Location, soils, land use, tile-drainage and terrain conditions around the weather stations A to D in the Dehtáře catchment
\r\n\tFrom a public health perspective, reduced health literacy can lead to widespread consequences. “Low health literacy is also costly for the country because when people don't understand health information and instructions, they are more likely to have worse health outcomes and unnecessarily use emergency room services,”. Experts agree that health literacy is vital to reducing healthcare costs and improving public health. The path to improving health literacy isn’t always straightforward, however.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\t“Unfortunately, up to 9 out of 10 adults can have limited health literacy, and this can be fluid,” Blue says. “It can be more challenging to be health literate when we are sick or in pain, so even someone who normally has a high level of health literacy may struggle at times to understand and process health information.”
Actual evapotranspiration rate (ETa) represents a key element of landscape water balance. It plays an active role in the biomass production, establishes the cooling capacity of the region and, depending on soil properties, contributes to runoff formation in the catchment [1-3]. The rate of the process is determined by the gradient of water potential between soil, vegetation, and atmosphere and the prevailing aerodynamic and surface resistances. It integrates the effects of meteorological parameters (precipitation, radiation energy, water saturation deficit and wind speed), soil water content, soil hydraulic properties, vegetation density, height and roughness and the depth of the root system [4-8] on both the spatial and the temporal bases.
Physical properties of soils have a significant influence on their water regime and should be considered when selecting suitable agricultural crops for particular sites, taking into account the crop productivity and its water requirements. The impact of the soil on ETa depends upon the properties of its pore space, which are determined primarily by its grain size distribution and structure. Clay (fine-textured) soils tend to show higher porosity [8-9], higher soil water storage and ETa, but, on the other hand, lower hydraulic conductivity and subsurface runoff [2], compared to sandy (coarse-textured) soils. The highest available moisture-holding capacity is displayed by loamy soils, which, though possessing a somewhat lower field water capacity than the clay soils, exhibit a significantly lower wilting point than the latter. The movement of water in the soil can be extensively altered by the preferential (e.g., macropore) flow, which is 100 to 400 fold faster than water flow in the soil matrix [10], depending on rainfall and snowmelt patterns and, if applied, on irrigation management.
Physical properties of soils influence the selection of suitable agricultural crops with respect to their water consumption and their productivity. For example in [11] was showed that soil types with higher moisture-holding capacity are better suited to crops, such as corn, that are more sensitive to atmospheric drought than to less sensitive crops, such as wheat.
The spatial distribution of soil types and textures, and thus of the soil water storage, is determined by geology, terrain relief, climate and biotic factors. From a hydrogeologic viewpoint, the catchment can be divided into recharge zones, where precipitation infiltrates and then recharges the groundwater store, and discharge zones, where groundwater approaches the land surface or a surface water body [5]. The recharge zones are mainly located in the highest areas of the catchment, close to the catchment divide, peaks and ridges. The soils of these zones are typically shallow and stony, with high sand content and high infiltration capacity. The coarse-textured soils of the recharge zones are, with respect to groundwater resources, well suited to growing grass, which, beside water quality benefits, increases their field capacity and results in virtually complete infiltration of precipitation, including rainstorms [12-16]. The discharge zones can be found in the lowest parts of the slopes and along surface streams and lakes and are prone to surface waterlogging. The dominant soils in the discharge zones are generally deep, with higher clay content and a lower capacity for infiltration. A connection between the recharge zones and the discharge zones is provided by transient zones, where precipitation is mostly transformed to surface runoff and groundwater flows downslope in a quasi-steady way [12, 17]. The transient zones are located mainly in the middle sections of slopes. Groundwater in natural catchments flows from the recharge zones to the discharge zones. Actual spatial distribution of these zones depends on local geologic and geomorphologic conditions [18, 19].
The topic of the chapter is dealing with the influence of physical soil properties in the recharge, transient, and discharge zones on ETa in a cultivated catchment, where different crops are grown and some fields are tile-drained, in different periods and vegetation development phases. In addition to these comprehensive factors of the habitat, the results of ETa research are also connected with the method used (Bowen ratio method) which is dependent on air temperature and humidity coming over extensive plant cover from prevailing wind direction.
The study was conducted in the experimental catchment Dehtáře, situated in the south-west Bohemo-Moravian Highland (Czech Republic), in the years 2004, 2006 and 2009. The outflow point of the catchment lies at 49o28´ N - 15o 12´ E.
The catchment Dehtáře (Fig. 1) has an area of 59.6 ha, with tile drained areas occupying 19 ha (~32%). The catchment area is mainly agricultural land (89.3%). Minor forested areas (3.3%) lie at its north-western and northern borders. Grassland (20.3%) covers the southern part of the catchment, as well as the adjacent lowest lying south-western area, which is tile-drained. The remaining area (69%) is arable land, which is exploited mainly for cereals production. The catchment geomorphology belongs to the erosion-accumulation relief type [20]. The altitude ranges between 497.0 and 549.8 m. According to Quitt [21], the local climate is classified as moderately warm. According to Köppen [21], it belongs to the temperate broadleaf deciduous forest (Cfb) zone. The average annual total precipitation is 660 mm and the average air temperature is 7.0°C.
An overview map of the Dehtáře catchment and its soil types
There is no permanent surface drainage channel within the catchment. The catchment hydrogeology is characterised by shallow aquifers (with groundwater table in the discharge zone lying at 0.2–1.5 m), occurring in Quaternary deposits, in the weathered zone of the bedrock and in its fissures and faults. The bedrock is a partially migmatized paragneiss. Quaternary deposits are slope sands and bottom loams, reaching a thickness of 1–2 m. The bottom loams usually act as aquitards and have their own phreatic groundwater table, partially recharged from the atmosphere, so that the water from below mixes in them with the water from above. The dominant soil types according to [22] (see Fig. 1) are Haplic Cambisols (CMha) in the recharge and transient zones. These soils are light, shallow and stony (the thickness of the soil profile being only 30 cm in some parts) sandy loams and loamy sands (according to the USDA soil texture triangle, see [23]). Haplic Stagnosols (STha), Haplic Gleysols, Fibric Histosols and Stagnic Cambisols (CMst) are typical for the discharge and the discharge/transient zones. Medium-deep sandy loams dominate in the lower parts of the slopes, while deep loams are most typical for the catchment bottom. However, the spatial variability of grain size distribution in the soils of the catchment bottom makes surveying difficult. This variability is due to natural erosion and accumulation processes as well as due to artificial mixing which occurred during the tile drainage installation. The clay (< 0.002 mm) content in the topsoil and subsoil varies from 10 to 13% and from 9 to 13%, respectively, near the water divide, and from 12 to 15% and from 13 to 25%, respectively, at the catchment bottom. A layer of clay loam was identified by geophysical survey [24, 25] at the catchment bottom at the depth 30 to 200 cm, in some places cropping up to the soil surface.
The tile drainage (still fully functioning) was laid in 1977 in the western, lower part of the catchment. The average slope of the drained land is about 5%. The spacing of lateral drains is either 13 or 20 m. The depth of the laterals is about 1.0 m, while the depth of the mains is about 1.1 m. Circumferential intercepting tile drains, provided with gravel filters, are placed at depths 1.1 to 1.8 m. The tile drainage system empties into a fire water reservoir. Seasonal ascending springs, either point springs or spring lines, emerged in middle parts of the catchment slopes before the tile drainage system installation, causing temporary waterlogging of the lands [26, 27]. Today, the soils in the tile-drained north-western part of the catchment (Fig. 1) can be classified as CMha. Before the tile drainage installation they mainly belonged to the STha type.
