Onset age and number of quitting attempts for waterpipe use amongst University of Limpopo students aged 17–43 years.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8156",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainability Assessment at the 21st century",title:"Sustainability Assessment at the 21st century",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The sustainability of the human society is endangered by the global human-ecological crisis, which consists of many global problems that are closely related to each other. In this phenomenon, the global population explosion has a central role, because more people have a larger ecological footprint, a larger consumption, more intensive pollution, and a larger emission of carbon dioxide through their activities.This book presents the current state of sustainability and intends to provide the reader with a critical perspective of how the 21st century societies must change their development model facing the new challenges (internet of things, industry 4.0, smart cities, circular economy, sustainable agriculture, etc.), in order to achieve a more liveable world.",isbn:"978-1-78984-977-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-976-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-079-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78105",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sustainability-assessment-at-the-21st-century",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"222ef024272a36394c5213ab97c07d29",bookSignature:"María José Bastante-Ceca, Jose Luis Fuentes-Bargues, Levente Hufnagel, Florin-Constantin Mihai and Corneliu Iatu",publishedDate:"February 12th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8156.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11293,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:63,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:104,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 8th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 9th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 28th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 27th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"210968",title:"Dr.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Bastante-Ceca",slug:"maria-jose-bastante-ceca",fullName:"María José Bastante-Ceca",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210968/images/system/210968.jpg",biography:"Dr. María José Bastante-Ceca obtained her doctorate in Innovation and Engineering Projects from Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV), Spain in July 2006. Previously she obtained her degree in Agronomical Engineering (Agri-food Industries field), in July 1997, and her second degree in Environmental Sciences (Industrial field) in October 2000.\nIn 2002, she began her career as a researcher at Department of Engineering Projects from Universitat Politècnica de València, where she became a teacher in October 2003, teaching subjects related to environmental impact assessment, eco-design, carbon footprint and life cycle assessment, among others. In 2012, she was appointed as Assistant Director for the Research of Department. \nCertified as a Project Manager Associate, IPMA Level D, from 2012, and belong to Board of Spanish Association of Project Management and Engineering since July 2012.",institutionString:"Universitat Politècnica de València",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universitat Politècnica de València",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"268663",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Fuentes-Bargues",slug:"jose-luis-fuentes-bargues",fullName:"Jose Luis Fuentes-Bargues",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268663/images/system/268663.png",biography:"Dr Jose Luis Fuentes-Bargues obtained his doctorate in Construction and Production Engineering Program from the National University of Distance Education (UNED), in April 2013. Previously\nhe obtained his degree in Industrial Engineering in September\n1999, and his second degree in Technical Architecture in July 2012\nfrom the Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV). He began his\ncareer in 2006 as a professor in the Department of Engineering\nProjects, UPV. Here he taught subjects related to projects, environmental impact\nassessment, and project management. He taught classes as a professor in the Chemical\nEngineering Department of the Universitat de València between 2007 and 2016, in\nthe degrees of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Sciences and in the program\nQuality, Energy, Environmental and Risks Management of the UNED since 2016",institutionString:"Universitat Politècnica de València",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",middleName:null,surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/10864/images/system/10864.JPG",biography:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel is an associate professor and the head of the Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Ecotheology, John Wesley Theological College, Hungary, working on ecology, biogeography, ecological research methodology, ecotheology, and sustainability. He obtained a master’s degree in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and a Ph.D. in Hydrobiology from Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary. He also has a Ph.D. in Agricultural Science from Szent István University, Hungary, as well as other degrees from the Corvinus University of Budapest and Adventist Theological College. He has more than twenty years of experience leading Hungarian academic institutions and teaching and supervising Ph.D., MSc, and BSc students from various social and cultural backgrounds. He has more than 240 scientific publications (on both aquatic and terrestrial ecological aspects of plants, animals, and microbes at the community as well as population levels) and more than 1000 independent citations to his credit. As a participant in several big ecological research and development projects, Dr. Hufnagel has significant experience in multidisciplinary collaborations with more than 200 coauthors in different publications. He is also editor-in-chief of an international scientific journal.",institutionString:"John Wesley Theological College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Szent István University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"175726",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Mihai",slug:"florin-constantin-mihai",fullName:"Florin-Constantin Mihai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175726/images/system/175726.jpg",biography:"Florin-Constantin Mihai holds a PhD degree in Geography (2013)\nwith maximum distinction from the Department of Geography,\n“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi (Romania), and BSc and\nMSc degrees in Environmental Science. He has published papers\nin international peer-reviewed journals, conference proceedings,\nand book chapters on various topics regarding environmental and\nwaste management issues. His research aims to develop new methods and indicators to assess key environmental issues across various geographical\nscales. His research interests include environmental geography, waste management,\npollution, sanitation, sustainability, circular economy, public and environmental\npolicies, spatial analysis, and rural and regional development. He has previously edited the following books: “E-waste in Transition: from Pollution to Resource”, “Solid\nWaste Management in Rural Areas”, and “Environmental Risks”. These are available at\nhttps://www.intechopen.com/.",institutionString:'"Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Alexandru Ioan Cuza University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorFour:{id:"150318",title:"Dr.",name:"Corneliu",middleName:null,surname:"Iatu",slug:"corneliu-iatu",fullName:"Corneliu Iatu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/150318/images/system/150318.jpg",biography:"Corneliu IATU is a Full Professor at Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi (the oldest Romanian university) with specializations\nin human geography and territorial planning. He is the President\nof the Romanian Geographical Society, a member of the Europea\nAcademy and Rector Deputy of Strategy, Institutional Development and Quality Management of Alexandru Ioan Cuza University. He has published more than 20 books including under foreign\npublishing houses (France), and also translations of books such as Introducing à la\ngéographie humaine by. A. Bailly, H. Beguin, and R. Scariati. His research interests are\neconomic geography, rural geography, political geography, and sustainable development. He has supervised several Ph.D theses on such topics, some of them in partnership with French universities (Tours, Angers, Bordeaux, Paris IV Sorbonne etc.).",institutionString:'"Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Alexandru Ioan Cuza University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"143",title:"Sustainable Development",slug:"environmental-sciences-sustainable-development"}],chapters:[{id:"70528",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Need to Change the Paradigm - Sustainability and Development at the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90655",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-need-to-change-the-paradigm-sustainability-and-development-at-the-21st-cent",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"María José Bastante-Ceca, José Luis Fuentes-Bargues, Mihai Florin-Constantin, Corneliu Iatu and Levente Hufnagel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70528",authors:[{id:"210968",title:"Dr.",name:"María José",surname:"Bastante-Ceca",slug:"maria-jose-bastante-ceca",fullName:"María José Bastante-Ceca"},{id:"268663",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Fuentes-Bargues",slug:"jose-luis-fuentes-bargues",fullName:"Jose Luis Fuentes-Bargues"},{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel"},{id:"175726",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin-Constantin",surname:"Mihai",slug:"florin-constantin-mihai",fullName:"Florin-Constantin Mihai"},{id:"150318",title:"Dr.",name:"Corneliu",surname:"Iatu",slug:"corneliu-iatu",fullName:"Corneliu Iatu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69950",title:"Sustainable Rural Development under Agenda 2030",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90161",slug:"sustainable-rural-development-under-agenda-2030",totalDownloads:1426,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Florin-Constantin Mihai and Corneliu Iatu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69950",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69950",authors:[{id:"175726",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin-Constantin",surname:"Mihai",slug:"florin-constantin-mihai",fullName:"Florin-Constantin Mihai"},{id:"150318",title:"Dr.",name:"Corneliu",surname:"Iatu",slug:"corneliu-iatu",fullName:"Corneliu Iatu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69229",title:"Probabilistic-Entropic