Commercial application of reactive distillation.
\r\n\tThe fundamental research areas of Evolutionary Psychology can be divided into two broad categories: on the one hand, the basic cognitive processes, and the way they evolved within the species, and on the other, the adaptive social behaviors that derive from the theory of evolution itself: survival, mating, parenting, family and kinship, interactions with non-parents and cultural evolution. Indeed, Evolutionary Psychology explains at individual and group level the fundamental behaviors of social life, such as altruism, cooperation, competition, social exclusion, social support, etc. etc. Similar to the mechanisms of natural selection for physical characteristics, not only the mind follows biological laws, but also psychological abilities - such as the theory of mind, the ability to represent the intentions, thoughts, beliefs, and emotions of others - have had to adapt and must make themselves functional to the social life of individuals and groups. In addition, Sociology takes the same aspects into consideration, emphasizing the interaction, symbolic and otherwise, of individuals. The latter investigates the neural mechanisms underlying the same social behaviors that are of interest to evolutionary psychology. To study the neural correlates involved in such behaviors is necessary to understand the biological laws that underlie human behavior and brain functioning.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to open a debate full of theoretical and experimental contributions among the different disciplines in social research, psychology, neuroscience, sociology, useful to give an innovative vision to the present research and future perspective on the topic.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-871-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-870-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-872-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd4df54e3fb185306ec3899db7044efb",bookSignature:"Dr. Rosalba Morese, Dr. Vincenzo Auriemma and Dr. Sara Palermo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10450.jpg",keywords:"Evolutionary Psychology, Human Social Evolution, Human Social Behaviour, Social Cognition, Social Neuroscience, Functional Neuroimaging, Neuropsychology, Altruism, Cooperation, Social Exclusion, Social Support, Social Inclusion",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 18th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Rosalba Morese is carrying out research in the framework of Neuroscience and Social Psychology. She currently works at the Institute of Public Health of Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and at the Faculty of Communication, Culture, and Society of Università Della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Vincenzo Auriemma's focus is on the study of empathy in human interactions. He studied at the University of Essex in England, the University of Pisa, Genoa, Rome in Italy, and the University of Italian Switzerland in Switzerland. He is the principal responsible for the 'PERSEO' research which analyzes the reasons for the 'drop-out' in psychology.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Researcher of the EUROPEAN INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP on Active and Healthy Ageing and Assistant Specialty Chief Editor for Frontiers in Psychology - Neuropsychology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214435/images/system/214435.jpg",biography:"Rosalba Morese obtained a degree in psychology at the University of Parma. She subsequently held various\nteaching positions at the Department of Psychology and the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery of the\nUniversity of Parma.\nHer training continued with the attainment of the title of PhD in Neuroscience at the University of Turin,\nduring which she acquired and developed interdisciplinary skills and point of view through the application\nof bioimaging and psychophysiological methods to investigate the neurophysiological mechanisms involved\nduring communication and social interactions.",institutionString:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"338363",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Auriemma",slug:"vincenzo-auriemma",fullName:"Vincenzo Auriemma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:'He is pursuing a PhD in Sociology from the University of Salerno, Italy. He is a researcher of sociology and neurosociology at the University of Salerno, Italy. His focus is on the study of empathy in human interactions and he studied at the University of Essex in England, the University of Pisa, Genoa, Rome 3 in Italy and the University of Italian Switzerland in Switzerland. He has participated in national and international conferences with about 25 reports/communications. He is the principal responsible for the "PERSEO" research which analyzes the reasons for the "drop-out" in