Four weather stations (A, B, C, D - Fig. 1 and Table 1) were placed in the experimental catchment to record conditions on sites with different soil types and textures and in different relief zones. The stations A and B were located in the discharge and the discharge/transient zones, respectively (Table 1) on texturally heavier STha and CMst soils, where the terrain slope was 2–4°. The station B was placed in concentrated flow paths. The stations C and D were situated in the transient and the transient/recharge zones, respectively, on the CMha soil and the terrain slope 5–7°. Permeable loamy-sand soils under stations C and D and between them are shallow; weathered bedrock can be found at 15–40 cm below the surface. Meteorological data of the station C, based on prevailing wind direction, was markedly influenced by mentioned drying shallow bedrock and deeper, but tile drained CMha (Fig. 1). In addition to drying shallow bedrock the station D data was also significantly affected by deeper wetter soil without a drainage system.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||||||
A | \n\t\t\tDischarge zone | \n\t\t\t506 | \n\t\t\tHaplic Stagnosol (STha) | \n\t\t\tSilt loam or loam or sandy loam / Sandy loam or loam or clay loam | \n\t\t\t12.3 | \n\t\t\t16.1 | \n\t\t\t48.3 | \n\t\t\t48.4 | \n\t\t\t40.8 (topsoil) | \n\t\t\tgrassland | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t2-3 | \n\t\t
B | \n\t\t\tDischarge/transient zone (in concentrated flow paths) | \n\t\t\t513 | \n\t\t\tStagnic Cambisol (CMst), Haplic Stagnosol (STha) | \n\t\t\tLoam / Sandy loam or loam (STha) | \n\t\t\t12.3 (CMSt) 16.5 (STha) | \n\t\t\t10.6 (CMSt) 14.9 (STha) | \n\t\t\t48.5 (CMSt) 44.4 (STha) | \n\t\t\t62.2 (CMSt) 53.5 (STha) | \n\t\t\t39.8 (subsoil) | \n\t\t\tarable land | \n\t\t\t69 | \n\t\t\t3-4 | \n\t\t
C | \n\t\t\tTransient zone | \n\t\t\t523 | \n\t\t\tHaplic Cambisol (CMha) | \n\t\t\tSandy loam or loamy sand /Sandy loam or loamy sand | \n\t\t\t11.0 | \n\t\t\t11.7 | \n\t\t\t66.9 | \n\t\t\t62.2 | \n\t\t\t30.4 (subsoil) | \n\t\t\tarable land | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t5-6 | \n\t\t
D | \n\t\t\tTransient/recharge zone | \n\t\t\t534 | \n\t\t\tHaplic Cambisol (CMha) | \n\t\t\tSandy loam or loamy sand /Sandy loam or loamy sand | \n\t\t\t12.6 | \n\t\t\t10.7 | \n\t\t\t62.5 | \n\t\t\t66.2 | \n\t\t\t30.3 (subsoil) | \n\t\t\tarable land | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t6-7 | \n\t\t
Location, soils, land use, tile-drainage and terrain conditions around the weather stations A to D in the Dehtáře catchment
* within a 100 m radius circle around each weather station
** samples taken close to weather stations
Each station was equipped with an ETa-measuring system, which comprised a datalogger (MiniCube VV/VX, EMS Brno, CZ), two air temperature and two air relative humidity sensors (EMS 33, EMS Brno, CZ), selected pairwise to have similar characteristics and placed at 0.5–1.5 and 2.0–2.4 m above the ground, depending on the crop growth stage, a net radiometer (Schenk 8110, Philipp Schenk, AT, thermal principle, stability 3% per year), soil temperature sensors (PT 100/8, EMS Brno) at 0.1 and 0.2 m and a soil heat flux meter (HFP01, Hukseflux, NL). The stations B, C and D were operating during the growing season. The station A, operating year round, was in addition equipped with a pyranometer for measuring global radiation (EMS 11, EMS Brno, CZ, silicone diode sensor, calibration error under daylight condition max. 7%) and a wind sensors measuring wind speed and direction (Met One 034B, Met One, Oregon, U.S.A., 0.28 m s-1 starting threshold) placed at 2 m height. All stations recorded their data at one-minute intervals, while the dataloggers saved only 10 min averages.
The station A was surrounded by permanent grassland cut three times a year (end of May, second half of July and second half of October). Winter wheat was cultivated in the vicinity of the stations B, C and D in 2004 (sown 20 Sept. 2003, harvested 25 July 2004), winter rape was there in 2006 (sown 22 Aug. 2005, harvested 1 Aug. 2006) and spring barley in 2009 (sown 8 March, harvested 7 Aug. 2009); the latter was a cover crop for red clover.
ETa was determined from the latent heat flux (LE) in the simplified energy balance equation [28]:
where Rn (net radiation) and G (soil heat flux) could be directly measured with a sufficient accuracy and H (turbulent sensible-heat flux) was calculated from the Bowen ratio (β). The turbulent diffusion theory admits that, under some assumptions, the Bowen ratio can be calculated from the vertical air temperature and vapour pressure gradients. The basic assumptions are the equality of transport coefficients for vertical turbulent transport of heat and water vapour under conditions the neutral atmosphere stratification and a flat homogenous extensive plant cover over a certain distance upwind of the point of observation (fetch), ensuring that the gradient measurements can be made within the equilibrium sublayer, where the fluxes are assumed to be independent of height [29-32]. The thickness of the equilibrium sublayer for an aerodynamically smooth-to-rough transition is assumed to be 10% of the internal boundary layer thickness δ. The latter can be calculated using the Munro & Oke (1975) equation (cited in [29]):
where x is the fetch and z0 is the momentum roughness length of the crop surface (it can be taken as 13% of the crop height).
The adequate fetch length for the internal boundary layer to be of sufficient thickness (2.0 to 2.5 m above the ground, depending on the crop height) can be then estimated as:
The Bowen ratio β is defined as:
After substitution from the equations of vertical turbulent heat and mass transport [28, 33] and after introduction of the psychrometric constant γ (kPa oC-1) is obtained:
where (T2-T1)/(e2-e1) is the ratio of the air temperature (oC) and vapour pressure (kPa) vertical gradients above the plant canopy.
ETa can be calculated by combining equations (1) and (4):
where L is the latent heat of vaporization (J kg-1) and 1 mm of water is taken as 1 kg m-2.
Conditions needed to fulfil theoretical requirements for using this method usually cannot be achieved in the early morning, evening and night periods and sometimes even on cloudy or rainy days or on days with significant advection. Therefore, the cases when │Rn-G│ ≤ 10 W m-2 or β < -0.1 or β > 4 or LE = 0 or when simultaneously LE < 0 and H > 0 were excluded from further processing. In this way, it was ensured that the situations when the gradients of air temperature and vapour pressure had opposite or uncertain signs (due to insufficient resolution limits of the sensors or due to advection) or when the stratification was strongly instable (far from neutral) [34, 35] were not taken into account. Table 2 shows Bowen ratio data excluded, which comprises β < -0.1 or β > 4; Table 3 rejects ETa values with this “unfavourable” Bowen ratios in conjuction with all other cases mentioned above. During the periods of vapour condensation at the surface under conditions of nocturnal inversion and outgoing available energy (LE < 0 and H < 0), the equilibrium evaporation Δ(Rn-G)/(Δ+γ), which is negative under these conditions, was set as a lower limit of vapour condensation, i.e., the absolute value of the actual condensation could not be higher than the absolute value of this equilibrium evaporation [35]. The missing ETa values for the periods thus excluded were estimated based on linear regression between the valid ETa values and the equilibrium evaporation. Then the summation of the resulting uninterrupted series of 10-min ETa values gave the average daily ETa rates in mm h-1 and these were subsequently converted to daily totals of ETa in mm d-1.
A tipping-bucket rain gauge 276 mm in diameter (with the interception surface 0.06 m2) was located near the centre of the catchment. Each tip corresponded to 0.1 mm increment of precipitation. The precipitation totals were recorded at 10-min intervals.
Both disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were taken at about 100 m distance from each weather station from both topsoil and subsoil. To assess the moisture-holding capacity of the soil, an empirical characteristic of the soil water retention capacity was determined in the laboratory according to Novák’s procedure [36]. It is referred to as the maximum capillary water capacity (MCWC). The procedure consists of allowing an undisturbed soil sample (100 cm3), previously fully soaked with water by capillarity from below, to drain by suction on a layer of filter paper over 2 h. Its moisture content at the end of the period is MCWC. [37] declares that MCWC corresponds approximately to the field capacity of the soil. The grain size distribution of the soil was determined according to [38]. It was expressed in percent by mass of individual particle size fractions (clay: < 0.002 mm, silt: 0.002–0.05 mm, sand: 0.05–2.00 mm). The soil texture was classified according to the USDA [23] soil texture triangle.
To assess the systematic effect of the categorical independent variable “weather station” (including soil type, crop, tile drainage and terrain position) upon the dependent quantitative variable (daily ETa) a paired t-test was used, in order to indicate whether or not the expected difference between two matching observations is zero (the null hypothesis), taking the probability of unwarranted rejection of the null hypothesis p = 0.05. The period of spring and early summer was separately tested, i.e., from May to mid-July (period 1, up to crop maturity), and the following period of summer from mid-July to mid-August (period 2, after crop maturity). The latter period ended shortly after the crop harvest (in the case of field crops) or in the middle of the interval between the second and the third grass cutting.
