugs and more [5, 6, 7, 16, 17, 18, 19].
Some of the antidepressants, opioids, and other drugs reported in the literature causing serotonin syndrome, as well as the mechanisms by which they increase serotonin levels are listed in Table 2.
The term “serotonin syndrome” in animals was first used in 1979 by Hwang and Van Woert [20, 21]. Manifestation of serotonin toxicity has been described in various animal species, however, most literature data, respectively most studies, are available on the development of serotonin syndrome in mice and rats [20].
In contrast to humans, in whom the symptoms of serotonin syndrome are well defined, the literature describes a wide variety of manifestations and different combinations of responses characterizing the development of serotonin syndrome in rodents.
There is considerable heterogeneity in the animal models reported in the literature. The use of different assessment methods, different response sets and different scales in assessing the effects of increased serotonergic tone limits quantitative comparisons of laboratory results. In this regard, Haberzettl et al. [20] conducted a systematic literature review of the described models of serotonin syndrome in rats and mice and evaluated the observed behavioral and autonomic manifestations. Based on the frequency of behavioral manifestations, the team divides them into traditional and additional, distinguishing those that reliably characterize the development of serotonin syndrome in rodents. The described behavioral and autonomic symptoms of serotonin syndrome in rats are presented in Table 3.
Behavioral manifestations
Autonomic manifestations
Traditional
Additional
forepaw treading head weaving hind limb abduction low body posture Straub phenomenon tremor backward walking
body twitches chewing head shakes head twitches hyperactivity hyperreactivity locomotor activity (increased or decreased) myoclonus rearing wet dog shake
body temperature (increased or decreased) lower lip retraction penile erection pyloric erection salivation
Table 3.
Serotonin syndrome manifestation in rats.
It is widely believed that 5-HT1A receptors mediate most behavioral manifestations of serotonin syndrome in rats [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. In support of this are studies demonstrating the induction of serotonin syndrome behaviors by the administration of 5-HT1A agonists [26, 32, 33] and the induction of a narrower spectrum of manifestations such as hind limb abduction, a Straub phenomenon and low body posture, from the partial 5-HT1A-agonist buspirone [31].
Other behavioral responses such as head weaving and wet dog shake, are mediated by 5-HT2A receptors [22, 34, 35, 36, 37]. For example, head weaving in rats induced by the administration of the non-selective MAO inhibitor phenelzine and the SSRI paroxetine was dose-dependently antagonized by 5-HT2 antagonists [35, 37]. In addition, head weaving caused by the administration of a 5-HT2A/2C agonist has been antagonized by the administration of a 5-HT2A antagonist, but not by a 5-HT2C/2B antagonist [38].
The analysis of Haberzettl et al. showed that the most common autonomic dysregulation manifestation observed in rats with serotonin syndrome is the change in the body temperature. The hyperthermic reaction observed is thought to be mainly related to the activation of 5-HT2A receptors [14, 39]. Experimental studies confirmed the involvement of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors in thermoregulation in rats. For example, blockade of 5-HT2 receptors by ketanserin or pirenperone causes a decrease in body temperature, while blockade of 5-HT1A receptors by pindolol results in an increase in body temperature [40].
Although not a mandatory manifestation of serotonin syndrome, hyperthermia is one of the leading causes of observed mortality in experimental serotonin syndrome. In both animals and humans, it is hyperthermia that mainly causes complications. Such complications in humans could include seizures, rhabdomyolysis, myoglobinuria, metabolic acidosis, renal failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome, respiratory failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC syndrome), coma and death [6].
The manifestation of serotonin syndrome observed in rodents resembles the manifestation of serotonin syndrome in humans (Table 4). For example, neuromuscular manifestations such as tremor and muscle rigidity have been observed in both humans and rodents. Myoclonus, which is a clinical symptom of serotonin syndrome in humans, in rodents may manifest as head twitches and forepaw treading. The Straub phenomenon observed in rodents may refer to the muscle rigidity observed in humans [21]. According to autonomic dysregulation manifestation, changes in body temperature occur in both rodents and humans.
Symptoms and manifestations of serotonin syndrome in humans and rodents – Comparison.