psychology, using the methodology of the Gounded Theory and analyzing empathy, fear and panic. He is Co-Editor for Frontiers. He is also a member of the Italian Society of Sociology (AIS).',institutionString:"University of Salerno",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salerno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233998/images/system/233998.jpeg",biography:"Sara Palermo is a MSc in Clinical Psychology and a PhD in Experimental Neuroscience. Moreover, she obtained the National Scientific Enabling Certificate for Associate Professorship in April 2017 (ASN-2017). She is an expert in experimental neuroscience, clinical neuropsychology and advance neuropsychological testing. Moreover, she performs multidimensional geriatric evaluation and basic neurological symptomatology detection in patients with neurodegenerative disorders. She is also engaged in Activation Likelihood Estimation meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies.\r\nShe worked as a postdoc research fellow at the Department of Neuroscience 'Rita Levi Montalcini” in Turin until July 2017. Since then she works as research fellow at the Department of Psychology in Turin. To date, she owns three research Group memberships at the University of Turin (Italy). She is a member of the 'Center for the Study of Movement Disorders” (research area: Neurology) and the 'Placebo Responses Mapping Group” (research area: Physiology) at the Department of Neuroscience, and a member of the 'Neuropsychology of cognitive impairment and central nervous system degenerative diseases Group” at the Department of Psychology (Research Area: Psychobiology and physiological psychology).\r\nThe main topics of her research are the study of awareness of illness, metacognitive-executive deficits in neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders, physical and cognitive frailty in the elderly, and placebo/nocebo phenomena. Interestingly, all of them may represent appealing perspectives from which to study how neuropsychological abnormalities can be explained in terms of brain activities and with the use of neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological batteries considering a neurocognitive approach. Given her research interests and scientific publications, she has been an ordinary member of the Italian Society of Neuropsychology (SINP), of the Italian Association of Psychogeriatrics (AIP), of the Italian Society of Neurology for Dementia (SiNdem), and – finally – of the international Society for Interdisciplinary Placebo Studies (SIPS). Importantly, she is a member of the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Aging (EIP on AHA), for which she is involved in the Action Group A3 Functional decline and frailty. \r\n\r\nSara Palermo is Panel Editor for 'EC Psychology and Psychiatry'. She was recently appointed as Specialty Chief Editor for 'Frontiers in Psychology - Neuropsychology'.",institutionString:"University of Turin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"259492",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Gojević-Zrnić",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259492/images/7469_n.png",email:"sara.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5810",title:"Socialization",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bfac2e9c0ec2963193e9d15d617c6a01",slug:"socialization-a-multidimensional-perspective",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo and Juri Nervo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5810.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7818",title:"Social Isolation",subtitle:"An Interdisciplinary View",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db3b513d7d35476f333a0d4a3147935b",slug:"social-isolation-an-interdisciplinary-view",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo and Raffaella Fiorella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7818.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8262",title:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29bf235aa7659d3651183fe9ea49dc0d",slug:"the-new-forms-of-social-exclusion",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese and Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8262.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. 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Venoms of species like spiders, sea anemones and snakes have been found to target ion channels with highly therapeutic potentials as drug candidates [17, 38]. To explore structure-function, gating mechanisms and tissue localization of many ion channels, animal venom toxins were important pharmacological tools in the ion channel field [28]. Certain peptides even lead to clinical development and venom-based drugs, such as ziconotide, which is an inhibitor of neuronal voltage-gated calcium channels isolated from Conus magus, designed for patients with intra-ctable pain who fail to respond to other drugs [57, 66].