Table 2 shows the number of all Bowen ratio (β) values obtained in individual periods and years and the percentage of values excluded. Of all 10-min β values measured at individual weather stations, 19-27% were rejected (these and the following values being taken over the entire period of observation). Seventy-four to 84% of the rejected values were night measurements (between 19:10 and 05:50). Of the night-time β values, 36-43% were rejected, compared with 8-13% rejection rate of daytime β values (not shown in Table 2). These results agree with those by [32] who reported 29% and 9% of β values rejected at night and in daytime, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||||||
2004 29 May-12 Aug \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10656 | \n\t\t\t18.5 | \n\t\t\t16.1* (87)** | \n\t\t\t10944 | \n\t\t\t27.8 | \n\t\t\t17.4* (62.8)** | \n\t\t\t10944 | \n\t\t\t33.5 | \n\t\t\t24.5* (73.1)** | \n\t\t\t10943 | \n\t\t\t26.6 | \n\t\t\t20.1* (75.6)** | \n\t\t
2006 6 May-19 Aug \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15264 | \n\t\t\t16.7 | \n\t\t\t13.6* (81.5)** | \n\t\t\t15264 | \n\t\t\t24.2 | \n\t\t\t17.0* (70.4)** | \n\t\t\t15264 | \n\t\t\t25.0 | \n\t\t\t19.1* (76.5)** | \n\t\t\t15187 | \n\t\t\t25.4 | \n\t\t\t22.7* (89.5)** | \n\t\t
2009 1 May-23 Aug | \n\t\t\t16560 | \n\t\t\t22.5 | \n\t\t\t13.8* (61.5)** | \n\t\t\t16560 | \n\t\t\t13.6 | \n\t\t\t11.9* (87.5)** | \n\t\t\t16560 | \n\t\t\t19.6 | \n\t\t\t15.9* (81.0)** | \n\t\t\t16556 | \n\t\t\t28.1 | \n\t\t\t24.3* (86.5)** | \n\t\t
Average | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 19.2 | \n\t\t\t14.5* (76.7)** | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 21.9 | \n\t\t\t15.4* (73.6)** | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 26.0 | \n\t\t\t19.8* (76.9)** | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 26.7 | \n\t\t\t22.4* (83.9)** | \n\t\t
Total number of 10-min Bowen ratio (β) values and the percentage of values excluded in individual periods
* related to all β values
** related to all β values excluded
Altogether, 32-40% of 10-min ETa measurements were invalid (Table 3), according to the criteria set forth in the part 4. Seventy-one to 84% of the invalid data points occurred at night, when ETa values tended toward zero (being either very small positive or very small negative). Of the night-time ETa measurements, 62-70% were invalid, as opposed to the daytime ETa pattern, when 11.5-15% were invalid.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||||||
2004 29 May-12 Aug \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10656 | \n\t\t\t27.6 | \n\t\t\t14.6* (53)** | \n\t\t\t10944 | \n\t\t\t36.5 | \n\t\t\t25.4* (69.6)** | \n\t\t\t10944 | \n\t\t\t41.7 | \n\t\t\t31.4* (75.4)** | \n\t\t\t10943 | \n\t\t\t38.9 | \n\t\t\t30.9* (79.5)** | \n\t\t
2006 6 May-19 Aug \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15264 | \n\t\t\t28.1 | \n\t\t\t23.1* (82.3)** | \n\t\t\t15264 | \n\t\t\t41.5 | \n\t\t\t33.1* (79.8)** | \n\t\t\t15264 | \n\t\t\t32.5 | \n\t\t\t25.2* (77.4)** | \n\t\t\t15187 | \n\t\t\t36.8 | \n\t\t\t32.3* (87.8)** | \n\t\t
2009 1 May-23 Aug | \n\t\t\t16560 | \n\t\t\t41.5 | \n\t\t\t31.8* (76.7)** | \n\t\t\t16560 | \n\t\t\t40.6 | \n\t\t\t35.5* (87.5)** | \n\t\t\t16560 | \n\t\t\t31.7 | \n\t\t\t25.7* (80.9)** | \n\t\t\t16556 | \n\t\t\t38.8 | \n\t\t\t32.7* (84.1)** | \n\t\t
Average | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 32.4 | \n\t\t\t23.2* (70.7)** | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 39.5 | \n\t\t\t31,3* (79.0)** | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 35.3 | \n\t\t\t27.4* (77.9)** | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 38.2 | \n\t\t\t32.0* (83.8)** | \n\t\t
Total number of 10-min ETa values and the percentage of values excluded in individual periods
* related to all ETa values
** related to all ETa values excluded
The accuracy of the BREB method of ETa determination, provided that its theoretical assumptions are met, is approximately 10% [31, 35]. The thickness of the equilibrium sublayer is related to the fetch. It is recommended that the minimum fetch to upper measurement height ratio is at least 10:1 to 200:1, with 100:1 being considered adequate for most measurements. The BREB method is less sensitive to imperfect fetch conditions than other techniques, if the Bowen ratio is small (c. 0.3-0.4, [39]). According to [29], a significant boundary–layer adjustment occurs within the first 15 m of the fetch and, hence, when the Bowen ratio is small, the method can be used successfully at fetch-to-height ratios as low as 20:1, despite the fact that the measurements are not made strictly within the equilibrium sublayer. [32] show fetches ranging from 90 m to 360 m, [40] mention a sufficient fetch of 148–168 m.
In this case, considering the crop height of 0.4 to 1.5 m (cereals, rape) and an adequate equilibrium sublayer thickness of 2.0-2.5 m, a sufficient minimum fetch, according to Eq. 3, is 80-90 m. The prevailing wind directions observed were 60-120° and 210-300°. The actual wind direction remained within these two directions over 67.0% of the time in 2004, over 59.3% of the time in 2006 and over 64.6% of the time in 2009. The particular weather stations were far enough apart related to the minimum fetch, their mutual distances being 114 m (C-D), 175 m (B-C) and 204 m (A-B). The distances any of A, B, C and D from the upwind boundary of the crop stand were in most cases greater than 80-90 m. The minimum and maximum fetches were 95–300 m and 180–510 m, respectively, along the prevailing wind directions. Hence, no significant footprint overlapping of the weather stations occurred. The fetch of the station B from the permanent grassland boundary varied between 68 m and 90 m, if the wind direction varied between 125° and 215°. However, only 20-27% of wind directions measured lay within this interval. With the wind direction within this interval and considering only the Bowen ratios β > 0.4 (for which greater sensitivity to the perfectness of the fetch was expected), only another 10-14% of β values and 8-9% of ETa values would have been rejected. Based on this analysis, the fetches of all weather stations were considered sufficient and no data were rejected because of “wrong” wind directions. Of all ETa data considered valid and measured by the stations B and C, 70% and 57%, respectively, were influenced by the nearby tile-drained area. This happened when the wind direction was 25°–250° at station B and 160°–295° at station C.
The soils around the stations A to D are characterized by markedly differing grain size distribution, which influenced their water retention capacity (Table 1). The Haplic Stagnosols and Stagnic Cambisols on which weather stations A and B were located display lower sand content in the topsoil as compared to the Haplic Cambisols around the stations C and D. However, all varieties of Cambisols (around the stations B, C and D) contain more sand in the subsoil than the Stagnosols. The actual soil water retention capacity was influenced not only by the sand and clay content but also by the presence of tile-drainage systems around the stations A, B, C and terrain relief (see Fig. 1 and Table 1).