The most difficult to differentiate in animals is the third group of symptoms typical for the manifestation of serotonin syndrome in humans - mental status changes. However, hyperactivity and to some extent the hyperreactivity observed in rodents are associated with agitation observed in humans. Moreover, it is important to note that the current criteria for diagnosing serotonin syndrome in humans, Hunter’s criteria, do not include as a mandatory diagnostic criterion changes in mental status, which confirms the validity and applicability of the animal model of serotonin syndrome [21].
Two classical models of serotonin syndrome in rats have been described in the literature induced by concomitant administration of serotonergic substances with different mechanisms of action: 5-HTP (100 mg/kg i.p.) - a precursor of serotonin and clorgyline (2 mg/kg i.p.) - selective MAO-A inhibitor [14] and fluoxetine (10 mg/kg i.p.) - a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and tranylcypromine (3.5 mg/kg, i.p.) - a non-selective MAO inhibitor [12].
5. Effect of GABA-ergic drugs on experimental models of serotonin syndrome
Many central neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, acetylcholine, GABA and glutamate, are involved in the thermoregulation. GABA is a major central inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in thermoregulatory processes. The role of GABA as a thermoregulatory neurotransmitter or modulator is suggested by the good distribution of the mediator in the hypothalamus, confirmed by autoradiographic and immunohistochemical studies [41, 42, 43] and its central action. In addition, GABA-ergic neurons, as well as postsynaptic GABAA-ergic receptors have been identified in PO/AH (preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus) [44, 45, 46].
Potentiation of the central inhibitory effect of GABA is achieved by several different mechanisms, including allosteric modulation of GABA receptors (benzodiazepines, barbiturates, Z-hypnotics, propofol and fospropofol), direct GABA- or GABA-receptor agonist action (respectively muscimol, baclofen), increased synthesis of GABA (e.g., gabapentin, pregabalin, sodium valproate), inhibition of enzymatic degradation of GABA (e.g., vigabatrin, sodium valproate) and inhibition of neuronal or glial uptake of GABA (e.g., tiagabine).
Benzodiazepines mediate their pharmacological effects by enhancing the inhibitory effect of GABA on the CNS by binding to a specific modulating site on GABAA-ergic receptors containing 1, 2, 3 or 5 alpha-subunits. Benzodiazepines have no affinity for receptor complexes containing 4 or 6 alpha-subunits [47]. Activation of specific benzodiazepine receptors by diazepam or other benzodiazepines increase the frequency of GABAA-associated chloride channel opening [48].
The pharmacological activity of valproic acid is expressed in potentiation of GABA-ergic neurotransmission and prolongation of the inactivation of voltage-dependent neuronal sodium channels [49]. Sodium valproate is thought to increase brain GABA concentration by the following mechanisms: (1) inhibition of GABA-transaminase enzyme activity and decreased GABA degradation [50] 2) stimulating GAD activity [51] and increasing GABA synthesis; (3) decreased GABA turnover [52]. Vigabatrin (gamma-vinyl GABA) is a vinyl-substituted analogue of GABA that selectively and irreversibly inhibits the activity of the enzyme GABA-transaminase (GABA-T) and significantly increases the concentration of GABA in the brain [53].
After central and systemic administration of diazepam, sodium valproate, and vigabatrin dose-dependent decreases of body temperature in rats is observed [54, 55, 56, 57]. GABA-induced hypothermia has been suggested to be mediated by GABAA and/or GABAB receptor activation [58, 59]. The hypothermic effect of sodium valproate and vigabatrin occurs later than diazepam-induced hypothermia, which can be explained by their indirect mechanism of potentiation of GABA-ergic mediation.
These results are further confirmed in our studies, where we found that substances with a GABA-ergic mechanism of action such as diazepam, sodium valproate and vigabatrin effectively reduced the hyperthermic response in experimental serotonin syndrome in rats induced by concomitant administration of 5-HTP (100 mg/kg i.p.) - a precursor of serotonin and clorgyline (2 mg/kg i.p.) - selective MAO-A inhibitor [14]. The reduction in serotonergic-induced hyperthermia with pretreatment of GABA-mimetic drugs is most likely due to an increase in central GABA-ergic neurotransmission through activation of GABAA receptors (e.g., diazepam) as well as through indirect action by increasing GABA concentration (e.g., sodium valproate, vigabatrin). These results on the hyperthermia associated with serotonin syndrome support the hypothesis of an interaction between the GABA-ergic and serotoninergic systems in thermoregulatory processes.