\nRecently, protons have been identified as neurotransmitters in the brain [26]. One of the candidate targets for proton sensing is called “acid-sensing ion channels” (ASICs). Three decades ago, the proton-activated inward currents were discovered and recorded in neurons isolated from rat spinal ganglia and from the ganglion of trigeminal nerve by the pioneer Krishtal and Pidoplichko [48, 49]. Twenty years ago, Waldmann et al. first cloned the ASICs [80]. ASICs are widely expressed in the nervous system with high density [1, 62, 80]. Molecular cloning of ASICs has identified four genes (ACCN1–4) encoding at least six ASIC subunits in rodents (ASIC1a, ASIC1b, ASIC2a, ASIC2b, ASIC3 and ASIC4) [35, 84]. Structurally, each ASIC subunit consists of 500–560 amino acids with a simple topology: two transmembrane domains, large extracellular loop (370 amino acids) and short intracellular N- and C-terminals (35–90 amino acids). The structure of ASICs is different from traditional ligand-gated G-protein couple receptor, which has seven transmembrane domains. ASICs can form functional ion channels structurally appearing as trimeric complexes of these subunits [44], which form both homomeric and heteromeric channels with different electrophysiological and pharmacological properties [3, 11, 37, 45, 51, 67, 71]. Among all the ASIC subunits, the ASIC2b and ASIC4 subunits do not form functional homomeric proton-gated ion channels by themselves, but they can associate with other ASIC subunits to reveal new pharmacological properties on the heteromeric channels [21, 51, 67].
\nASICs are mainly expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems, chiefly found in neurons [80, 82]. In central nervous system, ASICs contributed to several physiological and pathological conditions, such as learning and memory, fear conditioning, pain, chemoreception, ischemia, seizures, drug addiction and neuroinflammation, where extracellular acidification occurs [5, 9, 12, 82, 83, 84]. More importantly, ASICs are involved in synaptic physiology and are neurotransmitter receptors critical for amygdala-dependent learning and memory [26]. In peripheral sensory neurons such as dorsal root ganglia (DRG), ASIC1, 2 and 3 are found. During pathological condition such as inflammation, tumors or wounds, peripheral tissue acidosis associated with pain occurs. ASICs are of particular interest because they are profoundly sensitive to moderate acidifications [18]. They are more sensitive than transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), another ion channel activated by protons, capsaicin and heat in nociceptive neurons. ASICs can produce sustained depolarizing currents upon prolonged tissue acidification compatible with the detection of non-adapting pain [18]. ASIC currents and/or transcripts have also been found in glia, smooth muscle cells, lung epithelial cells, immune cells, urothelial cells, adipose cells, joint cells and osteoclasts, indicating that ASICs likely play a role in non-neuronal cells as well [18, 32, 35, 50, 59, 70, 86]. The review regarding the effects of peptide toxins on ASICs has also been discussed by previous publications [4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 17].
\nAmong all the peptide toxins, PcTx1 is the first peptide discovered for the ASICs. PcTx1 was identified from venom of the South American tarantula Psalmopoeus cambridgei [30, 31]. It is a potent and selective inhibitor for both homomeric ASIC1a and heteromeric ASIC1a/2b channels [31, 67]. Structurally, this toxin has 40 amino acids crosslinked by three disulfide bridges [31]. Pharmacologically, the IC50 of PcTx1 is 0.9 nM for homomeric ASIC1a channels [30, 31] and 2.6 nM for heteromeric ASIC1a/2b channels [67] in Xenopus oocytes expressed homomeric ASIC1a or heteromeric ASIC1a/2b channels. In our previous studies, PcTx1 at a concentration of 10 nM significantly inhibits ASIC currents in majority of cultured striatal and cortical neurons, respectively [45, 89]. At concentrations that effectively inhibit the homomeric ASIC1a current, it has no effect on the currents mediated by other configurations of ASICs such as heteromeric ASIC1a/2a channels [31] or known voltage-gated Na+, K+, Ca2+ channels as well as several ligand-gated ion channels [89]. Unlike amiloride, which is a blocker of epithelial sodium channel and directly blocks the ASICs, PcTx1 acts as a gating modifier [9, 35]. PcTx1 shifts the channel from its resting state toward the inactivated state by increasing its apparent affinity for protons [5, 17].