Concept of Sustainable Development of the Example of Territories",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89287",slug:"probabilistic-entropic-concept-of-sustainable-development-of-the-example-of-territories",totalDownloads:656,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays the problem of sustainable development became one of the topical issues. However, many authors point to conceptual complexity, which is that the concept “sustainable development” includes two terms “development” and “sustainability.” At the same time, each of these terms is treated not unambiguously. It leads to the emergence of different interpretations of sustainable development in relation to specific systems. A new concept of sustainable development of systems is proposed. According to this concept, the sustainable development of a complex multidimensional system will be understood as the dynamics consisting in the presence of a trend of balanced change in the entropies of randomness and self-organization while maintaining an acceptable risk level in multidimensional systems. The proposed concept is approved on practical examples. Dynamics of vector entropy and multidimensional risk of Yekaterinburg and Sverdlovsk regions in 1992–2017 is given.",signatures:"Alexander Nikolaevich Tyrsin, Al’fiya Adgamovna Surina and Alexey Sergeyevich Antonov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69229",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69229",authors:[{id:"265591",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Tyrsin",slug:"alexander-tyrsin",fullName:"Alexander Tyrsin"},{id:"265606",title:"Mrs.",name:"Alfia",surname:"Surina",slug:"alfia-surina",fullName:"Alfia Surina"},{id:"309204",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexey",surname:"Antonov",slug:"alexey-antonov",fullName:"Alexey Antonov"}],corrections:null},{id:"69212",title:"Attributional and Consequential Life Cycle Assessment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89202",slug:"attributional-and-consequential-life-cycle-assessment",totalDownloads:2431,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:41,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA) estimates what share of the global environmental burdens belongs to a product. A consequential LCA (CLCA) gives an estimate of how the global environmental burdens are affected by the production and use of the product. The distinction arose to resolve debates on what input data to use in an LCA and how to deal with allocation problems. An ALCA is based on average data, and allocation is performed by partitioning environmental burdens of a process between the life cycles served by this process. A CLCA ideally uses marginal data in many parts of the life cycle and avoids allocation through system expansion. This chapter aims to discuss and clarify the key concepts. It also discusses pros and cons of different methodological options, based on criteria derived from the starting point that environmental systems analysis should contribute to reducing the negative environmental impacts of humankind or at least reduce the impacts per functional unit: the method should be feasible and generate results that are accurate, comprehensible, inspiring, and robust. The CLCA is more accurate, but ALCA has other advantages. The decision to make an ALCA or a CLCA should ideally be taken by the LCA practitioner after discussions with the client and possibly with other stakeholders and colleagues.",signatures:"Tomas Ekvall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69212",authors:[{id:"293149",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomas",surname:"Ekvall",slug:"tomas-ekvall",fullName:"Tomas Ekvall"}],corrections:null},{id:"69865",title:"Green and Sustainability in Software Development Lifecycle Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88030",slug:"green-and-sustainability-in-software-development-lifecycle-process",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter gives an insight of GREENSOFT Model for sustainable software engineering. In today’s world, computing devices are extensively by all for many purposes. They consume lots of energy even though they reduce energy consumption. Computers are used extensively while developing software. Existing software engineering models do not pay much attention to green computing that focuses on the effective use of natural resources. Sustainability of resources is the key. The GREENSOFT model of software engineering proposes a methodology in which Green IT practices are used, which will reduce the energy consumption of computers while developing software.",signatures:"Mohankumar Muthu, K. Banuroopa and S. Arunadevi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69865",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69865",authors:[{id:"246759",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohankumar",surname:"Muthu",slug:"mohankumar-muthu",fullName:"Mohankumar Muthu"},{id:"298977",title:"Mrs.",name:"Banuroopa K",surname:"Kalyanswamy",slug:"banuroopa-k-kalyanswamy",fullName:"Banuroopa K Kalyanswamy"}],corrections:null},{id:"67221",title:"International Cooperation for Smart and Sustainable Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86464",slug:"international-cooperation-for-smart-and-sustainable-agriculture",totalDownloads:821,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents international best practices, realized within Europe, and focuses on cooperation for developing innovation support mechanisms and approaches in the area of smart agriculture. Specific situations are presented and analyzed in detailed regarding the requirements of smart agriculture and the possibilities to implement its percepts. As a consequence, solutions are proposed both in the technical and management domains to help speed up the transition from classical agriculture techniques to technology infused approaches, suitable for the current needs of this sector. Also, policy recommendations are developed based on the scientific findings in alignment with the evolution of the competitive pressures.",signatures:"Diana Dragomir, Mihai Dragomir, Daniel Acs and Sorin Popescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67221",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67221",authors:[{id:"290164",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mihai",surname:"Dragomir",slug:"mihai-dragomir",fullName:"Mihai Dragomir"},{id:"290165",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",surname:"Dragomir",slug:"diana-dragomir",fullName:"Diana Dragomir"},{id:"290166",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Acs",slug:"daniel-acs",fullName:"Daniel Acs"},{id:"290167",title:"Prof.",name:"Sorin",surname:"Popescu",slug:"sorin-popescu",fullName:"Sorin Popescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69954",title:"Green Building Rating Systems as Sustainability Assessment Tools: Case Study Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87135",slug:"green-building-rating-systems-as-sustainability-assessment-tools-case-study-analysis",totalDownloads:1576,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Building performance and occupants’ comfort lie at the core of building design targets. Principles of green architecture and building physics are not given enough thought and consideration. In the best cases, some thought is given to such factors but without a scientific methodology, which takes into consideration appropriate climatic data and appropriate assessment tools. Most importantly, the interference of the environmentalist in architecture projects comes usually very late in the design processes. Facing these facts has driven most countries to adopt official strategies and policies to deal with building’s performance. The rating systems are among these initiatives. The author of this chapter adapts a detailed methodology to aid the integration of the principles of the green architecture in the early stages of design using rating systems. The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) 1 that was developed in the USA by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) for Core and Shell has been employed as the main design target. This chapter presents a brief about the world green initiatives and discusses the results of applying the methodology of integrating the green architectural principles at the early stages of design processes—through precedent analysis.",signatures:"Mady Mohamed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69954",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69954",authors:[{id:"271848",title:"Dr.",name:"Mady",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"mady-mohamed",fullName:"Mady Mohamed"}],corrections:null},{id:"67416",title:"The Synergistic Impact of Climate Change and Anthropogenic Management on the Lake Kinneret Ecosystem",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86512",slug:"the-synergistic-impact-of-climate-change-and-anthropogenic-management-on-the-lake-kinneret-ecosystem",totalDownloads:655,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anthropogenic and natural processes caused significant changes in Lake Kinneret and its drainage basin ecosystems. Climate change of warming and dryness induced a decline in the lake water level. Changes in the composition structure of the phytoplankton assemblages were enhanced by the decline of nitrogen availability resulting in reduction of Peridinium and enhancement of Cyanobacteria. Increase of the phosphorus availability enhanced Chlorophyta and diatoms. Nutrient export from the Hula Valley to Lake Kinneret is discharge-dependent. The external input decline of organic nitrogen and total dissolved phosphorus is due to anthropogenic achievements. Nitrogen decline and slight increase of phosphorus in Lake Kinneret were followed by Peridinium decline and increase of non-Peridinium algae. The resulting change of food-web structure and water quality in the Kinneret was a shift from phosphorus to nitrogen limitation, which enhanced cyanobacteria.",signatures:"Moshe Gophen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67416",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67416",authors:[{id:"290849",title:"Dr.",name:"Moshe",surname:"Gophen",slug:"moshe-gophen",fullName:"Moshe Gophen"}],corrections:null},{id:"66773",title:"Rural Tourism and Territorial Development in Italy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85774",slug:"rural-tourism-and-territorial-development-in-italy",totalDownloads:955,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter analyses the development of rural tourism in Italy over the recent decades. Since the end of the twentieth century, also due to the crisis of industrialization and the exhaustion of the factory work model, interest in “returning to the countryside” has grown. The spreading of new social and cultural trends, more sensitive to the issues of sustainability and preservation of natural wealth, has encouraged in Italy, the country of art and the beautiful landscape, a sudden increase in new tourism initiatives that are environmental friendly and revolving around