In our studies, after the concomitant administration of 5-HTP (100 mg/kg i.p.) and clorgyline (2 mg/kg i.p.), a model of serotonin syndrome with typical behavioral and autonomic manifestations developed. Tremor occurs 10 minutes after injection, the hyperthermic reaction develops at 30 minutes, and the maximum value is observed 60 minutes after injection of the substances. All animals in this group died between 60 and 90 minutes after injection of serotonin. Pretreatment with diazepam at a dose of 5 mg/kg i.p. reduced the hyperthermic reaction at 30 and 60 min compared to the group with a model of serotonin syndrome, in which saline was administered prior to the injection of serotonergic agent. Administration of sodium valproate at a dose of 300 mg/kg i.p. reduced the hyperthermic reaction at 30 and 60 min compared to the group with a model of serotonin syndrome, in which saline was administered before the injection of serotonergic substances [56, 60]. Additionally, in another of our experiments, we used a modified model of serotonin syndrome induced by the concomitant administration of fluoxetine (10 mg/kg i.p.) - a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and clorgyline (2 mg/kg i.p.) - selective MAO-A inhibitor. Vigabatrin at a dose of 300 mg/kg i.p. significantly decreased the hyperthermic response between 150 and 300 min in rats with a serotonin syndrome model, compared to the group with a model of serotonin syndrome in which only saline was administered before the injection of the serotonergic substances [57, 61].
In summary pretreatment with diazepam (5 mg/kg i.p.), sodium valproate (300 mg/kg i.p.), and vigabatrin (300 mg/kg i.p.) decreased hyperthermia in different experimental models of the serotonin syndrome. These results suggest involvement of interactions between GABA-ergic and serotonergic systems in the processes of thermoregulation.
We assume that in addition to direct GABA-ergic mechanisms, interactions between neurotransmitters or mediator systems are involved in the influence of hyperthermia in serotonin syndrome by GABA-ergic substances. Presynaptic GABAB receptors affect the release of norepinephrine, dopamine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine [62]. Expression of predominantly GABAB receptors has been found in most of the serotonin and catecholamine neurons in the nuclei of the brainstem, which are involved in the regulation of autonomic functions [63]. Interactions between the GABA-ergic and serotonergic systems are mediated by presynaptic heteroreceptor GABAB-inhibition of 5-HT release or by G-protein-coupled interaction between 5-HT1A and GABAB-ergic receptors [64].
6. Effect of 5-HT2-antagonists on experimental models of serotonin syndrome
Hyperthermia is the most common cause of complications of life-threatening forms of serotonin syndrome in humans and is one of the leading causes of mortality reported in experimental models of serotonin syndrome [6, 7].
As already mentioned, several studies indicate the role of 5-HT2A receptors in the development of a hyperthermic response in rats. In this regard, the effect of a number of 5-HT2 antagonists in influencing the hyperthermic response in experimental serotonin syndrome has been studied. Some of the serotonin antagonists investigated are cyproheptadine, ritanserin, ketanserin, mirtazapine, some antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine, risperidone and olanzapine [8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Results demonstrate a significant involvement of the 5-HT2A receptors in the development of hyperthermic response in experimental serotonin syndrome [65].
Studies have shown that cyproheptadine effectively affects the hyperthermic response in an experimental model of serotonin syndrome. Moreover, a comparative study demonstrates that, unlike other 5-HT2 antagonists, it prevents both the development of serotonin syndrome and the mortality of experimental animals [14, 66].
The role of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of serotonin syndrome has been increasingly discussed in the last few years, given that most atypical antipsychotics work primarily by blocking 5-HT2 receptors [67].
Moreover, temperature dysregulation is a documented side effect of antipsychotic drugs [68, 69, 70, 71, 72]. That most often manifests in the development of hyperthermia, a life-threatening symptom characteristic of the malignant neuroleptic syndrome (MNS). Data from various clinical cases, summarized in recent years by van Marum [68] and Zonnenberg [69, 70], show that the use of classical or atypical antipsychotics carries the risk of developing another, less well-documented adverse drug reaction, namely hypothermia. In humans, hypothermia is defined as a body temperature below 35 ° C, distinguishing three degrees: mild (33–35 ° C), moderate (28–33 ° C) and severe (<28 ° C) hypothermia [69].