The soils surrounding the station C, with the highest content of sand and partially influenced by the adjacent drainage system, manifested themselves in the lowest ETa values and the highest β over all three years (Table 4, Figs. 2-7). In contrast, the fine-textured soils with greater MCWC and affected more by the shallow groundwater table and the shallow lateral flow (STha, CMst, stations A and B), showed in most cases the highest ETa values. The findings by [2, 41-42] in this respect are similar.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||||||
2004 Winter wheat | \n\t\t\tA* | \n\t\t\t2.97±1.18 | \n\t\t\t3.46±0.76 | \n\t\t\t3.15±1.06 | \n\t\t\t0.32±0.11 | \n\t\t\t0.40±0.15 | \n\t\t\t0.35±0.13 | \n\t\t\t109.8/2.29 | \n\t\t\t6.4/0.22 | \n\t\t
B | \n\t\t\t3.52±1.34 | \n\t\t\t2.38±1.24 | \n\t\t\t3.10±1.41 | \n\t\t\t0.26±0.12 | \n\t\t\t1.53±1.02 | \n\t\t\t0.71±0.86 | \n\t\t|||
C | \n\t\t\t2.68±1.04 | \n\t\t\t1.75±1.00 | \n\t\t\t2.34±1.11 | \n\t\t\t0.46±0.17 | \n\t\t\t1.66±1.09 | \n\t\t\t0.83±0.82 | \n\t\t|||
D | \n\t\t\t3.15±1.15 | \n\t\t\t2.26±0.90 | \n\t\t\t2.83±1.15 | \n\t\t\t0.41±0.15 | \n\t\t\t1.98±1.15 | \n\t\t\t0.99±1.04 | \n\t\t|||
2006 Winter rape | \n\t\t\tA* | \n\t\t\t3.43±1.39 | \n\t\t\t2.96±1.58 | \n\t\t\t3.27±1.47 | \n\t\t\t0.47±0.25 | \n\t\t\t0.47±0.27 | \n\t\t\t0.47±0.25 | \n\t\t\t222.3/3.18 | \n\t\t\t126.3/3.41 | \n\t\t
B | \n\t\t\t3.37±1.39 | \n\t\t\t3.15±1.39 | \n\t\t\t3.29±1.38 | \n\t\t\t0.53±0.32 | \n\t\t\t0.40±0.21 | \n\t\t\t0.49±0.30 | \n\t\t|||
C | \n\t\t\t3.20±1.37 | \n\t\t\t2.44±1.29 | \n\t\t\t2.94±1.39 | \n\t\t\t0.61±0.29 | \n\t\t\t0.93±0.51 | \n\t\t\t0.72±0.41 | \n\t\t|||
D | \n\t\t\t3.28±1.24 | \n\t\t\t2.66±1.27 | \n\t\t\t3.07±1.28 | \n\t\t\t0.66±0.27 | \n\t\t\t0.85±0.31 | \n\t\t\t0.73±0.30 | \n\t\t|||
2009 Spring barley as a cover crop for red clover | \n\t\t\tA* | \n\t\t\t3.06±1.31 | \n\t\t\t3.65±1.33 | \n\t\t\t3.26±1.34 | \n\t\t\t0.35±0.27 | \n\t\t\t0.27±0.30 | \n\t\t\t0.32±0.28 | \n\t\t\t207.2/2.73 \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t109.1/2.73 \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
B | \n\t\t\t3.09±1.44 | \n\t\t\t3.19±1.06 | \n\t\t\t3.13±1.32 | \n\t\t\t0.40±0.16 | \n\t\t\t0.50±0.17 | \n\t\t\t0.43±0.17 | \n\t\t|||
C | \n\t\t\t2.67±1.12 | \n\t\t\t2.60±0.74 | \n\t\t\t2.65±1.00 | \n\t\t\t0.59±0.23 | \n\t\t\t0.81±0.38 | \n\t\t\t0.67±0.31 | \n\t\t|||
D | \n\t\t\t3.05±1.29 | \n\t\t\t3.47±1.12 | \n\t\t\t3.20±1.25 | \n\t\t\t0.36±0.16 | \n\t\t\t0.30±0.14 | \n\t\t\t0.34±0.15 | \n\t\t
Average actual evapotranspiration (ETa) and Bowen ratio (β) values ± their standard deviations, precipitation totals and daily averages for the weather stations A to D in individual years and periods
*Station A is surrounded by grassland
Average daily values of actual evapotranspiration for the Dehtáře catchment, 2004
Average daily values of actual evapotranspiration for the Dehtáře catchment, 2006
Average daily values of actual evapotranspiration for the Dehtáře catchment, 2009
Average daily values of the Bowen ratio for the Dehtáře catchment, 2004
Average daily values of the Bowen ratio for the Dehtáře catchment, 2006
Average daily values of the Bowen ratio for the Dehtáře catchment, 2009
The reported differences in daily ETa were related to the periods of limited transpiration either due to the onset of crop maturity (when the plant water consumption was already low and the excessive precipitation was absorbed by the soil) and/or due to drought (when the soil water supply to plants was limited). Hence, in some cases (in period 2 but, in 2004, also in the second half of period 1 - from late June to mid-July), the statistical tests signalled systematic ETa differences between different soil types under different land use (mostly A vs. C) and even between different soil types under the same land use (always B vs. C, mostly D vs. C, Table 5). It means that the fine-textured soils in the discharge and discharge/transient zones, having higher MCWC and affected more by shallow groundwater table or/and shallow subsurface flow due to concentrated flow paths (STha, CMst, stations A and B) were marked in most cases by the highest ETa and the lowest Bowen ratio values. The daily averages of ETa at the station C on soils with the highest content of sand, shallow and stony (CMha), influenced by air mass coming from drying shallow CMha and deeper, but tile drained CMha were always the lowest ones. As a result, the average daily ETa was significantly lower and the corresponding β significantly higher over coarser-textured soils (shallow CMha, C), namely (year–ETa(mm d-1)/β): 2004 – 1.75/1.66; 2006 – 2.44/0.93; 2009 – 2.60/0.81, than over finer-textured soils (CMst and STha), namely: 2004 – 2.92/0.97; 2006 – 3.06/0.44; 2009 – 3.42/0.39.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Soils affected by hydromorphism (STha, CMst) under different land use (A – permanent grassland vs. B – field crops) and also the discharge zone vs. the discharge/transient zone, both being tile-drained | \n\t\t\tA x B | \n\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\t0.03448* | \n\t\t\t0.00024* | \n\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t||
2009 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t||
Different Cambisol varieties in different terrain zones under the same land use and different intensity of tile-drainage: B (CMst/CMha, discharge/transient zone, tile-drained) C (CMha, transient zone, partially tile-drained) D (CMha, transient/recharge zone, not tile-drained) | \n\t\t\tB x C | \n\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\t0.00096* | \n\t\t\t0.03982* | \n\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\t0.02649* | \n\t\t||
2009 | \n\t\t\t0.04805* | \n\t\t\t0.00546* | \n\t\t||
B x D | \n\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t|
2006 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t||
2009 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t||
C x D | \n\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\t0.03808* | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t|
2006 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t||
2009 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\t0.00011* | \n\t\t||
Permanent grass cover on Stagnosol, discharge zone, tile-drained (A) vs. field crops on Haplic Cambisol, transient (C) or recharge/transient (D) zone, partially tile-drained (C) or not tile-drained (D) | \n\t\t\tA x C | \n\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\t<10-5* | \n\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t||
2009 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\t0.00004* | \n\t\t||
A x D | \n\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\t<10-5* | \n\t\t|
2006 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t||
2009 | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t\tN.S. | \n\t\t
The significance levels (
* the null hypothesis rejected
N.S. = not significant
With regard to the soil water regime and ETa, the CMst and STha of the station B with a drainage system and being in concentrated water flow acted similarly to the CMha of the station D without a drainage system (D), i.e. no differences were found between stations B and D.
Differences in ETa between stations C and D (i.e. higher values of the station D), both being at the interface shallow and deeper CMha, could be explained by the share of wind coming from drying shallow and tile drained CMha. Within valid ETa values, the station C was influenced of 80-85 % by the wind coming from drying shallow CMha and tile drained areas, while to the station D the wind went from shallow CMha only from 33-47%. Thus the significance of prevailing wind direction in ETa determination in soil heterogeneous conditions was evident.
Under extremely dry conditions (period 2, 2004), there were significant differences between the station A and the other stations, because of the dried-out soil profile under arable land (stations B to D), while the lowest part of the catchment around the station A was still relatively wet. The differences in terms of Bowen ratios (the average values between 10:00 and 18:00 of each day when Rn > 70 W m-2) were also visible. The β values pertaining to the stations B to D rose in July and August 2004 very sharply while those measured at A remained low (Fig. 5). Additionally, the soil water regime of the station A was markedly influenced by the reduction of ETa after grass cutting (i.e. after the above-ground biomass removal). Taken separately over the periods 1 and 2 as well as over the entire growing seasons in particular years, the stations C and D typically gave the highest Bowen ratios (Figs. 6, 7).
In the period 1 the crop transpiration, a critical component of evapotranspiration, was in most cases not limited by the (non-existing) soil water deficit. The water supply to plants was sufficient and uninterrupted, while the crop stand was already fully developed. Under these conditions, both soil evaporation and plant transpiration were affected by weather factors in a similar way. The uplift of water through the plant tissues is markedly more efficient than the soil water upward movement during physical evaporation only [43]. After precipitation, the water that has infiltrated into the soil is mainly utilized for transpiration of the fully developed stand, that is, the soil physical properties have only a limited effect on its upward movement. Thus, the prevalence of the transpiration component of evapotranspiration acted as an equalizing factor on ETa from heterogeneous soil areas. The effect of physical properties of the soil was thereby masked. As a result, the daily ETa values were statistically the same across various soil types and crop species (a similar conclusion was made by [44]), except in the dry period of 2004. [45] arrived at similar conclusions, stating that the values of cumulative physical evaporation showed a more pronounced change with alterations in soil texture than did the values of cumulative transpiration. Figs. 3-4 and 6-7 support this conclusion by showing that, in the period 1, the differences in ETa and β among individual weather stations were negligible.
Different soil physical properties of the catchment, interacting with the tile-drainage system effects, terrain relief, manifested themselves in corresponding daily evapotranspiration differences during the periods of limited transpiration, either at the onset of crop maturity and/or during the soil drought. The fine-textured soils in the discharge and discharge/transient zones, affected more by shallow groundwater table and shallow subsurface flow were marked in most cases by the highest ETa and the lowest Bowen ratio values. The daily averages of ETa referring to soils with the highest content of sand, shallow and stony, were always the lowest ones.
The transpiration of a green plant cover, which took up a major portion of the soil water storage through its root suction force and was not, in most cases, limited by the soil water deficit, acted as an equalizing factor of evapotranspiration from heterogeneous soil areas. The transpiration also mitigated the differences in evapotranspiration among different soils, even when these were carrying different crops. The vegetation canopy thus minimized runoff in any form and reduced the infiltration and the groundwater recharge in the recharge zones.
In addition to soil conditions, the results of ETa research were also connected with the method used (Bowen ratio method) which is dependent on air temperature and humidity coming over extensive plant cover from prevailing wind direction.