\nPurified PcTx1 or venom toxin was the first peptide used to explore the function of ASICs in neurological, psychological and other diseases [5]. Our previous studies have shown that PcTx1 reveals neuroprotective effects on mouse cultured cortical neurons subjected to extracellular acidosis as well as oxygen and glucose deprivation [88, 89]. In a rodent experimental stroke model (middle cerebral artery occlusion), central injection of venom toxin or PcTx1 significantly reduces the infarct volume by 60% and the protection by PcTx1 treatment lasts 1 week [60, 89]. Consistent with our findings, similar effect by application of PcTx1 was also found in a model of traumatic spinal cord injury in rats [39]. Venom toxin also shows certain protection in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis associated with axonal degeneration [33] as well as in the mouse MPTP model of Parkinson’s disease [2]. Moreover, PcTx1 decreases the acidosis-mediated cell death in cultured retinal ganglion cells [74]. Collectively, all the results support that PcTx1 might be a potential therapeutic agent for neurological disease [9, 12, 81, 87, 88].
\nASIC1a is highly expressed in the amygdala, a brain region critical for fear, arousal and emotions [82, 84, 85]. Central injection of venom toxin reduces mouse innate fearing [14, 16], mouse depression-related behavior [15] and stress-induced elevation in core body temperature of mice [29]. The mechanisms of fear reduction, antidepressant and anxiolytic effects by PcTx1 are likely mediated by inhibition of ASIC1a-containing channels in the amygdala.
\nPcTx1 has also been used to study pain modulation in rodents [54]. Treatment by PcTx1 was shown to induce a potent analgesic effect in acute pain, inflammatory and neuropathic pain models in mice [54].
\nASICs are involved in the central chemoreception [40, 71, 72]. Central injection of PcTx1 in the lateral hypothalamus (LH), nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) inhibits the acid-induced stimulating effect on respiration [40, 71, 72]. Thus, ASICs in the LH, NTS and RVLM contribute to central regulation of respiration.
\nASICs are also expressed in non-neuronal tissue, including but not limited to smooth muscle cells (VSMC) from arteries, where they might play a role in mechanotransduction of the myogenic response and VSMC migration [25]. ASIC currents recorded in acutely dissociated mice cerebral artery smooth muscle cells are potentiated by PcTx1 in majority of the cells [13]. PcTx1 also reduces store-operated calcium entry in VSMCs in rat pulmonary arteries. By using PcTx1, ASIC1a-containing channels are involved in the vascular mechanotransduction.
\nPcTx1 itself cannot cross the blood-brain barrier. Therefore, the critical importance is how to deliver the PcTx1 to its correlated damaged specific brain region and to search a small molecule with similar effect as PcTx1 [9].
\nThe peptide toxin APETx2 was isolated from sea anemones (Anthopleura elegantissima) and is a selective inhibitor for ASIC3 and ASIC3-containing channels [22]. Structurally, APETx2 contains 42 amino acids crosslinked by three disulfide bonds, a compact disulfide-bonded core with a four-stranded beta-sheet. APETx2 possesses the disulfide-rich all-beta structural family of peptide toxins usually seen in animal venoms. Pharmacologically, APETx2 inhibits both homomeric ASIC3 channels and heteromeric ASIC3-containing channels in heterologous expression systems as well as primary cultures of sensory neurons in rodents. It inhibits the transient component of ASIC3 currents with an IC50 of 63 nM, without affecting sustained component of ASIC3 currents [22]. However, the affinity of this particular ASIC3 inhibitor is reduced when ASIC3 is associated with other ASIC subunits [22]. For instance, the IC50 for ASIC3/ASIC2b is about 117 nM, whereas the IC50 for ASIC3/ASIC1a is around 2 μM [22]. By acting at this external side, APETx2 directly inhibits the ASIC3 channel, and it does not modify the channel unitary conductance [5].