quality food and wine. The “Roads of flavours” and numerous associations of small towns have therefore been created, to enhance the Italian artistic and architectural heritage. In particular, interest in Mediterranean diet has increased, as shown by the growth in tourism linked to oil. There is no lack of compatibility problems as well as difficulties in devising new cohabitation formulas, but as this work demonstrates, after the boom of the “sun and beach” tourism of the 1960s, today a far more diversified tourist panorama has emerged, thus allowing the rural world to benefit from a renewed momentum.",signatures:"Manuel Vaquero Piñeiro, Paola de Salvo and Francesca Giommi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66773",authors:[{id:"289817",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Vaquero Pineiro",slug:"manuel-vaquero-pineiro",fullName:"Manuel Vaquero Pineiro"},{id:"289820",title:"Prof.",name:"Paola",surname:"de Salvo",slug:"paola-de-salvo",fullName:"Paola de Salvo"},{id:"317739",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Giommi",slug:"francesca-giommi",fullName:"Francesca Giommi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68238",title:"Horizontal and Vertical Archipelagoes of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Andean Realm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86841",slug:"horizontal-and-vertical-archipelagoes-of-agriculture-and-rural-development-in-the-andean-realm",totalDownloads:773,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The tropical Andes offer a unique mosaic of physical and human environments. Since the pioneering field research of Alexander von Humboldt over 200 years ago, the Andean realm has been considered as a model for an intricate altitudinal zonation of climate, vegetation and agriculture. In addition to this, latitude, proximity to the Pacific Ocean or Amazon Basin, topography, hydrology and geomorphology enrich the variety of landscapes. In terms of agriculture and rural development, a corollary of other factors shapes the human landscape. Particularly significant among them are the ethnic affiliation of the population with their cultural heritage, the colonial and post-colonial imprint, land tenure, accessibility to roads and larger settlements, agricultural and non-agricultural opportunities, the access to and acceptance of innovations and modernization, and also the resilient capability of the rural population to adapt to climate change and to new cultural, social, economic, and political conditions. This chapter attempts to explore, in a summarizing fashion, the agricultural and rural archipelagoes of the tropical Andes in their horizontal and vertical dimensions. 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This book aims to gather research in plant invasion studies associated with topics on prediction of successful invasive plants, interactions between plant invasion and other global change factors, and evaluation of invasive plant impacts, providing a thorough understanding of advances in plant invasion ecology on the background of global change. A better understanding of these questions will be helpful for future management of invasive plants, especially during global change mitigation processes, which are crucial for the sustainable development of human society and the maintenance of an environment-friendly world.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-789-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-788-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-790-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"90828f3756aae575bdda131afdc672af",bookSignature:"Dr. Ling Zhang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11617.jpg",keywords:"Plant Invasion, Global Change, Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Emission, Soil Mechanism, Global Warming, Nutrient Cycling, Mineralization, Microbial Contribution, Soil Respiration, Nitrous Oxide, Methane",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 29th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ling Zhang is a pioneering researcher in environmental science, holder of twenty registered patents in three countries, as well as a member of the Ecological Society of America and Forestry Society of China.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"219350",title:"Dr.",name:"Ling",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"ling-zhang",fullName:"Ling Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219350/images/system/219350.png",biography:"Dr. Ling Zhang obtained his Ph.D. in Soil Science from Nanjing Agricultural University, China. 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The veterinary drugs are used throughout the world and they comprise a broad variety of classes of chemical compounds including vaccines, antimicrobials, antiparasitics and β-agonists [2]. These drugs have been used to strengthen profitability and productivity of modern food-animal production by facilitating earlier weaning, higher animal densities, carcass yield and meat quality as well as the use of cheaper feed sources [2]. Among the antimicrobials that are commonly used in livestock production are tetracyclines, amprolium, penicillin, streptomycin, sulphonamides, tylosin, aminoglycosides, β-lactams, macrolides and lincosamides, quinolones, sulfonamides and tetracyclines [3, 4] while that of antiparasitic agents include anthelmintics or coccidiostats, stilbenes, amphenicols, nitrofurans, nitroimidazoles, carbamates, pyrethroids and sedatives.
Antimicrobials are medicine (natural, synthetic or semi-synthetic origin) that inhibits the growth of or destroys microorganisms when applied at low concentrations without causing host damage [5]. In the course of this study, “antimicrobial” will be considered an equivalent term to “antibiotic”. Many antimicrobials that are used in livestock are identical or closely related to antimicrobials used in humans. Most of the antimicrobials use in livestock can lead to development of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in muscle food, which can then be transmitted to humans via food and other transmission routes [1].
At present the global average annual consumption of antimicrobials per kilogram of animal produced is estimated at >100 mg/kg [6]. It has also been showed that about 80% of all the antibiotics administered in veterinary field are used as growth promoters and in most cases, this exceeds the total antibiotics use for human medical care [6]. In a study, Aarestrup [7] observed that global consumption of antibiotic in animals is twice that of humans. In fact, in developed countries like USA, Food and Drug Administration [8] reported that about 80% of counties total antimicrobial consumption are used in food animals. On estimate, Van Boeckel et al. [9] found that about 45, 148 and 172 mg/kg of antimicrobial per animal are used annually for cattle, chicken and pig production globally, respectively. It has been predicted that global consumption of antimicrobial by livestock will increase 67% from 63,151 tons in 2010 to 105,596 tons by 2030 [9].
However, recent reports have revealed that the use of antimicrobial drugs in large amounts and consistently could result in deposition of antimicrobial residues in muscle and organs of animal [10]. Consumption of these residues in animal products (especially through meat and meat products) may cause health risk to consumers including development of antibiotic resistance and hypersensitivity reaction. FAO/WHO reported that antimicrobial residues edible animal products has grown beyond permissible level (very high) is in developing countries [11]. In order to curtail this, the European legislation has set maximum residue limits for veterinary drug residues in different animal food products (European Commission Council Regulation (EEC), [12]). Nisha [13] highlighted that the maximum veterinary residue limits for tetracycline, oxytetracycline, streptomycin, gentamicin, sulphonamides, quinolones, among others, to be 100, 100, 200, 200, 100 and 75 μg/kg respectively. It is therefore imperative that animal products (particularly meat and milk) should be analyzed to ensure that residues do not exceed maximum residue limits. Since unintentional consumption of antimicrobial residues in food products leads to drug resistance of bacteria that are pathogenic to humans with consequence of serious threat to human health [14]. It is in line with this that this chapter will focus on recent findings on causes, occurrences, mode of detections, health implication and possible solution to veterinary drugs residues in meat and meat products.
Livestock production is one of the fastest growing agricultural sectors in most countries of the world. However, the health and growth of this livestock are plagued by many diseases caused by different infectious microorganisms globally. The past decade has seen the rise of many new diseases, with more of new potential pathogens anticipated to occur by 2020 [15, 16]. The outbreak of infectious microorganisms has necessitated widespread use of antimicrobial drugs to protect and maintain the health of the animal during production and also ensure safe food after harvest. Since animals that are sick and untreated grow more slowly and may eventually results in mortality, imposing a considerable economic burden on producers and government by dramatically reducing income and means of livelihood to farm owner and workers [17]. In treatment and prevention of these diseases, FAD [18] observed in a study that 60% of domestic sales and distribution of medically important antimicrobials in year 2016 were used in food-producing animals in in United States. Of this estimate, the same author reported that Tetracyclines accounted for 70% of these sales, penicillins for 10%, macrolides for 7%, sulfas for 4%, aminoglycosides for 4%, lincosamides for 2%, and cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones each for less than 1%. Often time, the amount of antimicrobial use in livestock depends on the number of animals, the production system, prevailing risk factors for disease and ability to acquire antimicrobial agents income [17]. However, misuse or excessive use of antimicrobials among livestock and in adherent to withdrawer time has resulted to spread of antimicrobial residues (either the parent compound or its metabolite) in muscles especially meat and meat products [19, 20].
The occurrence of antimicrobial residues in muscle food pose a risk to human health by being acutely or cumulatively allergenic, organotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic or carcinogenic [11]. In fact, report has shown that antimicrobial resistant bacteria can represent a reservoir of resistance genes transferable to pathogenic or commensal bacteria in digestive tract [21], and therefore compromise the effective treatment of bacterial infections. This could be a serious threat to disease treatment in humans and animals. Therefore, it is imperative that precise antimicrobial drugs be used in livestock production for overall decrease in animals suffering due to infectious diseases.