Since negative-electron-affinity (NEA) GaAs photocathode was proposed as a type of excellent photoemitter by Scheer and Laar [1], GaAs-based photocathodes have found widespread applications in photodetectors, accelerators, electron microscopes, photon-enhanced thermionic emission devices, and other fields [2, 3, 4, 5]. In view of the high visible spectral response, good spectral extensibility to the near infrared (NIR) region and low dark current, NEA GaAs, GaAsP, and InGaAs photocathodes are important components in the vacuum photodetectors, for example, low-light-level (LLL) image intensifiers, photomultiplier tubes, and streak tubes [6]. In the modern light sources based on free electron lasers or energy recovery linacs, GaAs-based photocathodes serve as high brightness electron sources with the unique virtues of large current density driven by visible lasers, high spin polarization, low thermal emittance, and narrow energy distribution [7]. In recent years, a spin-polarized transmission electron microscope combining electron microscopy and accelerator technology using GaAs-GaAsP strained superlattice photocathodes was developed to observe dynamically a magnetic field images with high spatial and temporal resolutions [8]. Moreover, with the aid of the ultrahigh speed pulse laser, GaAs photocathodes can satisfy the requirements of fast response speed and large emission current density aiming to THz frequency vacuum devices [9].
\nAs is well known, GaAs photocathodes can operate in the transmission-mode (t-mode) and the reflection-mode (r-mode), respectively, depending on the difference in the direction of the incident light [10, 11], as shown in Figure 1. For the t-mode operation, the incident light is irradiated on the substrate surface, and the photoelectrons are extracted from the opposite surface side, whereas for the r-mode operation, the incident light and photoelectrons are located on the same emission surface side. Due to the difference in absorption length of longwave and shortwave photons, the shapes of spectral response curves for GaAs photocathodes working in the two modes are different [11]. Differing from r-mode GaAs photocathodes, t-mode ones are difficult to achieve high spectral response in a broadband region from ultraviolet to NIR spectrum. Usually in the practical applications, the researches on t-mode photocathodes are more concerned. For example, the image intensifiers and related imaging systems, t-mode photocathodes conform to the optical imaging structure [12]. Besides, as polarized electron sources in photoinjector apparatus, t-mode photocathodes are more popular than r-mode ones, because the laser spot size can be reduced through the short focus lens placed on the photocathode backside, which would not hinder the path of the electron beam and is more conducive to achieve a super-high-brightness electron beam [13, 14].
\nSchematic diagram of thin photocathode operating in the two different modes.
As proposed by Spicer and Herreragomez [15], the photoemission process from photocathodes consists of electron excitation by incident light absorption, electron transport toward surface, and electron escape across the surface barrier into vacuum. For t-mode photocathodes, some important cathode parameters such as electron diffusion length, interface recombination velocity, and surface escape probability are crucial to the photoemission performance, especially the shortwave photosensitivity [16]. Enhancing the blue-green response of t-mode GaAs photocathodes as far as possible, would not only be beneficial to the detection in sandy or desert terrain for image intensifiers [17], but also increase the current density driven by 532 nm laser for electron sources [18]. Although the external electric field biased across the photocathodes can improve the photoemission capability, the limitations of this approach are the difficulty in making thin electrode pattern and the increased dark current with the strong field [19, 20]. In view of this adverse case, internal built-in electric fields through energy band engineering design could be an alternative approach. In our research, a complex structure composed of the composition-graded structure and the doping-graded structure is proposed to prepare high efficient t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes. Furthermore, the photoemission model, cathode structure design, cathode material epitaxy, and vacuum tube fabrication are investigated through the integrated analysis of theory and experiments. Finally, the effectivity of the designed novel structure is verified by comparison with the common photocathodes.
\nFor the t-mode GaAs photocathode, the AlGaAs and GaAs materials are usually used as the window layer and the active layer, which determine the shortwave cutoff and longwave cutoff, respectively. A built-in electric field in the interior of the photocathode material can be realized by the variation of dopant or composition according to energy band engineering design [21, 22]. Based on this concept, a novel structure is proposed to improve photoelectron emission capability, wherein a composition-graded structure and a doping-graded structure are employed to the AlxGa1−xAs window layer and GaAs active layer, respectively [23, 24], as shown in Figure 2. To form a built-in constant electrical field in the GaAs active layer of the photocathode, the p-type dopant concentration can follow the exponential variation, and the doping formula is expressed by [22]
where
where
Energy band structure diagram of the t-mode AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs photocathode with the graded bandgap structure.
In the AlxGa1−xAs window layer, the bandgap is decreased from the substrate interface to the GaAs interface due to the composition-graded structure. Because of the high p-type doping concentration, the valence bands of the AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs heterojunction are aligned, as shown in Figure 2. The graded Al composition in the window layer results in a built-in electric field
where Δ
As is well known, the one-dimensional continuity equation can afford a useful avenue to establish the photoemission model of t-mode or r-mode III–V group photocathodes, which takes account of the spatial photon adsorption, spatial carrier distribution, and interface electron recombination [10, 11]. As shown in Figure 2, the photoelectrons generated in the AlxGa1−xAs layer are able to move into the GaAs layer and contribute to the total emitted electrons. For the composition-graded AlxGa1−xAs layer, some physical properties, for example, electron mobility (
Because of the aforesaid variable physical properties regarding to Al composition, the continuity equation of electron transport in the AlxGa1−xAs window layer is quite complex. For simplicity, the AlxGa1−xAs layer is treated to be of a series of sublayers with different Al compositions. As shown in Figure 2, the AlxGa1−xAs window layer can be considered to be of
where
In Eqs. (8) and (9),
The excess electron concentration in the former sublayer should contribute to the latter sublayer, accordingly, the boundary conditions adequate for each sublayer are expressed as [28, 29]:
where
As for the GaAs active layer, the excess electrons consist of electrons contributed from the AlxGa1−xAs window layer and electrons generated in the GaAs active layer. Under the second-stage built-in electric field, the photoelectron transport process in GaAs active layer follows the one-dimensional continuity equation as described by
where
By solving Eq. (13) via the boundary conditions Eq. (14) and the electron concentration
where
Meanwhile, it is noted that the quantum efficiency has a close relation with the reflectivity
Structural schematic of multilayered t-mode GaAs cathode module, including the glass substrate, the Si3N4 antireflection layer, the AlxGa1−xAs window layer, and the GaAs active layer.
In Eqs. (16)–(18),
where
As to the t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes, the optical properties between the g-composition and u-composition structures should be different. For simplified calculation, the composition-graded AlxGa1−xAs window layer is assumed to be of five sublayers with the fixed Al composition in each sublayer. The five Al composition values are assumed to be 0.9, 0.675, 0.45, 0.225, and 0, respectively, distributed from the AlGaAs/Si3N4 interface to AlGaAs/GaAs interface. For the u-composition AlGaAs/GaAs photocathode, the Al composition in the AlGaAs window layer is assumed to be 0.7. The optical properties including the reflectivity
Simulation comparison of optical properties between the two cathode modules with different AlGaAs window layer structures.
By using the deduced quantum efficiency models which take into account the reflectivity varying with the wavelength, the quantum efficiency curves of the t-mode AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs photocathode with those unique graded bandgap structures are simulated, wherein the window layer is of the g- or u-composition structure, and the active layer is of the e- or u-doping structure, respectively. Figure 5 exhibits the superiority of the AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs photocathode with g-composition window layer and e-doping active layer. In Figure 5, some structural parameters such as the Al composition in the u-composition window layer, the Al composition distribution in each sublayer of AlxGa1−xAs window layer, and the thicknesses of Si3N4, AlGaAs and GaAs layers are identical to those in Figure 4. In the GaAs active layer, the doping concentration for e-doping structure is exponentially varied from 1 × 1019 to 1 × 1018 cm−3, and that for the u-doping structure is 1 × 1019 cm−3. In addition, the surface electron escape probability
Simulation comparison of quantum efficiency among the t-mode photocathodes with different AlGaAs window layer and GaAs active layer structures.
It is seen clearly from Figure 5 that the t-mode g-composition and e-doping photocathode can obtain the highest quantum efficiency in the spectrum region from 400 to 900 nm in contrast to other photocathodes. The quantum efficiency in the shortwave region, that is, blue-green region are enhanced greatly for the two former photocathodes with the g-composition structure. In the g-composition AlxGa1−xAs window layer, the photoelectrons excitated by shortwave light would be promoted toward the GaAs active layer under the g-composition induced electric field. Then, these shortwave photoelectrons are successively boosted toward the emission surface under the built-in electric field formed by the e-doping structure. As shown in Figure 5, the e-doping structure for the g-composition AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs photocathodes can slightly enhance the quantum efficiency, which is not like the case for the u-composition AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes. The possible reason is that the g-composition AlxGa1−xAs layer can also absorb some extra longwave photons, which are originally absorbed by the GaAs active layer. In other words, more enough absorption space for longwave photons can be provided by the g-composition structure. While for the u-composition AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes, the case is different. The GaAs active layer just absorbs the longwave photons, and the transport efficiency for these generated photoelectrons can just be improved by the doping-induced electric field.
\nTo guide the structural design of t-mode graded bandgap AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs photocathode, the changes of quantum efficiency with the active layer thickness and the window layer thickness are analyzed, as shown in Figure 6. Figure 6(a) shows the changes of quantum efficiency curves with the active layer thickness
Quantum efficiency simulations with the changes of (a) active layer thickness and (b) window layer thickness for the t-mode graded bandgap AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs photocathodes.