\nASIC3 and ASIC3-containing channels are widely expressed in peripheral sensory neurons and play a critical role in pain modulation [8]. During chronic inflammation, the expression level of ASIC3 was upregulated in rat sensory neurons [52, 53, 77], which might be critical for the sensitization of cutaneous nociceptors during inflammation. Consistent with these findings, a reduction in pH in the skin of human volunteers was involved in non-adapting pain [73], and this cutaneous acid-induced pain is largely mediated by ASIC channels, because it is inhibited by amiloride [46, 56, 76]. Additionally, the non-amiloride ASIC blocker, A-317567 exhibits distinct in vitro and in vivo activities over amiloride [27]. Furthermore, by using APETx2, ASIC3 was identified as a sensor of cutaneous acidic pain and postoperative pain and as an integrator of molecular signals released during inflammation in rat, where it is involved in primary thermal hyperalgesia [18, 19, 20]. In correlation with this result, local peripheral application of APETx2 was found to attenuate mechanical hypersensitivity in a cutaneous inflammatory pain rat model [47].
\nASIC3 is mainly expressed in small muscle afferents in rat [19, 58] and in more than 30% of sensory neurons innervating the knee joint in mouse [42]. The expression level of ASIC3 in sensory neurons is enhanced in models of muscle inflammation [79] and acute arthritis [42] in mice. The application of APETx2, in comparison with ASIC3 knockout and knockdown mice, revealed a critical role for ASIC3 in the generation of secondary mechanical hyperalgesia associated with central sensitization achieved in a mouse model of non-inflammatory muscular pain triggered by repeated acid injections into the muscle [63, 68] and in a mouse model of joint inflammation [41]. Consistent with these findings, peripheral application of APETx2 was also found to decrease mechanical hypersensitivity in a non-inflammatory muscular pain in rat [47]. Furthermore, ASIC3 is also involved in the development of primary cutaneous mechanical hyperalgesia induced by muscle inflammation [69, 78]. In a rat model of osteoarthritis, continuous intra-articular injections of APETx2 reduced pain-related behavior and secondary mechanical hyperalgesia [43]. An increase in ASIC3 expression was also seen in afferent sensory neurons of the knee joint [43].
\nAPETx2 significantly reduces the exercise pressor reflex mediated by contracting skeletal muscle in rodents [36, 55, 75]. This is supported by the expression of ASIC3 in muscle metaboreceptors [58]. By using ASIC3 knockout mice, researchers have found minor changes in normal cutaneous mechanical sensitivity [8, 63], whereas other studies did not reveal a significant contribution to mechanosensory function [24]. By using selective inhibitor of ASIC3, ASIC3 has been shown to be a neuronal sensor for the skin vasodilation response to direct pressure in both humans and rodents and for skin protection against pressure ulcers in mice [34]. Thus, APETx2 reduces local vascular tone control through blockade of ASIC3 or ASIC3-containing channels.
\nThe two peptides of mambalgins (mambalgin-1 and mambalgin-2) were recently found from the venom of the snake Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis [23]. Structurally, these two toxins contain 57 amino acids and include eight cysteines linked by four disulfide bridges. Pharmacologically, mambalgins inhibit ASIC-like currents in cultured neurons of hippocampus and spinal cord. Furthermore, mambalgins inhibit homomeric ASIC1a, 1b, heteromeric ASIC1a/2a, 1a/2b and 1a/1b channels with IC50 between 50 and 200 nM. Functionally, mambalgins reveal analgesic effects in vivo in models of acute and inflammatory pain through either inhibition of ASIC1a and ASIC1a/2a channels in central nervous system or inhibition of ASIC1b channels in peripheral nervous system [5, 23]. Interestingly, the central analgesic effect of mambalgins revealed strong effect similar to morphine but produces less unwanted side effects [4, 23]. Further studies are needed to explore the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for such pain pathways, but brain ASICs appear as promising therapeutic targets for novel analgesic drugs [5]. It is also interesting to know whether mambalgins have other effects in brain besides pain modulation [9].