Although the hypothermic effect of antipsychotics is less known than the hyperthermic one expressed in MNS, analysis of the literature data shows that there are almost equal reports of hypothermia (480 cases) and hyperthermia (524 cases) associated with the use of antipsychotics. Zonnenberg et al. consider that the actual incidence of hypothermia associated with the use of antipsychotics is at least 10 times higher than the documented [69]. For the first time, the development of hypothermia after the use of antipsychotic drugs was described by Loughnane in a 26-year-old patient on chlorpromazine therapy [73].
The analyzes of van Marum et al. and Zonnenberg et al. indicate that hypothermia most often occurs one week after starting antipsychotic therapy or after increasing the dose. They also indicated that the use of atypical antipsychotics was more common (approximately 55% of cases), with risperidone being the most commonly reported [68, 69, 74]. Mild hypothermia associated with low-dose risperidone has also been observed in a child with verbal and physically aggressive behavior [75].
Analyzes by van Marum and Zonnenberg show that antipsychotics with a higher affinity for blocking 5-HT2A than D2 receptors are more often associated with the development of hypothermia [68, 69]. This is also confirmed by experimental and clinical studies which demonstrate that the atypical antipsychotics olanzapine and risperidone cause a decrease in body temperature indicating that the mechanism of hypothermic action is associated with blockade of 5-HT2 receptors [72, 74, 75, 76].
7. Conclusion
From all data reported thus far, it can be concluded that 5-HT2 receptors and the GABA system are strongly involved in the development of hyperthermia in serotonin syndrome and the mortality associated with it.
Drug-induced hyperthermia is resistant to the action of classical antipyretics therefore their use is not recommended. The use of acetylsalicylic acid and other classical antipyretics not only has no effect in the case of drug-induced hyperthermia but may even cause a worsening of the course of the hyperthermic reaction. In our opinion, due to the proven hypothermic effect of the mentioned GABA-ergic drugs and 5-HT2-antagonists, their use in the therapeutic regimen of hyperthermia in specific hyperthermic syndromes is appropriate.
The similarity in the manifestation of the syndrome in rats and humans can serve as a basis for further elucidation of the mechanism of development of serotonin syndrome in humans. The animal model of serotonin syndrome can be used to study drugs and drug combinations that pose a potential risk of developing serotonin syndrome in humans and the possibilities for its prevention.
\n',keywords:"5-HT2 antagonists, GABA-ergic agents, serotonin syndrome, rats",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75335.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75335.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75335",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75335",totalDownloads:183,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 26th 2021",dateReviewed:"February 2nd 2021",datePrePublished:"March 16th 2021",datePublished:"June 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"February 18th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Serotonin syndrome (SS) is a potentially life-threatening adverse drug effect that occurs after an overdose or combined administration of two or more drugs that increase the serotonin levels. In humans, SS is represented by a triad of symptoms including mental status changes, neuromuscular hyperactivity and autonomic dysfunction. The manifestations of the syndrome observed in rodents resemble the symptoms of SS in humans. Theoretically, SS can occur as a result of stimulation of any of the seven families of the serotonin receptors. However, most data support the involvement of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. A number of studies indicate the effectiveness of 5-HT2 antagonists and GABA-ergic agents in the treatment of the hyperthermia and other symptoms of SS in rats. Therefore, animal models of SS may help to further elucidate the mechanism of its development and the possibilities for its treatment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75335",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75335",signatures:"Rumen Nikolov and Kalina Koleva",book:{id:"10195",type:"book",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",fullTitle:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-200-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-199-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-201-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"340850",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rumen",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolov",fullName:"Rumen Nikolov",slug:"rumen-nikolov",email:"rnikolov@medfac.mu-sofia.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"341198",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalina",middleName:null,surname:"Koleva",fullName:"Kalina Koleva",slug:"kalina-koleva",email:"kkoleva@medfac.mu-sofia.