Considering that the built-in electric field in the window layer is inversely proportional to window layer thickness, the effect of the window layer thickness on quantum efficiency in the shortwave region, especially in the blue-green waveband for g-composition photocathodes, is more pronounced than that for the u-composition ones. Figure 6(b) shows the quantum efficiency changing with the window layer thickness
In modern epitaxial growth techniques, the metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) technique is suitable for growing the complex ultrathin multilayer materials with the composition-graded or doping-graded structures. To confirm the actual effect of the g-composition and e-doping structure on the quantum efficiency of t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes, the 2-inch-diameter AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs epilayers with two different structures were grown on the low-defect n-type GaAs (100) substrates in the horizontal low-pressure MOCVD reactor from AIXTRON. As shown in Figure 7(a), the multiple epitaxial layers consist of four AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructures, which follow the “inverted structure” technology [32, 33]. In Figure 7(a), the AlGaAs stop layer serves as an etching-resistance layer, and the GaAs cap layer serves as an oxidation-blocking layer. The detailed structures of the two types of cathode materials are shown in Figure 7(b) and (c). The difference between the two samples is the structure of window layer, wherein one is of g-composition AlxGa1−xAs layer, and the other is of u-composition Al0.7Ga0.3As layer. Note that, as a result of the current epitaxial limitation, the GaAs active layer exhibits a quasi-exponential doping structure with the p-type dopant concentration varying from 1 × 1019 to 1 × 1018 cm−3.
\n(a) Schematic diagram of the epitaxial t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathode materials following the “inverted structure” technology, the detailed epitaxial structures of (b) g-composition and e-doping cathode sample, and (c) u-composition and e-doping cathode sample.
During the epitaxial growth process of the multiple layers, the group III sources are the trimethylgallium (TMGa) and trimethylaluminum (TMAl), the group V source was the AsH3, the dopant source was the diethylzinc (DEZn), and the carrier gas was the H2 gas. Additionally, the growth process was monitored in situ using the LayTech EpiRAS-200 spectrometer. The parameters of the epitaxial growth process are as follows: the growth rate was about 2.5 μm/h, the V/III flux ratio was adjusted at 10–15, the Al composition was controlled by the flow ratio of TMGa to TMAl, and the growth temperature was set as 680°C and 710°C for GaAs and AlxGa1−xAs, respectively.
\nTo understand the profile structure of the multilayered photocathode samples, the cross-sectional photographs of the multilayered structure for the two cathode material samples were measured by the scanning electron microscope (SEM) from Hitachi. It is clearly seen from Figure 8 that differing from the case for u-composition sample, no sharp borderline exists at the interface of the AlxGa1−xAs window layer and GaAs active layer for the g-composition sample. This seamless interface would greatly reduce the interface electron recombination. It is noted that many cracks in Figure 8(b) are caused by the inappropriate cleavage, which cannot reflect the true quality of the epitaxy. From the SEM photographs, it is judged that the vertically multilayered constructions of the epitaxial cathode materials agree well with the structural design.
\nCross-sectional SEM photographs of the cleaved epitaxial cathode samples with (a) g-composition and e-doping structure and (b) u-composition and e-doping structure.
The depth distribution of carrier concentration in the multilayered p-type AlGaAs/GaAs materials was measured by the electrochemical capacitance-voltage (ECV) system from Bio-Rad. As shown in Figure 9, a series of sublayers forming the graded doping structure can be realized by the MOCVD technique. The carrier concentration of no more than 8 × 1018 cm−3 in the GaAs active layer shows a gradient distribution. For the AlxGa1−xAs window layer in Figure 9(a), the carrier concentration decreases with the increase in Al composition, which exactly reflects the composition-graded structure.
\nDepth distribution of carrier concentration in the cleaved epitaxial cathode samples with (a) g-composition and e-doping structure and (b) u-composition and e-doping structure.
To investigate the crystalline quality of the epitaxial cathode materials, the X-ray diffraction (XRD) curves were measured by the X’Pert Pro MRD system. As shown in Figure 10, the rightmost peak represents the GaAs material, which is the superposition of the diffraction peaks of the GaAs cap layer, active layer, and substrate. The only one diffraction peak indicates that the crystalline perfection of the GaAs epilayers is consistent with the GaAs substrate. The left two diffraction peaks for the u-composition sample represent the AlGaAs window layer and stop layer, respectively. In the g-composition sample, there is no diffraction peak denoting the window layer, and a series of diffraction peaks exist nearby the peak of the GaAs layer, which are caused by the g-composition AlxGa1−xAs epilayer. The slightly narrower full width at half maximum of the GaAs diffraction peak indicates that the GaAs active layer in the g-composition sample has a better crystalline quality.
\nXRD curves of the cleaved epitaxial cathode samples with two different structures.
Following the recipe of fabricating glass-sealed t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes [32, 33], the epitaxial cathode materials cutted from the 2-inch-diameter epitaxial wafer were fabricated into the multilayered t-mode cathode module. The schematic process flow for fabricating t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathode modules is shown in Figure 11. First, the GaAs cap layer was removed by chemical etching to expose the AlGaAs window layer, and by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), a thin antireflective layer of 100 nm-thick Si3N4 was deposited on the exposed window layer surface. Then, the 7056 glass, serving as the incident window and support layer, was bonded on the Si3N4 antireflection layer by thermocompression. Following that, through selective etching process, the GaAs substrate and AlGaAs stop layer were etched away to expose the GaAs active layer to prepare the NEA surface [32]. Finally, the Cr-Ni ring electrode applied to bias on the cathode was prepared by the physical vapor deposition (PVD), such as magnetron sputtering method. After these processing steps, the multilayered cathode module with a glass/Si3N4/AlGaAs/GaAs structure was finished. In addition, to eliminate etching-induced damage at the active layer surface, the polishing treatment was implemented, which slightly decreased the thickness of the GaAs active layer.
\nSchematic of the process flow for fabricating t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathode modules following the “inverted structure” technology.
The optical property curves of the t-mode cathode modules with two different structures were measured by utilizing the Shimadzu UV-3600 spectrophotometer, which possesses three detectors working from ultraviolet to NIR waveband. The optical properties were measured based on the double optical path method, and light was incident on the surface of glass faceplate in a normal direction. Figure 12 shows the experimental reflectivity and transmissivity curves of the two different multilayered module samples. It is found that, just as the simulated results in Figure 4, the reflectivity curve in the region of 400–800 nm for g-composition structure is relatively smoother than that for u-composition structure. In other words, the smooth reflectivity curve verifies the composition-graded structure in the AlxGa1−xAs window layer from another aspect. Thereby, the characterization results regarding the cross-sectional photographs, carrier concentration distributions, X-ray diffraction peaks, and optical properties all reflect the special design structure.
\nExperimental optical property curves of the t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs cathode modules with two different structures.
Prior to activation, the 18-mm-diameter cathode modules experienced the chemical cleaning and vacuum annealing to obtain an atomic level clean surface. The heat treatment with a suitable temperature under ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) condition is particularly important for the activation, and the quadrupole mass spectrometer (QMS) was adopted to monitor the change of residual gas components during the programmed temperature rose and fell. Figure 13 shows the changes of mainly concerned residual gas components for the two t-mode cathode module samples. Through detecting the gas presence of the QMS traces at
Residual gas changes during high-temperature thermal cleaning process for (a) g-composition and (b) u-composition AlGaAs/GaAs cathode modules.
After the sample cooled to room temperature, the Cs▬O activation to form the NEA state at the cathode surface was performed in the UHV chamber with a base pressure of 10−9 Pa. The Cs and O sources used in the activation are solid dispensers easily controlled by direct current, and the flux is proportional to the operating current [35]. During the activation, the Cs source was on all the time, and the O source was switched on and off [35]. The operating current of Cs and O dispensers was regulated by program control current supply, and the photocurrent induced by a white light source was monitored in real time by the computer-controlled test system [35]. The initial Cs supply caused the gradual increase of the photocurrent. With the continuous Cs flux, when the photocurrent dropped to 80% of its peak, the O source was open. In subsequent alternate activation cycles, the O source was closed when the photocurrent reached its peak and was open again when the photocurrent dropped to 80% of the peak. The operating current ratio of Cs source to O source for both samples was regulated as the same 1.65/1.8. Until the photocurrent peak no longer increased, the O source and Cs source were closed successively, and the activation process was finished. To further improve the photoemission performance, the second heat treatment with a lower temperature was employed to the samples [36]. After that, the samples were activated again using the same co-deposition activation. As seen from Figure 14, the second activation can dramatically enhance the final cathode performance. Meanwhile, the final photocurrent peaks of the two samples are approximately the same.
\nPhotocurrent changes during Cs▬O activation for the two t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs cathode modules.