Meat represents a substantial portion of the diet of most people worldwide. Its consumption has significant health benefits as good source of proteins, essential amino and fatty acids, vitamins and minerals and other bioactive compounds [22]. The worldwide average meat consumption is estimated at 42.9 kg per capita, with industrial countries consuming about 76.1 kg, twice the quantity in developing countries (33.6 kg) [23, 24]. However, it has been indicated that the consumption of meat and meat products will double by 2050. Meat consumption will continue to expand due to increase in population growth across the world, with the developing world having most demand growth over the coming decades [25]. In an attempt to produce sufficient meat to meet this demand, antimicrobials are being increasingly used for the treatment of livestock diseases and increase productivity (growth promoters). Currently, more than 300 antimicrobials, anti-coccidials, feed additives and hormone-type agents are used in livestock production globally [26, 27, 28].
According to OECD/FAO [25] statistic, about 323 metric tons of meat was produced globally in 2017 and this has been projected to be 15% higher in 2027. Most of this increase in the next decade will emanate due to higher demand in beef and sheep meat than poultry and pig meat [25]. It has also been reported that much of the increase in production will originate from United States, India, Argentina, Mexico, China, Turkey and the Russian Federation. Report has showed that the increase in antimicrobial consumption is due to the growing number of animals raised for food production coupled with increase in consumer demand for livestock products including meant and meat products [9]. On average, worldwide consumption of antimicrobials in food animal production was estimated at 63,151 (±1560) tons in 2010 and by 2030, it has been projected to increase by 67%, to 105,596 (±3605) tons or even double in countries such Brazil, India, Russia, South Africa and China [9]. In Asia for instance, antimicrobial consumption in chicken and pig production has been projected to grow by 129% and 124%, respectively, by 2030 [9]. Antimicrobial resistant strains have been isolated in food animals in both the developed and developing countries especially where the use of antimicrobials for growth promotion remains largely unregulated [19, 29]. Skockova et al. [29] in their study found that some strains of
Beyond above-mentioned drivers, other factors that could be responsible for antimicrobial resistance in meat and meat products include improper dosage of antimicrobials, non-enforcement of laws regulating antimicrobial usage in livestock, weak financial status of livestock farmers, low education and expertise of farmers, and husbandry system (intensive and extensive) [4]. For instance, Alhaji et al. [4] in a study found that majority of the poultry famers did not practices or comply with antimicrobial withdrawal periods before slaughter or marketing of their product for consumption. Noncompliance with antimicrobials withdrawal periods could create low therapeutic doses and high concentration of antimicrobial residues in meat products. By law, animals given an antibiotic should not be processed until the withdrawal period ends. Good management, which includes good hygiene and sufficient feed, can reduce the chances of animals getting disease, hence use of antibiotics. Others include illegal sale of veterinary prescription drugs, marketing or slaughtering of treated/medicated animals intended for rendering purposes, inadequate animal identification and traceability system especially in developing countries [2].
Residual amounts of antimicrobials, antibiotics or their toxic metabolites found in meat, organs or other products such as milk and egg of food producing animals after slaughtering is called veterinary drug residues [32]. Consumption of such food products poses a major health risk due to the failure of treatment following the development of resistant microorganisms [33]. Various impacts of antimicrobial residues on human health are reported below.
The possibility of propagating resistant bacteria through the food chain in treated animals was noticed as early as 1969 by Swan, who reported the development of vancomycin resistance to
Allergy or immune-mediated response to a chemical agent (e.g. drug) can develop in a sensitized patient. Such allergic reactions are usually mediated by IgE and could be elicited following administration of drugs or macromolecules such as protein, lipids and carbohydrates. Dayan [37] affirmed that human population estimate of about 4–11% are believed to be allergic to penicillin. Such class of humans consuming meat products having penicillin residues is at risk of developing allergy which can manifest as a skin rash or even severe anaphylaxis [35]. Thong and Tan [38] reported that IgE-mediated allergic anaphylaxis is linked to penicillin and other anesthetic drugs following their administration during perioperative periods. Mild rash to severe toxidermia are some of the skin reactions following human exposure to sulfonamide [39]. However, such adverse reaction was not a direct effect of consuming animal products containing relative trace amounts of sulfonamides. Studies have also shown that damages done to hepatic liver cells can be traced to allergic response to macrolide antibiotics (e.g. erythromycin, clarithromycin) [40].
The term carcinogenic refers to any substance or an agent capable of altering the genetic makeup of an organism so that they multiply and become rancorous while carcinogen refers to any substance that promotes carcinogenesis, the formation of cancer or having carcinogenic activity. Carcinogenic residues functions by covalently binding intracellular components including DNA, RNA, proteins, glycogen, phospholipids and glutathione [49]. The ban of Diethylstilbestrol (DES), an hormone-like compound used for food producing animals, was as a result its strong carcinogenic effect [27]. According to the International Agency for Research on cancer (IARC), evidence abounds to suggest that metronidazole is carcinogenic in animal, but insufficient to do so in humans [41].
Intestinal microflora plays an important role in human physiology. They establish control and prevent the colonization of pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract [42]. However, studies have shown that antimicrobials administered for therapeutic purposes can potentially alter or change the ecological composition of the intestinal flora [43, 44]. Degree of change however, depends on the dosage of the antimicrobial drug, route of administration, its bioavailability, metabolism, exposure length to the drug and distribution in the body including excretion route [45]. Disruption of intestinal flora has been reported due to the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics. Commonly used drugs like streptomycin, tylosin, metronidazole, nitroimidazole and vancomycin are commonly implicated in human in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal disorders [46].
Mutagens are chemicals or substances with potentials to cause mutations in a DNA molecule thereby altering the genetic makeup of a cell or organism. Studies have shown alkalizing agents and analogous of DNA bases are mutagenic. There is a growing fear of a possible drug-related gene mutagen or chromosome breakage among human population [47, 48].
Congenital malformation of the foetus during pregnancy as a result of toxic metabolites of drugs or chemical agents has been reported [47]. Such drugs or teratogens alter the structural and functional integrity of the developing embryo/foetus during the critical phase of gestation. Studies have shown that benzimidazole (an anthelmintics) is not only mutagenic but also has teratogenic activities and is highly toxic to embryo when ingested at early stages of conception or pregnancy [49, 50].
Antimicrobials’ usage in livestock either at sub-therapeutic or therapeutic dosage and its attendant residues in food animals have become a global issue and concern. The growing awareness about the potential risk of diseases such as cancer and also the distortion of body’s functional and system integrity (i.e. endocrine, nervous, reproductive and immune system) [51], resulting from the consumption of such ‘compromised’ food of animal origin, have reduced consumers’ confidence and the resultant adverse impact on global economy. Additionally, the maximum residual limits (MRLs) set by Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) for veterinary drug residues as an international food safety standards are however not generally accepted by the committee of nations [52]. The limitation of Codex and World Trade Organization (WTO) to enforce adoption of MRLs [53], has resulted in differences in food safety standards across countries and nations. Such differences usually end as trade disputes [54] leading to a gradual decline in meat and meat products exported.
Studies are replete with developments of antimicrobial resistance from food producing animals after consumption. There is also a general upsurge in form of sensitization on the need to minimize exposure to antibiotic residues in food [55, 56]. Antimicrobial residues in meat and meat products are the results of non-compliance of withdrawal periods, antibiotics overdosing and the continuous use of antibiotics banned for treatment of economic animals [57, 58]. Giving the foregoing above, specific legislation has been set to protect consumers from exposures to potentially harmful residues of veterinary medicines, pesticides and environmental contaminants in food of animal origin. Maximum residual limits (MRLs) have been set for veterinary medicines, pesticides and environmental contaminants (European Regulation (EC) No 470/2009). The Regulation not only seeks to identify but also demand quantitative assessment of antibiotic residues.
Control of antibiotic residues in food of animal origin follows two basic steps: Firstly, the animal product is screened qualitatively or quantitatively. In qualitative assessment, the presence of an antimicrobial residue is detected here and it’s usually reported as either positive or negative. Identification and quantification of a particular residue is done using the quantitative screening method and it is also reported as a concentration of the residue. If results are positive, a confirmatory procedure is usually followed for specific antibiotics with the aid of a more sensitive physic-chemical method.
Though its use dates back as early as 1964 and was adopted initially to monitor the dairy industry with a view to preventing problems in the fermentative dairy industry, it has now been extended as a regulatory residue screening method in slaughter animals even till date. The microbial inhibition assay can cover an entire antibiotic spectrum under one test.