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Molecular mechanism of serotonin syndrome development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Implicated drugs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Experimental serotonin syndrome",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Effect of GABA-ergic drugs on experimental models of serotonin syndrome",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Effect of 5-HT2-antagonists on experimental models of serotonin syndrome",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Oates, J. A., & Sjoerdsma, A. (1960). Neurologic effects of tryptophan in patients receiving a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Neurology, 10, 1076-1078'},{id:"B2",body:'Abadie, D., Rousseau, V., Logerot, S., Cottin, J., Montastruc, J. L., & Montastruc, F. (2015). Serotonin Syndrome: Analysis of Cases Registered in the French Pharmacovigilance Database. Journal of clinical psychopharmacology, 35(4), 382-388'},{id:"B3",body:'Arora, B., & Kannikeswaran, N. (2010). 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Atypical antipsychotics and dopamine D(1) receptor agonism: an in vivo experimental study using core temperature measurements in the rat. The Journal of pharmacology and experimental therapeutics, 292(2), 731-736'},{id:"B73",body:'Loughnane T. (1968). Hypothermia in a young adult. Lancet (London, England), 2(7565), 455-456'},{id:"B74",body:'Razaq, M., & Samma, M. (2004). A case of risperidone-induced hypothermia. American journal of therapeutics, 11(3), 229-230'},{id:"B75",body:'Grau, K., Plener, P. L., Gahr, M., Denzer, C., & Freudenmann, R. W. (2017). Mild Hypothermia in a Child with Low-Dose Risperidone. Zeitschrift fur Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 45(4), 335-337'},{id:"B76",body:'Rasnayake, L. R., Wimalarathne, H., Jayapala, R. K., Gamage, C. D., Dassanayake, D. L., Ratnayake et al. (2011). An unusual case of hypothermia associated with therapeutic doses of olanzapine: a case report. Journal of medical case reports, 5, 189'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rumen Nikolov",address:"rnikolov@medfac.mu-sofia.bg",affiliation:'
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Rahimi",authors:[{id:"38310",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Carruba",slug:"stefano-carruba",fullName:"Stefano Carruba"},{id:"42459",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesare",middleName:null,surname:"Perotti",slug:"cesare-perotti",fullName:"Cesare Perotti"},{id:"42460",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Rinaldi",slug:"marco-rinaldi",fullName:"Marco Rinaldi"},{id:"42465",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"giuseppe-bertozzi",fullName:"Giuseppe Bertozzi"},{id:"42466",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Feltre",slug:"luca-feltre",fullName:"Luca Feltre"},{id:"42467",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashallah",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi",slug:"mashallah-rahimi",fullName:"Mashallah Rahimi"}]},{id:"9498",doi:"10.5772/8283",title:"Remote Sensing of Forest Health",slug:"remote-sensing-of-forest-health",totalDownloads:5355,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:null,book:{id:"3345",slug:"geoscience-and-remote-sensing",title:"Geoscience and Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Jyrki Tuominen, Tarmo Lipping, Viljo Kuosmanen and Reija Haapanen",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71931",title:"Open Pit Mining",slug:"open-pit-mining",totalDownloads:1625,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Open pit mining method is one of the surface mining methods that has a traditional cone-shaped excavation and is usually employed to exploit a near-surface, nonselective and low-grade zones deposits. It often results in high productivity and requires large capital investments, low operating costs, and good safety conditions. The main topics that will be discussed in this chapter will include an introduction into the general features of open pit mining, ore body characteristics and configurations, stripping ratios and stripping overburden methods, mine elements and parameters, open pit operation cycle, pit slope angle, stability of mine slopes, types of highwall failures, mine closure and reclamation, and different variants of surface mining methods including opencast mining, mountainous mining, and artisan mining.",book:{id:"8620",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",title:"Mining Techniques",fullTitle:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Awwad H. Altiti, Rami O. Alrawashdeh and Hani M. Alnawafleh",authors:[{id:"313182",title:"Prof.",name:"Rami",middleName:null,surname:"Alrawashdeh",slug:"rami-alrawashdeh",fullName:"Rami Alrawashdeh"},{id:"313522",title:"Dr.",name:"Awwad",middleName:null,surname:"Altiti",slug:"awwad-altiti",fullName:"Awwad Altiti"},{id:"313523",title:"Prof.",name:"Hani",middleName:null,surname:"Alnawafleh",slug:"hani-alnawafleh",fullName:"Hani Alnawafleh"}]},{id:"64027",title:"Stages of a Integrated Geothermal Project",slug:"stages-of-a-integrated-geothermal-project",totalDownloads:4341,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A geothermal project constitutes two big stages: the exploration and the exploitation. Each one has a single task whose results allow defining the feasibility of a geothermal