After the two-step Cs▬O activation process, the cathode module in the UHV activation chamber was transferred to the UHV seal vacuum chamber and indium sealed into an image intensifier tube, wherein the t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs cathode module was equipped in association with the filmed microchannel plate (MCP), phosphor screen, output window, ceramics, and Kovar sealing parts [37]. The schematic structure and the photograph of the LLL proximity focused image intensifier are shown in Figure 15. As shown in Figure 15(a), the proximity focused image intensifier is capable of enhancing a LLL image from several thousands to tens of thousands of times. The input LLL image is converted into photoelectrons by the AlGaAs/GaAs photocathode, and then the number of photoelectrons is multiplied several thousands of times by the MCP coated with a thin ion barrier film which can prevent ion feedback. Lastly, the multiplied photoelectrons bombard the phosphor screen and are converted into photons. Thus, the input LLL image is intensified and appears as the output image on the phosphor screen. In addition to the function of direct eye observation, the LLL image intensifier can be coupled with CCD/CMOS array by the fiber optic taper to realize video output and remote monitoring [38, 39].
\n(a) Schematic structure of the low-light-level proximity focused image intensifier and (b) photograph of the sealed proximity focused image intensifier.
The sealed image intensifiers were extracted from the seal vacuum chamber into ambient air, and the spectral response curves were measured by the spectral response testing instrument [22]. Through the spectral response values corresponding to the wavelength, the quantum efficiency values corresponding to the wavelength for the two different cathode samples were obtained [40]. In the spectral region of 600–750 nm, the quantum efficiency exceeds 40%. As shown in Figure 16, it is found that in contrast to the u-composition structure, the g-composition structure is especially useful to the enhancement of shortwave quantum efficiency, which conforms to the original intention of our design concept. By fitting the experimental optical property and quantum efficiency data based on the theoretical photoemission model, the internal cathode parameters difficult to be measured directly can be obtained. The thickness values of each layer calculated by fitting the experimental reflectivity and transmittivity curves are listed in Table 1. It is seen that the Al composition in the g-composition window layer is not distributed uniformly, and the sublayers with low Al composition are relatively thinner compared to those with high Al composition. For the two samples, the thicknesses of the GaAs active layer are smaller than the design values, which are caused by the polishing treatment after the fabrication of cathode modules.
\nExperimental and fitted quantum efficiency curves for the two different t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes samples.
Cathode sample | \nAl composition in each AlGaAs sublayer | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
g-Composition | \n109 | \n0.9 | \n106 | \n857 | \n103 | \n0.52 | \n
0.675 | \n117 | \n|||||
0.45 | \n125 | \n|||||
0.225 | \n63 | \n|||||
0 | \n72 | \n|||||
u-Composition | \n107 | \n0.7 | \n485 | \n1256 | \n105 | \n0.52 | \n
Fitted parameters of the two different t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathode samples.
By means of fitting the experimental quantum efficiency curves, we can obtain some performance parameters, for example, interface recombination velocity
In this chapter, we have carried out systematically theoretical and experimental researches on t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes, with regard to bandgap structure design, photoemission model derivation, epitaxial growth, surface activation, device fabrication, and performance evaluation. Compared with the common t-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathode, the graded bandgap t-mode AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs photocathode with a g-composition and e-doping structure can achieve higher quantum efficiency in the shortwave response region, particularly the blue-green spectral region of interest. In addition, this g-composition structure is helpful to mitigate the interface recombination and enhance the absorption of the longwave light, which leads to the enhanced photoemission capability. This work has reference significance for the design of other graded bandgap III-V group photocathodes.
\nThis work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 61771245 and 61301023) and Science and Technology on Low-Light-Level Night Vision Laboratory Foundation of China (grant no. J20150702). The authors would like to thank Dr. Feng Cheng for her efforts in the theoretical photoemission model, and the staff from Science and Technology on Low-Light-Level Night Vision Laboratory for their assistance in the fabrication of t-mode cathode modules and image intensifiers.
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Küden and Ali Küden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"200365",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayzin B.",middleName:"B.",surname:"Küden",slug:"ayzin-b.-kuden",fullName:"Ayzin B. Küden"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1005",title:"Clinical Pathology",slug:"clinical-pathology",parent:{id:"176",title:"Diagnostics",slug:"diagnostics"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:123,numberOfWosCitations:43,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitations:58,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1005",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9046",title:"Amyloidosis",subtitle:"History and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"371a4ad514bb6d6703406741702a19d0",slug:"amyloidosis-history-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Jonathan S. Harrison",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9046.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"340843",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan S.",middleName:"Scott",surname:"Harrison",slug:"jonathan-s.-harrison",fullName:"Jonathan S. Harrison"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10119",title:"Biomarkers and Bioanalysis Overview",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd70071c0bb32eeedab08909509b1312",slug:"biomarkers-and-bioanalysis-overview",bookSignature:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10119.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",middleName:null,surname:"Claudia Fernandes Nunes",slug:"ane-claudia-fernandes-nunes",fullName:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7905",title:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae7cd7860043968aa88daae89795a591",slug:"saliva-and-salivary-diagnostics",bookSignature:"Sridharan Gokul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1959",title:"Biomarker",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3fa6155a28277c6ce2e169f338c9bbcf",slug:"biomarker",bookSignature:"Tapan Kumar Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1959.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"113568",title:"Prof.",name:"Tapan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Khan",slug:"tapan-khan",fullName:"Tapan Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"36390",doi:"10.5772/38822",title:"Potential Muscle Biomarkers of Chronic Myalgia in Humans - A Systematic Review of Microdialysis Studies",slug:"potential-muscle-biomarkers-of-chronic-myalgia-in-humans-a-systematic-review-of-microdialysis-studie",totalDownloads:1937,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"1959",slug:"biomarker",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker"},signatures:"Björn Gerdle and Britt Larsson",authors:[{id:"119711",title:"Prof.",name:"Bjorn",middleName:null,surname:"Gerdle",slug:"bjorn-gerdle",fullName:"Bjorn Gerdle"},{id:"138423",title:"Prof.",name:"Britt",middleName:null,surname:"Larsson",slug:"britt-larsson",fullName:"Britt Larsson"}]},{id:"36394",doi:"10.5772/36750",title:"8-Nitroguanine, a Potential Biomarker to Evaluate the Risk of Inflammation-Related Carcinogenesis",slug:"8-nitroguanine-a-potential-biomarker-to-evaluate-the-risk-of-inflammation-related-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:2253,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"1959",slug:"biomarker",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker"},signatures:"Ning Ma, Mariko Murata, Shiho Ohnishi, Raynoo Thanan, Yusuke Hiraku and Shosuke Kawanishi",authors:[{id:"71918",title:"Dr.",name:"Yusuke",middleName:null,surname:"Hiraku",slug:"yusuke-hiraku",fullName:"Yusuke Hiraku"},{id:"109629",title:"Prof.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"ning-ma",fullName:"Ning Ma"},{id:"120432",title:"Dr.",name:"Shiho",middleName:null,surname:"Ohnishi",slug:"shiho-ohnishi",fullName:"Shiho Ohnishi"},{id:"120433",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariko",middleName:null,surname:"Murata",slug:"mariko-murata",fullName:"Mariko Murata"},{id:"120434",title:"Prof.",name:"Shosuke",middleName:null,surname:"Kawanishi",slug:"shosuke-kawanishi",fullName:"Shosuke Kawanishi"},{id:"121961",title:"Dr.",name:"Raynoo",middleName:null,surname:"Thanan",slug:"raynoo-thanan",fullName:"Raynoo Thanan"}]},{id:"36386",doi:"10.5772/38754",title:"Epigenetics in Cancer: The Myelodysplastic Syndrome as a Model to Study Epigenetic Alterations as Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers",slug:"epigenetics-in-cancer-the-myelodysplastic-syndrome-as-a-model-to-study-epigenetic-alterations-as-dia",totalDownloads:2485,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1959",slug:"biomarker",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker"},signatures:"Teresa de Souza Fernandez, André Mencalha and Cecília de Souza Fernandez",authors:[{id:"119189",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"De Souza Fernandez",slug:"teresa-de-souza-fernandez",fullName:"Teresa De Souza Fernandez"},{id:"119870",title:"Dr.",name:"André",middleName:null,surname:"Mencalha",slug:"andre-mencalha",fullName:"André Mencalha"},{id:"119871",title:"Prof.