\nPhcrTx1 represents a newly discovered peptide, which was isolated from the sea anemones Pseudacris crucifer [64]. Structurally, it contains 32 amino acid residues. This peptide reveals an inhibitor cystine knot scaffold, which has been found in other venomous organisms, such as spider, scorpions and cone snails. Pharmacologically, PhcrTx1 inhibits peak ASIC currents in DRG neurons of rats with an IC50 of 0.1 μM. It does not affect the sustained component of the ASIC current or its desensitization rate. Furthermore, the toxin shows its effect in a closed state of the ASICs rather than an open state. PhcrTx1 also inhibits voltage-gated K+, but not voltage-gated Na+, currents in rat DRG neurons with an IC50 of 3.4 and 3.5 μM for peak and steady-state component, respectively. However, PhcrTx1 inhibits voltage-gated K+ currents in DRG neurons, but with significantly lower potency and efficacy than its ability for inhibition on ASIC currents. Thus, PhcrTx1 represents the frontrunner of a novel structural group of sea anemone toxin that acts on both ASICs and Kv channels with high and low potency, respectively [64]. It is interesting to know whether PhcrTx1 plays any functional role in ASICs.
\nIn 2011, MitTx was discovered from the venom of the Texas coral snake Micrurus tener tener [6]. Structurally, peptide MixTx contains two subunits (MitTx-α and MitTx-β) with a β-bungarotoxin-like structure. The MitTx-α subunit has a 60 amino-acid Kunitz-type peptide and the MitTx-β subunit consists of a 120 amino-acid phospholipase A2-like protein. They can associate with each other in a 1:1 ratio (Kd: 12 nM), but this interaction is non-covalent, unlike the β-bungarotoxins that are linked by an interchain disulfide bond. Pharmacologically, MitTx, unlike other inhibitory toxins for ASICs, strongly activates several homomeric and heteromeric ASICs [6, 7]. MitTx produces long-lasting profound effects on homomeric rodent ASIC1a and ASIC1b currents (EC50: 9 and 23 nM, respectively) and a much lower effect on ASIC3 current (EC50: 830 nM). During physiological pH condition (e.g. pH 7.4), MitTx reveals subtle effects on ASIC2a current, but potently enhances the ASIC current by shifting its activation curve toward less acidic pH. The effects of MitTx on sensory ganglion neurons from ASIC1a knockout mice were disappeared. Collectively, the data further suggest that effects of MixTx depend on ASIC1a-containing channels [6].
\nMitTx triggers a strong ASIC current in cultured sensory neurons in wild-type mice; these currents are lost in neurons from ASIC1a-knockout, but not from ASIC3-knockout mice. Consistent with this idea, injection of MitTx in the mice hindpaw displays a strong pain-related behavior (licking response). This effect is reduced in ASIC1a knockout mice but persists in ASIC3 knockout mice, suggesting the contribution of peripheral ASIC1a-containing channels in cutaneous pain [6]. It is needed to explore why MitTx produces lost-lasting effects in physiological concentration of pH on ASICs.
\nPcTx1 was the first peptide toxin found to block homomeric ASIC1a and heteromeric ASIC1a/2b channels. APETx2 was the second ASIC-targeting peptide discovered, and it inhibits ASIC3 channels. MitTx was discovered in 2011 and is a strong activator of ASICs during physiological conditions. Mambalgins have strong inhibition on ASIC1 channels. Another sea anemone peptide PhcrTx1 inhibits ASIC currents in DRG neurons. These peptide toxins have been very important to better understand the structure-function relationships of ASICs and their implication in physiological and pathological processes [5, 17]. ASIC-targeting peptides isolated from animal venoms that selectively block this class of channels are therefore not only instrumental as pharmacological tools to explore their function but also represent molecules of great potential therapeutic value [5]. ASIC channels appear therefore as targets for drug development in a variety of pathophysiological conditions [9].
\nWe thank the support from Qiqihar Medical University (QY2016ZD-01 to X.P.C) and University of Missouri Research Board (X.P.C).