project, until achieving the construction and operation stage of the power generation plant. The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"63059",title:"Generation, Evolution, and Characterization of Turbulence Coherent Structures",slug:"generation-evolution-and-characterization-of-turbulence-coherent-structures",totalDownloads:3618,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Turbulence stands as one of the most complicated and attractive physical phenomena. The accumulated knowledge has shown turbulent flow to be composed of islands of vortices and uniform-momentum regions, which are coherent in both time and space. Research has been concentrated on these structures, their generation, evolution, and interaction with the mean flow. Different theories and conceptual models were proposed with the aim of controlling the boundary layer flow and improving numerical simulations. Here, we review the different classes of turbulence coherent structures and the presumable generation mechanisms for each. The conceptual models describing the generation of turbulence coherent structures are generally classified under two categories, namely, the bottom-up mechanisms and the top-down mechanisms. The first assumes turbulence to be generated near the surface by some sort of instabilities, whereas the second assigns an active role to the large outer layer structures, perhaps the turbulent bulges. Both categories of models coexist in the flow with the first dominating turbulence generation at low Reynolds number and the second at high Reynolds number, such as the case in the atmospheric boundary layer.",book:{id:"7214",slug:"turbulence-and-related-phenomena",title:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena",fullTitle:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena"},signatures:"Zambri Harun and Eslam Reda Lotfy",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"252195",title:"Dr.",name:"Eslam",middleName:null,surname:"Reda",slug:"eslam-reda",fullName:"Eslam Reda"}]},{id:"64562",title:"Electrical Resistivity Tomography: A Subsurface-Imaging Technique",slug:"electrical-resistivity-tomography-a-subsurface-imaging-technique",totalDownloads:3182,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a popular geophysical subsurface-imaging technique and widely applied to mineral prospecting, hydrological exploration, environmental investigation and civil engineering, as well as archaeological mapping. This chapter offers an overall review of technical aspects of ERT, which includes the fundamental theory of direct-current (DC) resistivity exploration, electrode arrays for data acquisition, numerical modelling methods and tomographic inversion algorithms. The section of fundamental theory shows basic formulae and principle of DC resistivity exploration. The section of electrode arrays summarises the previous study on all traditional-electrode arrays and recommends 4 electrode arrays for data acquisition of surface ERT and 3 electrode arrays for cross-hole ERT. The section of numerical modelling demonstrates an advanced version of finite-element method, called Gaussian quadrature grid approach, which is advantageous to a numerical simulation of ERT for complex geological models. The section of tomographic inversion presents the generalised standard conjugate gradient algorithms for both the l1- and l2-normed inversions. After that, some synthetic and real imaging examples are given to show the near-surface imaging capabilities of ERT.",book:{id:"8361",slug:"applied-geophysics-with-case-studies-on-environmental-exploration-and-engineering-geophysics",title:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics",fullTitle:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics"},signatures:"Bing Zhou",authors:null},{id:"17670",title:"The Qatar–South Fars Arch Development (Arabian Platform, Persian Gulf): Insights from Seismic Interpretation and Analogue Modelling",slug:"the-qatar-south-fars-arch-development-arabian-platform-persian-gulf-insights-from-seismic-interpreta",totalDownloads:8964,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"1297",slug:"new-frontiers-in-tectonic-research-at-the-midst-of-plate-convergence",title:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research",fullTitle:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research - At the Midst of Plate Convergence"},signatures:"C.R. Perotti, S. Carruba, M. Rinaldi, G. Bertozzi, L. Feltre and M. Rahimi",authors:[{id:"38310",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Carruba",slug:"stefano-carruba",fullName:"Stefano Carruba"},{id:"42459",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesare",middleName:null,surname:"Perotti",slug:"cesare-perotti",fullName:"Cesare Perotti"},{id:"42460",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Rinaldi",slug:"marco-rinaldi",fullName:"Marco Rinaldi"},{id:"42465",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"giuseppe-bertozzi",fullName:"Giuseppe Bertozzi"},{id:"42466",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Feltre",slug:"luca-feltre",fullName:"Luca Feltre"},{id:"42467",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashallah",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi",slug:"mashallah-rahimi",fullName:"Mashallah