The microbial inhibition assay adopts either the tube test or the plate test. The tube test makes use of a tube, vial or an ampule containing a growth medium inoculated with (spores of) a sensitive test bacterium, supplemented with a pH or redox indicator. At the appropriate conditions of temperature and pH, there is a color from the acid produced by the growing bacteria. Absence or delay of the color change is indicative of the presence of an antimicrobial residue and is usually a commonly used routine in the milk industry [59, 60]. It has however been used for analysis of other matrices [61, 62]. In the plate test, the test sample is spread on the layer of the plate containing inoculated nutrient agar. Presence of an antimicrobial residue is detected by the formation of an opaque layer by the growing bacterial, thus yielding a clear growth-inhibited area around the sample. This method is commonly used in Europe for screening of antibiotics residues in slaughter animals [63, 64].
The immunological techniques work on the principle of antigen-antibody interactions and it is usually very specific and helps in detecting residues from in food producing animals. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is commonly used and detection of antimicrobials is based an enzyme-labeled reagents. ELISA has proven very useful for residual screening in meat especially for tylosin and tetracycline [65, 66]. ELISA’s antigen-quantification could take different forms like the direct and indirect sandwich ELISA. Sandwich ELISA works on the principle of recognizing specific antigens that share similar epitopes with other antigens. The indirect sandwich ELISA has the advantage of being highly specific and sensitive. Radioimmunoassay measures the radioactivity of immunological complex using a counter [67].
Liquid chromatography is also useful in the qualitative and quantitative screening of multi-residues in food animals, though its use has rapidly decreased during the last decade [68]. The high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through a column filled with a solid adsorbent material. Each component in the sample interacts slightly differently with the adsorbent material, causing different flow rates for the different components and leading to the separation of the components as they flow out the column. It has been applied for the detection of antimicrobials in meat, fish and internal organs [69, 70].
Laboratories’ use of HPLC has grown very rapidly and has the capacity to analyze multiple residues in a sample within a short time. Also, the equipment is fully automated (injection, elution, washing of column, detection) and controlled with the aid of a computer. Hence, it can be used as a screening technique [68].
Coupling of HPLC with mass spectrometry (MS-MS) has resulted in substantial reduction of analysis time for confirmation in presumed positive samples after initial screening. Such a combination could effectively be used simultaneously for screening and confirmation [71, 72].
This is a recent and modern approach for detecting veterinary residues in meat and dairy products while ensuring their quality and safety. It has applications for high throughputs within biotechnology. The instrument is made up of biological recognition element (bioreceptor), which recognizes the target antimicrobial residue and a signal transduction element (transducer) which converts the recognition event into a measurable signal [73]. It is usually in close contact and connected to data acquisition and processing systems [74]. The instrument is rapid, highly selective, inexpensive, simple and can be handled by an unskilled personnel [75]. The type of bioreceptor or transducer used forms the basis for classifying biosensors. A bioreceptor can be an organic molecular species (e.g. an antibody, enzyme, protein, or nucleic acid) or a living biological system (e.g. cells, tissues or whole organisms) using biochemical recognition mechanism [76]. Enzymatic biosensors are commonly used for the analysis of herbicides contaminants. Kiran and kale [77] reported an enzyme biosensor that was developed to detect penicillin. However, fewer applications for antibiotic residues and food contaminants have been reported. Cellular biosensors employed for the detection of antibiotic residues such as tetracyclines [78, 79], beta-lactam antibiotics [80, 81]; quinolones [80], chloramphenicol and quinolones [82] have proven to be very effective and fast in detecting of multiple residues simultaneously, within a very short period of time. In transducer-biosensor, common and popular varieties developed for antibiotic residues detection in food producing animals include the mass-based, optical and electrochemical.
Development and breeding of disease resistant livestock breeds could be a panacea to reduce the use of antimicrobial drugs, antimicrobial residue and antimicrobial resistance in meat and meat products. Some indigenous breeds of cattle, goats and sheep are either tolerant or resistant to specific diseases and parasites, and are also able to withstand very harsh environmental conditions [83]. Evidence has shown that indigenous breeds such as N’Dama cattle, Red Maasai sheep, Meishan pigs, Lohman Brown chickens, Mandarah chickens and Nguni goat are more resistant to ticks (various species) diseases [84],
Another means to reduce antimicrobial residues in meat and meat products is by embracing the production and development of
The role of ethno-veterinary practices in reducing of antibiotic residue and antimicrobial resistance in livestock production is enormous as they are regarded safe and efficacious [99]. They play a significant role in maintaining or restoring animal health in several regions of the world especially in areas where livestock is a main source of income for rural peoples [100]. Ethno-veterinary medicines is often obtained from herbal plants. Recently, there is a greater interest in uses of plants (herbal) due to their accessibility, availability, affordability, efficacy and ease of preparation [100]. Traditional ethno-veterinary medicines have been identified for treatments of small ruminants against ecto- and endo-parasites, gastro-intestinal diseases, viral and bacterial diseases, wounds, sprains and bruises [101]. Furthermore the use of ethno veterinary practices for the treatment of fowl pox in turkey [102], bronchitis [103], hepatotoxicity [104] and foot and mouth disease [104] in ruminants has been established. According to Ranganathan [99], the ethno-veterinary medicine can be advocated to combat issues related to antimicrobial resistance and also minimize the possibility of residues in meat products. Report has shown that the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance was 10–20% lower where antibiotic use was restricted compared to those where it was not [1].
According to Vishnuraj et al. [6], other measures that could be adopted to reduce antimicrobial residues in meat and meat products include (1) reduction of antimicrobial usage in livestock production (as many developed countries have banned its usage as growth promoters), (2) enforcement of appropriate withdrawal periods of antimicrobial drugs application by government authorities or regulatory bodies before livestock slaughter (3) creation of mass awareness on implication of antimicrobial drugs residues in meat and meat products among consumers, and individual farmer, (4) livestock producer should be educated on farm management, hygiene practices and antimicrobial usages in order to prevent occurrence of antimicrobial residues in meat production and lastly (5) rapid screening methods should be developed for detecting and segregating samples contains above antimicrobial residues before the food products get to consumers. More so, establishment of framework to proper monitoring of drug usage and surveillance of antimicrobial resistance would be of great advantage [105].
Findings from this study has shown that the presence of veterinary drug residue in food products is a global health concern as the consequence of using antimicrobial drugs to treat and prevent animal disease extend far beyond the farm. Therefore, the solution to antimicrobial residues will require a coordinated regulatory bodies to monitor the use of antimicrobial drugs to control diseases and also enforce punishment on indiscriminate usage. More so a sensitive, selective and reliable analytical methods to easily detect and monitor antimicrobial residues in meat products should be encouraged.
The authors are grateful to Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre (GMRDC) of the University of Fort Hare (UFH) for providing financial assistance for this work as part of the UFH’s support to the Department of Science and Technology/National Research Foundation (DST/NRF) South African.
None declared by the authors.
Tobacco products have been widely reported all over the world in various populations with health effects as risk factors to non-communicable diseases [1]. By 2030, more than 80% of the deaths in developing countries could be accounted for by tobacco-related implications [2]. There are emerging methods of tobacco use that have become alarmingly common in specific population groups which include waterpipe tobacco use also referred to as hubbly bubbly, hooker, narguileh and shisha which comes in a variety of flavours such as mint, liquorice, strawberry, cappuccino and chocolate [3, 4]. Waterpipe (Hubbly bubbly, hooker, narguileh and shisha) is known by different titles depending on the segment of the globe it is being used as a form of tobacco delivery [4]. Briefly, ‘the waterpipe instrument is set up with charcoal, filters, a bowl of water, rubber pipe and varying flavours’. The delivery of tobacco smoke moves through the rubber pipe attached to the bowl that directs large volumes of smoke inhaled into the mouth. Waterpipe smokers are exposed to the noxious materials of the tobacco smoke such as carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nicotine, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nanoparticles, volatile aldehydes and furans [5]. Aboaziza and Eissenberg [6] reported that waterpipe smoking is associated with nicotine dependence and smoking-related diseases including cancer, cardiovascular disease, lung disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Students are knowledgeable about harmful health effects associated with waterpipe tobacco product use but continue to use it for a variety of reasons which include taste, peer pressure and easy availability [7]. Furthermore, university students regard waterpipe tobacco as a socially acceptable, popular, pleasant social experience and looks cooler than smoking cigarettes [8, 9, 10].