\nChemical engineering deals with the conversion of raw material into products via a chemical unit process or unit operations. Manufacturing of various chemicals like esters, ethers, cumene, petroleum processing unit, etc. required a reactor followed by separator such as a distillation unit to separate the required product from other constituents on the basis of relative volatility [1]. There are various constraints on this type of processing like more space required for the installation of the unit, higher cost, more energy input requirement, and reduced selectivity. Specifically the conversion limits for reversible reactions are difficult to overcome toward highest purity of product because once the equilibrium is achieved in the system, no more reactant will be converted into products. In view of all these constraints, reactive distillation emerged as a novel technique of process intensification in which reaction and separation of product take place simultaneously in a single column [2].
\nIn the case of reactive distillation, total capital cost is reduced due to two combined process steps held in the single unit. This kind of integration is also beneficial in reducing pump cost and other instrumentation cost. The saving in total energy cost is due to exothermic nature of many chemical reactions which in turn are beneficial in providing heat for separation of components simultaneously [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The schematic diagram of reactive distillation column is shown in Figure 1.
\nSchematic diagram of reactive distillation column (RDC).
Reactive distillation, which uses heterogeneous catalysts known as catalytic distillation, was firstly considered for RD [11], but it then remained uninvestigated and lacked research interests until the 1980s. However in 1980, with the advent of reactive distillation technology, Eastman Company tentatively carried out synthesis of high-purity methyl acetate. Later on RD was categorized as hybrid and non-hybrid columns [12, 13]. Hybrid RD is used to describe columns, which have separate reactive and separation sections, while the reaction takes place in the whole non-hybrid RD column.
\nAfter the success story of Eastman Company, several European countries and universities joined forces to work on a development strategy for reactive distillation process under the umbrella of Brite Euram project. Sulzer Chemtech has developed special structured catalytic packing for reactive distillation columns [14]. RD is an important method for many chemical syntheses which require recovery of chemicals such as recovery of acetic acid. RD uses cation-exchange resin for many liquid-phase homogeneous catalyst reactions such as butyl acetate synthesis and helps in separating catalyst during downstream processing. The investigation of many such reactions is reported [15, 16, 17]. Transesterification for synthesis and characterization of biodiesel from different raw material such as palm oil, mustard oil, etc. has been proposed but still not commercialized using various homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. However, hydrodesulfurization of light oil fractions has been carried out commercially for diesel deep hydrodesulfurization.
\nCDTECH, the major commercial process technology provider, licensed up to now over 200 commercial-scale processes. Sulzer reports the commercial application of reactive distillation as synthesis of ethyl, methyl, and butyl acetate, hydrolysis of methyl acetate, synthesis of methylal, removal of methanol from formaldehyde, and formation of fatty acid esters. Commercial reactive distillation application with Katapak licensed from Sulzer is tabulated in Table 1.
\nProcess | \nIndustrial location | \n
---|---|
Synthesis of acetates | \nEurope | \n
Hydrolysis of methyl acetate | \nEurope and Asia | \n
Synthesis of methylal | \nEurope and Asia | \n
Removal of methanol from formaldehyde | \nEurope | \n
Fatty acid ester | \nAsia | \n
Commercial application of reactive distillation.
Reactive distillation (RD) is a hybrid combination of reaction and separation in a single vessel. The first patent for this process route was out in the 1920s, but little was carried out till 1980 by the Eastman Company who synthesized methyl acetate for the first time using this technique. The following reactions have shown potential for reactive distillation:
\nIn esterification reaction, alcohol and acid react to form an ester. Esters are chemical compounds having pleasant fruity odor.
\nThe main application of esters is in the synthesis of artificial flavor and essence and solvent for oil, gum, fat, and resins. They are also used as plasticizers. Esterification is the oldest reaction carried out in a reactive distillation column. For example, in conventional methyl acetate production, the yield of methyl acetate is low because of low boiling azeotrope formation. This constraint is removed in RD and almost pure methyl acetate can be collected. Fatty acid esters are natural chemicals used, among other things in cosmetics; plastics and surfactants were also reported to be synthesized in reactive distillation.