Rahimi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"104",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81626",title:"Use of Natural Safiot Clay for the Removal of Chemical Substances from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study",slug:"use-of-natural-safiot-clay-for-the-removal-of-chemical-substances-from-aqueous-solutions-by-adsorpti",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101605",abstract:"The main objective of this work was to investigate the potential of Natural Safiot Clay (NSC), as an adsorbent for the removal of two cationic dyes such as Basic Blue 9 (BB9) and Basic Yellow 28 (BY28) from single and binary systems in aqueous solutions. For this, the effects of three factors controlling the adsorption process, such as initial dye concentration, adsorbent dose, and initial pH on the adsorption extent, were investigated and examined. The natural safiot clay was characterized using the following technique: energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), DRX, and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and pH of the point of zero charge (pHZPC). Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy results indicate high percentages of Silica and Alumina. FT-IR spectrum identified kaolinite as the major mineral phase in the presence of quartz, calcite, and dolomite. The quantum theoretical study confirms the experimental results, through the study of the global and local reactivity and the electrophilicity power of the dyes. The electrophilicity power of dyes affects the removal efficiency. The theoretical study proves that BB9 (ω = 6.178) is more electrophilic than BY28 (ω = 2.480) and more interactions with surface sites. The results of the molecular dynamics simulation indicate that the dyes are adsorbed parallel to the surface of natural Safi clay (kaolinite), implying the strong interaction with the kaolinite atoms. All the results of quantum chemistry calculations and simulations of molecular dynamics are in perfect agreement with the results of the experimental study.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Aziz El Kassimi, Mohammadine El Haddad, Rachid Laamari, Mamoune El Himri, Youness Achour and Hicham Yazid"},{id:"80866",title:"Normative Mineralogy Especially for Shales, Slates, and Phyllites",slug:"normative-mineralogy-especially-for-shales-slates-and-phyllites",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102346",abstract:"First, an insight into normative mineralogy and the most important methods for calculating the standard or norm minerals, such as the CIPW norm, is given. This is followed by a more detailed explanation of “slatenorm” and “slatecalculation” for low and very low metamorphic rocks, such as phyllites, slates, and shales. They are particularly suitable for fine-grained rocks where the mineral content is difficult to determine. They enable the determination of a virtual mineral inventory from full chemical analysis, including the values of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon (C), and sulfur (S). The determined norm or standard minerals include the minerals—feldspars, carbonates, micas, hydro-micas, chlorites, ore minerals, and quartz. The advantages of slatenorm and slatecalculation compared to other methods for calculating normal minerals of sedimentary rocks are discussed.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Hans Wolfgang Wagner"},{id:"80770",title:"Mg-Ilmenite from Kimberlites, Its Origin",slug:"mg-ilmenite-from-kimberlites-its-origin",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102676",abstract:"The main regularities of the saturation of kimberlite rocks with the accessory mineral Mg-ilmenite (Ilm), the peculiarities of the distribution of Ilm compositions in individual pipes, in different clusters of pipes, in diamondiferous kimberlite fields, are considered as the example of studies carried out within the Yakutian kimberlite province (Siberian Craton). Interpretation of different crystallization trends in MgO-Cr2O3 coordinates (conventionally named “Haggerty’s parabola”, “Steplike”, “Hockey stick”, as well as the peculiarities of heterogeneity of individual zonal and polygranular Ilm macrocrysts made it possible to propose a three-stage model of crystallization Ilm: (1) Mg-Cr poor ilmenite crystallizing from a primitive asthenospheric melt; (2) Continuing crystallization in the lithospheric contaminated melt by MgO and Cr2O3; (3) Ilmenite subsequently underwent sub-solidus recrystallization in the presence of an evolved kimberlite melt under increasing oxygen fugacity (ƒO2) conditions.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Sergey I. Kostrovitsky"},{id:"80553",title:"Investigation of Accessory Minerals from the Blatná Granodiorite Suite, Bohemian Massif, Czech Republic",slug:"investigation-of-accessory-minerals-from-the-blatn-granodiorite-suite-bohemian-massif-czech-republic",totalDownloads:48,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102628",abstract:"The Central Bohemian magmatic complex belongs to the Central European Variscan belt. The granitic rocks of this plutonic complex are formed by several suites of granites, granodiorites, and tonalites, together with small bodies of gabbros, gabbro diorites, and diorites. The granodiorites of the Blatná suite are high-K, calc-alkaline to shoshonitic, and metaluminous to slightly peraluminous granitic rocks. Compared to the common I-type granites, granodiorites of the Blatná suite are enriched in Mg (1.0–3.4 wt.