The prevalence of waterpipe smoking varies with areas of the world in student communities due to multifactorial influences [4]. A student study at the University of Beirut, Lebanon, reported 43% ever user and 28% of current smoking [2], while another study in the same country contrastingly reported current waterpipe use at 21% [11]. Kilic and Kasap [12] found in the American region 10% ever user and a 41% current use of waterpipe tobacco product use. In North Africa, it was found that men were four times most likely to report waterpipe smoking, with 64% of the sample investigated reporting long-term consumption [7]. In South Africa, waterpipe tobacco product use was reported to be 40% amongst Western Cape university students [7]. Van der Merwe
University environments across the globe provide a unique opportunity for students to experiment with waterpipe tobacco smoking which can eventually become a lifelong use. However, little is known about the prevalence of waterpipe tobacco use amongst University of Limpopo students in the Limpopo province of South Africa. The study aimed to determine the prevalence of waterpipe tobacco products use and to investigate the associated risk factors amongst among University of Limpopo students aged 17–43 years.
This cross-sectional study was carried out at the University of Limpopo, South Africa. The University of Limpopo is situated in the foothills of the Hwiti (Wolkberg range) in Mankweng Township (23.8837° S, 29.7079° E), midway between Polokwane and Magoebaskloof. It is a predominantly African ethnicity dominated student community. Most students come from low- and middle-income families and are receiving funding in the form of a government bursary called South African National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS). The students rely mostly on this NSFAS bursary scheme to cover their university expenses and other essentials.
Using STATA, the sample size required for the study was calculated based on a power of 80% and a two-tailed significance level of 5%, the prevalence of waterpipe smoking was 0.24% amongst university students with an alternative proportion of 20% [3, 15, 16].
A convenient sample of 916 students (415 males’ mean age is 22.02 years, sd 2.97, and 501 females’ mean age is 21.16, sd 2.71) aged 17–43 years, who were enrolled in all the faculties (Humanities, Health Sciences, Management and Law and Science and Agriculture) of the University of Limpopo in 2019 participated in this study.
The questionnaire used in the present study was based on questions which have been used in the Ellisras Longitudinal Study and other studies [3, 15, 16, 17]. The questionnaire was shared with experts to ensure content, face and construct validity. It was then revised and piloted with a sample of students to make sure it was valid, reliable, acceptable and accurately understood.
The questionnaire comprised three sections. The first part of the questionnaire included information on age, sex, acquisition of NSFAS bursary, place of residence, the field of study, year of entering the university and the level of study. Briefly, current waterpipe smoker was defined as anyone who uses waterpipe tobacco products regularly or every day during the time of the survey. The following question was asked: ‘Do you NOW use waterpipe regularly, at least once every day?’ Ever waterpipe users were those who answered that they tried to use waterpipe tobacco products before the survey and have stopped, or they use them occasionally. The question used was: ‘Have you ever used waterpipe to smoke (at least once)?’ Those who had never used waterpipe tobacco products at the time of the survey were considered non-smokers., ‘The onset (initiation age) age for waterpipe use was determined by the question “If yes, indicate how old you were when you first tried this____”, How old were you when you first started using waterpipe tobacco everyday/regularly ______.’Onset age was the group as less than 20 years, between 21 and 25 years and over 26 years.
Participants were asked to indicate their academic status (‘first-year undergraduate’ through to the third year, fourth year, master’s and PhD). First and second-year undergraduates were combined to form ‘lower level undergraduate’ and third-year study was moderate to high level while fourth year, master’s and PhD were grouped as a postgraduate level.
Social factors for waterpipe tobacco products use were assessed with the following question: ‘One smokes waterpipe tobacco products because I went with others having a good time and felt like inhaling and exhaling together (yes/no), One smokes waterpipe tobacco products because it is difficult to refuse (yes/no), waterpipe tobacco smoking helps me face a difficult situation with confidence (yes/no), One smokes waterpipe tobacco products because it gives me energy (yes/no), One smokes waterpipe tobacco products because I like the taste (yes/no)’.
The study received an ethical clearance from the University of Limpopo Ethics committee (TREC/61/2019: IR) before the data collection process commenced.
Descriptive statistics including frequency distributions and percentage frequencies were used to determine the prevalence of waterpipe tobacco product use among University of Limpopo students. A Chi-squared test was used to compare sets of nominal data that had larger frequency counts while the Fisher’s exact test was used when frequency cells were small (less than five or ten) between genders [18, 19]. Logistic regression was used to determine the associated risk factors for waterpipe tobacco product use among the University of Limpopo students. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 25. The statistical significance was set at P< 0.05.
Figure 1 shows the prevalence of ever and current waterpipe use amongst University of Limpopo students. The prevalence of current waterpipe use was significantly (p<0.05) high (6.7%) for boys as compared with girls (3%) amongst the University of Limpopo students.
Prevalence of occasional and current waterpipe use amongst University of Limpopo students.
Table 1 shows the onset age and number of quitting attempts for water pipe use amongst University of Limpopo students aged 17–43 years. The prevalence of waterpipe tobacco product use for ever use in the onset age ranges between 1.6 and 3.9% for the age less than 20 years and between 17.8 and 26.7% for ages between 21 and 25 years. For the current waterpipe user, the prevalence was significantly (p<0.05) high 4.6% for boys as compared with 1.8% for girls between the ages of 21 and 25 years. It was clear from Table 1 that 1.2% of the current boys who quit the use of waterpipe smoking lasted for more than a year. 4.6% of boys and 2.0% of girls never tried to quit using waterpipe smoking.
Boys N=415 | Girls N=501 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
% | (n) | % | (n) | |
Ever water pipe use | ||||
Less than 20 years | 3.9 | (16) | 1.6 | (8) |
21 to 25 years | 26.7* | (111) | 17.6* | (88) |
Over 26 years | 9.6 | (40) | 7.2 | (36) |
Current water pipe use | ||||
Less than 20 years | 0.2 | (1) | — | — |
21 to 25 years | 4.6* | (19) | 1.8* | (9) |
Over 26 years | 1.9 | (8) | 1.2 | (6) |
Never tried to quit | 4.6 | (19) | 2.0 | (10) |
Less than seven times a week | 1.7 | (7) | 0.8 | (4) |
More than seven times a week | 0.5 | (2) | 0.2 | (1) |
Less than a month | 0.7 | (3) | — | — |
More than six months | 0.5 | (2) | 0.8 | (4) |
More than a year | 1.2 | (5) | 0.2 | (1) |
Onset age and number of quitting attempts for waterpipe use amongst University of Limpopo students aged 17–43 years.
=p<0.05.
Table 2 presents the frequencies and percentage frequencies for a positive response for associated risk factors in using waterpipe tobacco amongst University of Limpopo students aged 17 to 43. A total of 70.6% of boys and 77% of girls stay on campus for the duration of their study while 29.4% of boys and 23% of girls stay off-campus. A total of 5.8% boys and 1.6% girls who are currently using waterpipe smoking reported that it was difficult to refuse using waterpipe smoking while 7.0% of boys and 1.8% of girls reported that they like the taste of using waterpipe tobacco products, and the difference was significant (P<0.05).
Boys N=415 | Girls N=501 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
% | (n) | % | (n) | |
Student residences | ||||
On campus | 70.6 | (293) | 77 | (386) |
Off-campus | 29.4 | (122) | 23 | (115) |
Educational level | ||||
Lower level | 58.6 | (235) | 53.9 | (270) |
Moderate high level | 23.1 | (96) | 25.5 | (128) |
Postgraduate level | 20.2 | (84) | 20.6 | (103) |
Social factors | ||||
Some smoke because they went with others having a good time and felt like inhaling and exhaling together | 3.1* | (13) | 0.2* | (1) |
Some smoke because it is difficult to refuse | 5.8* | (24) | 1.6* | (8) |
Some smoke because they like the taste | 7.0 | (29) | 1.8 | (9) |
Some smoke because it gives them energy | 10.6* | (44) | 2.4* | (12) |
Helps me face difficulties with confidence | 6.0 | (25) | 2.4 | (12) |
Received NSFAS | 71.8 | (298) | 80.2 | (402) |
Other bursaries than NSFAS | 12.0 | (50) | 9.8 | (49) |
Frequencies and percentage frequencies for a positive response for associated risk factors in using waterpipe tobacco amongst University of Limpopo students aged 17–43.