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"De Souza Fernandez",slug:"cecilia-de-souza-fernandez",fullName:"Cecilia De Souza Fernandez"}]},{id:"66416",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84722",title:"Salivary Diagnostics",slug:"salivary-diagnostics-1",totalDownloads:1083,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Saliva is one of the most ideal diagnostic tools. It is inexpensive, noninvasive, and easy to use. Other advantages like ease of collection and minimal patient discomfort make it more acceptable to the patient as well as the clinician. The most challenging aspect in salivary diagnostics is to identify the biomarker that is linked to a disease. Researches are also ongoing to develop a device that can have reliable and valid clinical applications. This chapter briefly discusses the background and current scope of salivary diagnostics, technologies for the discovery of biomarkers along with a summary of salivary sample collection, and processing methods.",book:{id:"7905",slug:"saliva-and-salivary-diagnostics",title:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics",fullTitle:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics"},signatures:"Varsha Pathiyil and Rahul Udayasankar",authors:[{id:"281226",title:"Dr.",name:"Varsha",middleName:null,surname:"Pathiyil",slug:"varsha-pathiyil",fullName:"Varsha Pathiyil"},{id:"290603",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Udayasankar",slug:"rahul-udayasankar",fullName:"Rahul Udayasankar"}]},{id:"36392",doi:"10.5772/36793",title:"Biomarkers and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring in Psychiatry",slug:"biomarkers-and-therapeutic-drug-monitoring-in-psychiatry",totalDownloads:1965,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1959",slug:"biomarker",title:"Biomarker",fullTitle:"Biomarker"},signatures:"R. Lozano, R. Marin, A. Pascual, MJ. Santacruz, A. Lozano and F. Sebastian",authors:[{id:"109838",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Lozano Ortiz",slug:"roberto-lozano-ortiz",fullName:"Roberto Lozano Ortiz"},{id:"115991",title:"Dr.",name:"Reyes",middleName:null,surname:"Marin",slug:"reyes-marin",fullName:"Reyes Marin"},{id:"115992",title:"Dr.",name:"Asuncion",middleName:null,surname:"Pascual",slug:"asuncion-pascual",fullName:"Asuncion Pascual"},{id:"115993",title:"Ms.",name:"Francisca",middleName:null,surname:"Sebastian",slug:"francisca-sebastian",fullName:"Francisca Sebastian"},{id:"115994",title:"Ms.",name:"Maria Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Santacruz",slug:"maria-jesus-santacruz",fullName:"Maria Jesus Santacruz"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"72837",title:"The Na/K-ATPase Signaling Regulates Natriuresis in Renal Proximal Tubule",slug:"the-na-k-atpase-signaling-regulates-natriuresis-in-renal-proximal-tubule",totalDownloads:527,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"For decades, the Na/K-ATPase has been proposed and recognized as one of the targets for the regulation of renal salt handling. While direct inhibition of the Na/K-ATPase ion transport activity and sodium reabsorption was the focus, the underlying mechanism is not well understood since decreases in basolateral Na/K-ATPase activity alone do not appear sufficient to decrease net sodium reabsorption across the renal tubular epithelium. The newly appreciated signaling function of Na/K-ATPase, which can be regulated by Na/K-ATPase ligands (cardiotonic steroids (CTS)) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), has been widely confirmed and provides a mechanistic framework for natriuresis regulation in renal proximal tubule (RPT). The focus of this review aims to understand, in renal proximal tubule, how the activation of Na/K-ATPase signaling function, either by CTS or ROS, stimulates a coordinated reduction of cell surface Na/K-ATPase and sodium/hydrogen exchanger isoform 3 (NHE3) that leads to ultimately decreases in net transcellular sodium transport/reabsorption.",book:{id:"10119",slug:"biomarkers-and-bioanalysis-overview",title:"Biomarkers and Bioanalysis Overview",fullTitle:"Biomarkers and Bioanalysis Overview"},signatures:"Jiang Liu, Yanling Yan and Joseph I. Shapiro",authors:[{id:"69199",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:"Isaac",surname:"Shapiro",slug:"joseph-shapiro",fullName:"Joseph Shapiro"},{id:"313470",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jiang",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"jiang-liu",fullName:"Jiang Liu"},{id:"314323",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanling",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",slug:"yanling-yan",fullName:"Yanling Yan"}]},{id:"66233",title:"Functions of Saliva",slug:"functions-of-saliva",totalDownloads:2027,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Saliva is produced and secreted by salivary glands. The basic secretary units of salivary glands are clusters of acini cells. It is fluid that contains water, electrolytes, mucus, and enzymes, all of which flow out of the acinus into collecting ducts, certainly one of the most important components and an integral component to oral health. The protective role and benefits including buffering, remineralization in the healthy oral mucosa, immune defense, digestion, lubrication, diagnostic purpose, and proteome analysis are fulfilled by saliva. It aids in maintaining mucosal integrity and indigestion through salivary enzymes. The functions of saliva in maintaining oral health and the main factors that cause alterations in salivary secretion and the importance of saliva in caries development and bacterial plaque formation are discussed, and also its role and functions and organic and inorganic constituents in saliva are discussed. This is of great importance in ruminants, which have non-secretory forestomachs. Diseases of the salivary glands and ducts are not uncommon in animals and man, and excessive salivation is a symptom of almost any lesions in the oral cavity.",book:{id:"7905",slug:"saliva-and-salivary-diagnostics",title:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics",fullTitle:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics"},signatures:"Narendra Maddu",authors:[{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu"}]},{id:"67237",title:"Advantages of Salivary DNA in Human Identification",slug:"advantages-of-salivary-dna-in-human-identification",totalDownloads:811,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Since two and a half decades, in human identification, the short tandem repeat (STR) markers represent the “gold standard.” Besides them, haploid markers such as X-STR and Y-STR are also used to complement the autosomal markers. In human identification, DNA from body fluids, especially saliva, represents an important tool. The aim of this chapter is to present the importance of analyzing X-STR markers in a relatedness case between a sister and her presumptive brother, a carbonized victim using body fluids for their DNA identification. Our laboratory had to establish the relatedness between a woman and her presumptive brother (PB), who was the victim of a car accident explosion. In this case, as reference sample we used saliva collected on swabs from the woman and blood sample from the deceased victim. For the DNA extraction, DNA IQ Casework (Promega, USA) was used. DNA quantification was done with PowerQuant System kit (Promega, USA). Furthermore, the DNA samples were amplified with Investigator 24plex QS (Qiagen, Germany) for the STR markers and Investigator Argus 12-X QS kit (Qiagen, Germany) for the X-STR markers. The amplified DNA products were separated by capillary electrophoresis on a 3500 Genetic Analyzer. In this case, full genetic profiles were obtained for the woman and her presumptive brother on both STR and X-STR markers. Thus, we could confirm a full sibling relationship between them. Since the introduction of DNA in human identification, it represents a useful tool in establishing sibling relationship from different biological samples.",book:{id:"7905",slug:"saliva-and-salivary-diagnostics",title:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics",fullTitle:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics"},signatures:"Raluca Dumache, Veronica Ciocan, Camelia Muresan, Ramona Parvanescu and Alexandra Enache",authors:[{id:"179199",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Dumache",slug:"raluca-dumache",fullName:"Raluca Dumache"},{id:"181860",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Enache",slug:"alexandra-enache",fullName:"Alexandra Enache"},{id:"195502",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Ciocan",slug:"veronica-ciocan",fullName:"Veronica Ciocan"},{id:"298285",title:"Dr.",name:"Camelia",middleName:null,surname:"Muresan",slug:"camelia-muresan",fullName:"Camelia Muresan"},{id:"298644",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramona",middleName:null,surname:"Parvanescu",slug:"ramona-parvanescu",fullName:"Ramona Parvanescu"}]},{id:"67299",title:"Salivary Diagnostics in Oral Diseases",slug:"salivary-diagnostics-in-oral-diseases",totalDownloads:1138,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Common oral diseases like dental caries, periodontal diseases and oral cancer have major impact on quality of life. For prevention, treatment and prognosis, it is essential to measure the disease objectively and accurately in a quantitative manner. Quantification of biochemical or molecular specific products of cancers in serum or localized body juices can be one of the current methods of measuring oral diseases objectively. Salivary diagnostics has influenced several researchers and has been verified as an important tool in the diagnosis of many systemic conditions and prognosis of the disease. Developments in the field of molecular biology, salivary genomics and proteomics have directed to the detection of novel molecular markers for oral disease diagnosis, therapeutics and prognosis.",book:{id:"7905",slug:"saliva-and-salivary-diagnostics",title:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics",fullTitle:"Saliva and Salivary Diagnostics"},signatures:"Manohar Bhat and Devikripa Bhat",authors:[{id:"280750",title:"Dr.",name:"Manohara",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"manohara-bhat",fullName:"Manohara Bhat"},{id:"296530",title:"Dr.",name:"Devikripa",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"devikripa-bhat",fullName:"Devikripa Bhat"}]},{id:"80105",title:"Diagnosis of Amyloidosis: From History to Current Tools",slug:"diagnosis-of-amyloidosis-from-history-to-current-tools",totalDownloads:107,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The term amyloid encompasses a large variety of misfolded proteins with varying amino acids unified by the antiparallel beta-pleated sheet configuration and characteristic Congo red staining. The etiology of these proteins is equally varied, ranging from neoplastic plasma cell disorder, hereditary causes to inflammatory disorders. The protean clinical manifestation makes a high index of clinical suspicion the first crucial step in the diagnosis. A battery of investigations needs to be carried out for a complete diagnosis of amyloidosis and its underlying etiology. Biopsy with Congo red staining constitutes the most important modality for confirmation of amyloid. For further testing, varying modalities with increasing complexity, such as immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and mass spectrometry, need to be employed. We discuss, in the course of the current chapter, this fascinating protein from a clinical diagnosis perspective. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. 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Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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