% MgO), Ba (838–2560 ppm), Sr. (257–506 ppm), and Zr (81–236 ppm). For granodiorites of the Blatná suite is assemblage of apatite, zircon, titanite, and allanite significant. Zircon contains low Hf concentrations (1.1–1.7 wt.% HfO2). The composition of titanite ranges from 83 to 92 mol.% titanite end-member. Allanite is relatively Al-poor and displays Feox. ratio 0.2–0.5.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Miloš René"},{id:"80423",title:"Minerals as Prebiotic Catalysts for Chemical Evolution towards the Origin of Life",slug:"minerals-as-prebiotic-catalysts-for-chemical-evolution-towards-the-origin-of-life",totalDownloads:106,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102389",abstract:"A transition from geochemistry to biochemistry has been considered as a necessary step towards the emergence of primordial life. Nevertheless, how did this transition occur is still elusive. The chemistry underlying this transition is likely not a single event, but involves many levels of creation and reconstruction, finally reaching the molecular, structural, and functional buildup of complexity. Among them, one apparent question is: how the biochemical catalytic system emerged from the mineral-based geochemical system? Inspired by the metal–ligand structures in metalloenzymes, many researchers have proposed that transition metal sulfide minerals could have served as structural analogs of metalloenzymes for catalyzing prebiotic redox conversions. This assumption has been tested and verified to some extent by several studies, which focused on using Earth-abundant transition metal sulfides as catalysts for multi-electron C and N conversions. The progress in this field will be introduced, with a focus on the CO2 fixation and ammonia synthesis from nitrate/nitrite reduction and N2 reduction. Recently developed methods for screening effective mineral catalysts were also reviewed.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Yamei Li"},{id:"80338",title:"Ionic Conductivity of Strontium Fluoroapatites Co-doped with Lanthanides",slug:"ionic-conductivity-of-strontium-fluoroapatites-co-doped-with-lanthanides",totalDownloads:54,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102410",abstract:"Britholites derivatives of apatite’s that contain lanthanium and neodymium in the serial compounds Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 were subject of the present investigation. The solid state reaction was the route of preparing these materials. Several techniques were employed for the analysis and characterization of the synthesized powders. The chemical analysis results indicated that molar ratio Sr+La+NdP+Si was of about 1.67 value of a stoichiometric powder. The X-ray diffraction data showed single-phase apatites crystallizing in hexagonal structure with P63/m space group were successively obtained. Moreover, the substitution of lanthanium by neodymium in strontium phosphosilicated fluorapatite was total. This was confirmed by the a and c lattice parameters contraction when (x) varies coherently to the sizes of the two cations. The infrared spectroscopy and the 31P NMR (MAS) exhibited the characteristic bands of phosphosilicated fluorapatite. The pressureless sintering of the material achieved a maximum of 89% relative density. The sintered specimens indicated that the Nd content as well as the heating temperature affected the ionic conduction of the materials and the maximum was 1.73 × 10−6 S cm−1 obtained at 1052 K for x = 2.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Khouloud Kthiri, Mohammed Mehnaoui, Samira Jebahi, Khaled Boughzala and Mustapha Hidouri"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:10},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard tissue, Peri-implant soft tissue, Restorative materials, Prosthesis design, Prosthesis, Patient satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"
\r\n\tThe success of dental implant treatment is not solely dependent on the osseointegration around the implant. Aside from the criteria used to describe the hard tissue response at the implant level, the success criteria in implant dentistry include three additional aspects: peri-implant soft tissue, prosthesis, and patient’s satisfaction.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry topic will provide readers with up-to-date resources on the prosthodontics factors such as aesthetics, restorative materials, the design of prosthesis, case selection, occlusion, oral rehabilitation, among others, all of which play an important role in determining the success of a well osseointegrated implant. With the help of digital dental technology, these can now be accomplished more predictably.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe end goal of prosthesis is always considered when planning successful implant placement. The readers in this field will be able to learn more about taking a holistic approach when treating their dental implant cases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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