=p<0.05.
Table 3 shows the logistic regression (odds ratio, 95%CI and P-value)) for the association between waterpipe tobacco product use and associated risk factors amongst University of Limpopo students aged 17–43 years. Older onset age (between 21 and 25 years (OR= 6.7 95%CI 3.63 13.05) and above 26 years (OR= 5.57 95%CI 2.77 11.21) was significantly associated with using waterpipe tobacco products even after adjusting for age, gender and receiving a bursary (21–25 years (OR- 6.98 95%CI 3.60, 13.54 and above 26 years (OR= 5.92 95%CI 2.81 12.49). Staying on campus (OR 2.54 95%CI 1.87 3.44) or off-campus (0.39 95%CI 0.29 0.54) was significantly (p<0.05) associated with using waterpipe tobacco products even after adjusting for age, gender and receiving a bursary (on Campus OR=3.8095%CI 2.59 5.57) off-campus (0.26 95%CI 0.18 0.39). Liking the taste (OR= 7.84 95%CI 1.66 28.33) and difficult to refuse (OR= 12.25 95%CI 5.06 29.65) were significant (p<0.05) using the waterpipe even after adjusting for age gender and receiving bursary (Liking the taste (OR= 6.54 95%CI 1.76 24.21) and difficult to refuse (OR-11.25 95%CI 4.59 27.58).
Unadjusted | Adjusted for age, gender and receiving bursary* | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | P-value | (95%CI) | OR | P-value | 95%CI | |
Onset age | ||||||
Less than 20 years | 0.88 | 0.902 | (0.12 6.67) | 0.70 | 0.731 | (0.09 5.40) |
20 to 25 years | 6.87 | 0.000 | (3.63 13.05) | 6.98 | 0.000 | (3.60 13.54) |
Over 26 years | 5.57 | 0.000 | (2.77 11.21) | 5.92 | 0.000 | (2.81 12.49) |
Number of times one tried to quit | ||||||
Never tried | 7.81 | 0.000 | (3.21 9.33) | 9.04 | 0.000 | (6.93 12.56) |
Less than seven times | 0.64 | 0.221 | (0.31 0.86) | 0.56 | 0.231 | (0.21 0.96) |
More than seven times | 0.33 | 0.143 | (0.21 1.37) | 0.36 | 0.153 | (0.11 0.95) |
Student residence | ||||||
Off-Campus | 2.54 | 0.000 | (1.87 3.44) | 3.80 | 0.000 | (2.59 5.57) |
On Campus | 0.39 | 0.000 | (0.29 0.54) | 0.26 | 0.000 | (0.18 0.39) |
Educational level | ||||||
Lower level | 0.84 | 0.211 | (0.64 1.11) | 0.74 | 0.051 | (0.54 1.00) |
Moderate high level | 1.26 | 0.146 | (0.92 1.73) | 1.34 | 0.079 | (0.97 1.85) |
Postgraduate level | 1.00 | 0.994 | (0.71 1.41) | 1.08 | 0.701 | (0.74 1.56) |
Social factors | ||||||
Went with others having a good time and felt like inhaling and exhaling together | 7.98 | 0.066 | (3.41 18.67) | 7.19 | 0.072 | (3.04 16.99) |
One smokes because it is difficult to refuse | 7.84 | 0.002 | (1.66 28.33) | 6.54 | 0.005 | (1.76 24.21) |
One smokes because I like the taste | 12.25 | 0.000 | (5.06 29.65) | 11.25 | 0.000 | (4.59 27.58) |
One smokes because it give me energy | 7.84 | 0.105 | (4.14 14.82) | 7.14 | 0.000 | (3.72 13.70) |
Help me face difficulties with confidence | 8.21 | 0.082 | (3.70 18.19) | 7.71 | 0.021 | (3.44 17.27) |
Logistic regression (odds ratio, 95%CI and P-value)) for the association between waterpipe tobacco use and associated risk factors amongst University of Limpopo students aged 17–43 years.
=p<0.05.
This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the prevalence of waterpipe tobacco product use and associated risk factors among University of Limpopo students aged 17–43 years. The current study confirms a high prevalence (40%) of ever waterpipe smoking and low prevalence of current (6.7%) waterpipe users. Daradka et al. [16] reported the prevalence of 24.2 and 36.04% for current and ever using waterpipe smoking, respectively, amongst University students. The prevalence of ever water smoking was almost 60.7% among Iranian medical students with the current waterpipe smoking prevalence reaching 18.7 and 51% for Iranian medical students and health science students [20]. Waterpipe smoking has become a global public health problem and requires serious attention [21].
In the current study, the prevalence of ever (40.2 vs 26.3%) and current (6.7 vs 3.0%) waterpipe user was significantly (p<0.05) high for boys compared with girls amongst University of Limpopo students in each group. Male participants were more likely to report current waterpipe smoking and higher frequencies than their female counterparts as reported by Salloum et al. [22]. However, the current use of waterpipe is not consistent with that of studies in Western Cape Universities, Pretoria Universities and Johannesburg as researchers reported proportion of both males and females being high for both the current and ever water pipe users in these universities [7, 13, 23, 24, 25]. An effective waterpipe tobacco control is needed to curb the spread of this dangerous epidemic among both genders in university communities.
In the current study, older age at onset (21–25 years) appeared to be significantly associated with waterpipe smoking usage compared with younger age onset (less than 20 years). Similar findings were reported in other studies [21]. These associations are suggestive and reflect more dependence on waterpipe smoking which may be reflective of social behaviour in university environments. These findings are not surprising given that the older onset of tobacco use is associated with higher nicotine dependence [26]. Furthermore, older students are more conversant with the university environment than first and second-year entering students.
Having friends who are smokers and enjoying the taste were the highest risk factors for waterpipe use among the University of Limpopo students. Similar findings were reported amongst dental students at King Saud University in Riyadh [27]. Student residences were the main factor associated with waterpipe smoking among university students in the current study. University campuses are an ideal setting to reach waterpipe tobacco users and those who may initiate this while on campus [28]. Evidence-based interventions, including tobacco-free campus policies [28] are essential to decrease the initiation and continued use of all forms of tobacco products among university students and across the lifespan [29]. There is a need to further understand factors which may motivate university students to initiate waterpipe tobacco in order to develop prevention intervention [30].
Research had generated a consistent picture of the health risks of waterpipe smoking in the past. Waterpipe smokers clearly show exposure to nicotine, toxicants and carcinogens associated with smoking-induced disease [6, 31]. Waterpipe smoking acutely decreases heart rate variability and elevates CO, plasma nicotine, blood pressure and heart rate [14]. Furthermore, waterpipe smoking can cause or accelerate the rate of pulmonary and cardiovascular complications as well as cancer [32, 33]. Children exposed to waterpipe smoking have been shown to have higher levels of carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamines [34]. It is suggested that several educational and consultation courses could improve habits and the attitude of students regarding the detrimental effects and dire consequences of waterpipe usage amongst the university community. It is also suggested that implementing strict surveillance on the behaviour of students in the hostel and residential places of students, along with direct cooperation of students’ families, is important in reducing, if not completely eradicating, waterpipe usage. Furthermore, the university should provide enough recreation facilities for students as they spent most of their time on campus than at home.
This study has some limitations. First, data collection was based on convenience samples, without systematic regulation of sampling factors. As such, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population, including those who have never tried waterpipe smoking. Sampling was limited to university students and did not include other non-university youth and adult sub-populations around the university. Thirdly, we did not consider health risk factors related to smoking including respiratory complications the students may have ever experienced. Fourthly, the study was cross-sectional; therefore, a change in tobacco use over several years was not examined.
A comprehensive questionnaire which covered almost all aspects of daily lives was another positive point of this survey. The findings from the current study can serve as a basis for additional research to document the public health impact of waterpipe smoking and guide regulatory efforts for waterpipe smoking control in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Future research would generate new evidence to advance waterpipe tobacco control policies.
Our results demonstrate that waterpipe smoking was more prevalent among university male students than female students. Staying on campus or off-campus was significantly (p<0.05) associated with using waterpipe tobacco products. Liking the taste and difficult to refuse were possible risk factors significantly associated with waterpipe usage amongst university students. Future studies should investigate the relationship of waterpipe use and the development of chronic diseases lifestyle over time.
The authors are obligated to the administrators of the Ellisras Longitudinal Study for administration of the study project.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The study received funding from the South African National Research Foundation (Reference: RA18092336171, Grant No: 127507) and the University of Limpopo (Account number: N533) for the Ellisras Longitudinal Study is acknowledged with gratitude. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and therefore the funding sources do not accept any liability in regard thereto.
Conceptualization, KDM.; methodology, KDM, PJM; software, KDM.; validation, HJS formal analysis, KDM; investigation, HJS; resources, HJS, KDM; data curation, KDM, PJM writing—original draft preparation, KDM.; writing—review and editing, PJM, HJS.; visualization, KDM.; supervision, KDM.; project administration, KDM ; funding acquisition, KDM.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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As a result, the optimal formula is obtained with 300 g of mycorrhizal and rhizobium strains + 500 g of black soil + 200 g of potato peel crust, which has an effective antagonistic capacity of 100% in pea cultivation, 90% in the barley, and 85% in the potato, besides that it achieves a biotisation in the cultivation of peas of 95%, in the barley 100% and in the potato 90%.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Henry Juan Javier Ninahuaman and Grimaldo Quispe Santivañez"},{id:"82542",title:"Effects of Veld Degradation on Biomass Production in the Arable Lands of South Africa",slug:"effects-of-veld-degradation-on-biomass-production-in-the-arable-lands-of-south-africa",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102605",abstract:"This paper reviews the impacts of veld degradation on species diversity, veld ecological condition. The major focus of this review is to assess the major critical factors that contributeto veld degradation. It is imperative to revitalize information on the effects of veld degradation in the South African pastoral farming systems. Current studies have indicated the limited research gaps that identify the adverse effects of veld degradation on species composition and biomass production. Grazing behavior in different grazing patterns has not been clear. Finally, this review will assist farmers, policymakers, and pastoralists to broaden their knowledge on policy development, and appropriate the veld management practices, coping measures of veld degradation, particularly those from resource-poor communities. Whereby, livestock production is the focus for food security and poverty alleviation. However, the use of legumes intercropped with temperate grass species can improve animal performance and herbage production during critical periods. The review further evaluates the veld management practices and their ability in providing adequate foliar cover with the use of the edible perennial grass plant that ensures long-term sustainable production with maximum economic returns during critical grazing seasons.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Nkosikhona Madolo and Francis B. Lewu"},{id:"82330",title:"Advances in Bioenergy Production Using Fast Pyrolysis and Hydrothermal Processing",slug:"advances-in-bioenergy-production-using-fast-pyrolysis-and-hydrothermal-processing",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105185",abstract:"This chapter provides an overview of current efforts and advances as well as environmental and economic aspects of fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal processing, which are potential technologies for bioenergy production, mainly bio-oil and syngas. Biomass is presently the primary bioenergy resource in the world. The chapter presents a brief discussion of sources and compositions of biomass. Biomass is converted to various products using thermochemical conversions. Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process that converts biomass into carbon-rich solid residue, condensable vapors, and non-condensable gases in the absence of oxygen. It is a promising technology for converting biomass into renewable biofuels with environmental and economic advantages. Pyrolysis processes are classified based on their operating conditions and desired products. Two thermochemical processes, fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal processing are reviewed. Fast pyrolysis produces a higher quantity and quality of bio-oil and syngas than slow and intermediate pyrolysis processes. Hydrothermal processing converts wet biomass into carbonaceous biofuel. The ability to produce higher-value bioenergy by these pyrolysis technologies depends on the feedstock and operating condition of the pyrolysis processes. This chapter will present the most promising features of fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal processing along with their optimal pyrolysis conditions in maximizing the production of biofuels.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Meegalla R. Chandraratne and Asfaw Gezae Daful"},{id:"81162",title:"Economic Assessment of Biomass Based Power Generation",slug:"economic-assessment-of-biomass-based-power-generation",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103692",abstract:"Biomass based power generation systems can play a significant role to alleviate energy crisis and reduce fossil fuel dependency in the countries that possess abundance of agricultural and forest biomass resources. Particularly the countries to go for biomass energy in a large scale must know power and energy potential for biomass based commercial production with proper economic assessment of the possibilities. In-depth knowledge is must to assess the profitability and sustainability of the projects. Profitability measures how the investment in the project can be secured to have an ensured surplus to be shared by the stake holders and sustainability ensures the long-term existence in the business with a positive trend of gaining market share day by day or simply to be in the business. This chapter will present the details of the economic assessment of biomass- based energy projects in terms of net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), discounted payback period (DPB), and cost of energy. The economic profitability measure is a must before advancing to a venture whether it is self-financed or loan financed. So, it is hoped that readers of the chapter should develop a proper evaluation capability and know how to analyze the biomass-based energy projects.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"A.B.M. Abdul Malek"},{id:"80542",title:"Comparative Analysis of Biodiesel Production from Different Potential Feedstocks in the Philippines",slug:"comparative-analysis-of-biodiesel-production-from-different-potential-feedstocks-in-the-philippines",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102724",abstract:"In response to the worsening crisis on energy security and climate change, the Philippine Biofuels Law (Republic Act 9367) was enacted which mandates the blending of biodiesel to petroleum diesel sold in the country. Primarily, feedstock and pricing concerns led to stagnant growth of the Philippine biodiesel industry. Hence, viability of different potential biodiesel feedstocks such as coconut, oil palm, and soybean (first generation), jatropha and used cooking oil (second generation), and microalgae (third generation) was assessed through extensive research and developments. Among these sources, oil palm is regarded as the best complementary feedstock to coconut due to its high biodiesel productivity of 376 million liters per year. Oil palm biodiesel production in the Philippines was also found to have a low carbon footprint of 1.80 kg CO2e per liter and a GHG reduction potential of 42%, which corresponds to a GHG savings of about 1.05 million metric tons CO2e per year for a 5% blending mandate in 2025. Additionally, a low biodiesel selling price of about Php 33.26 per liter can be achieved from using this feedstock for biodiesel production. Hence, use of a low cost and readily available feedstock coupled with established processing technologies and pricing mechanisms will help boost the biodiesel industry in the Philippines.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Rona Joyce B. Landoy, Rex B. Demafelis, Bernadette T. Magadia and Anna Elaine D. Matanguihan"},{id:"80493",title:"Conventional and Unconventional Transformation of Cocoa Pod Husks into Value-Added Products",slug:"conventional-and-unconventional-transformation-of-cocoa-pod-husks-into-value-added-products",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102606",abstract:"The drive for a sustainable society and a circular economy has motivated researchers around the globe to turn to the transformation of renewable raw materials like biomass into value-added products that are akin or superior to their fossil counterparts. Among these biomass raw materials, cocoa pod husks (CPH) which is the non-edible portion of cocoa (ca. 70–75% weight of the while cocoa fruit) remains a promising bio-resource raw material for the production high-value added chemicals but yet largely underexploited. Currently, the most popular applications of CPH involves its use as low-value application products such as animal feed, raw material for soap making, and activated carbon. However, the rich source of lignocellulosic content, pectin, and phenolic compounds of CPH means it could be used as raw materials for the production industrially relevant platform chemicals with high potential in the agrochemicals, pharmaceutical, and food industries, if efficient transformations routes are developed by scientists. In this chapter, we will shed light on some of the works related to the transformation of CPH into various value-added products. An economic evaluation of the transformation of cocoa pod husk into relevant chemicals and products is also discussed.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Martina Francisca Baidoo, Nana Yaw Asiedu, Lawrence Darkwah, David Arhin-Dodoo, Jun Zhao, Francois Jerome and Prince Nana Amaniampong"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:14}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:9},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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