\nTransesterification reaction in general can be represented as the reaction between triglyceride and alcohol to produce alkyl esters and glycerol. The best example is a synthesis of biodiesel using transesterification. Commercially, no industrial unit has been reported on synthesis of biodiesel in RD, but the literature shows that pilot-scale synthesis is possible. This process occurs by reacting the vegetable oil with alcohol in the presence of an alkaline or acidic catalyst.
Heterogeneous catalysts are more effective from an economical point of view for biodiesel production. Sometimes transesterification can be a beneficial alternative to hydrolysis as it does not involve formation of water, and moreover, it brings out the value added through formation of another ester.
\nEtherification refers to the synthesis of ethers from alcohol and acid. Ethers are an indispensable part of the fuel industry as, like the properties of alcohol, ether also enhances the octane value of fuel when added in appropriate proportion. Several model reactions via RD such as MTBE, ETBE, and TAME have been studied since last two decades. These fuel oxygenates are formed by reaction of isobutylene with alcohol to give ether and water. However, another alternative is to react tert-amyl alcohol (TAA) with corresponding lower alcohol such as methanol or ethanol.
\nTransfer of alkyl group from one molecule to another is known as alkylation. Cumene and ethyl benzene are some examples which are synthesized using alkylation process. In this process alkanes, which are a part of paraffin compounds, are reacted with an aromatic compound which results in production of a high-quality fuel substitutes like cumene. These compounds are added to gasoline as a blend to improve its octane number, reduce the engine problems like gum deposits on oxidation, etc. High aviation fuel blends are produced using an alkylation process whose octane number is denoted by a performance number having a value of greater than 100. The catalytic alkylation method uses aluminum chloride and hydrochloric acid as catalyst to initiate the reaction between benzene and propylene.
\nIn an aldol condensation, an enolate ion reacts with a carbonyl compound to form a β-hydroxyaldehyde or β-hydroxyketone, followed by a dehydration to give a conjugated enone. By using reactive distillation (RD), one can improve the selectivity toward the intermediate or final product depending on the type of catalyst used and by continuously removing the desired product from the reaction zone.
Dehydration reaction simply means removal of water. This process is employed generally for glycerol to obtain acetol. This reaction is usually carried into the presence of various metallic catalysts like alumina, magnesium, ruthenium, nickel, platinum, palladium, copper, Raney nickel, etc. Single-stage and two-stage reactive distillation techniques are being employed, and special care is being taken to regenerate these catalysts as they are classified as precious and non-precious catalysts.
\nVarious processes thereby produce a by-product which is of other important industrial use. Like in the case of biodiesel manufacturing using methanol, we get a secondary by-product called glycerol. It is a very good raw material for the process called acetylating as in this process, especially when carried out in reactive distillation column, it is reported that about 99% conversion of glycerol into triacetin is observed. This triacetin acts as an additive in compression engine fuels and reduced the knocking in the engine.
\nIsomerization is a process in which one molecule is transformed into another molecule which has exactly the same atom, but they have different arrangements. A-isophorone and b-isophorone in spite of being isomers can be very well separated by reactive distillation as there is a large difference in their volatilities.
\nOligomerization is a chemical process that converts monomers to macromolecular complexes through a finite degree of polymerization. Oligomer esters and acid were hydrolyzed using RD technology, and the results were consistent with industrial literature.
\nProduct purity is an ultimate customer requirement. If these are not fulfilled or low-quality product is supplied to the customer, the expectation of the customer will not be fulfilled. For this reason, quality parameters need to be defined. These parameters are differing in different cases. For example, few quality indexes like physical and chemical characteristics of the product, medicinal effects, toxicity, and shelf life are required to be given in the case of pharmaceutical products. Quality indexes such as taste, nutritional properties, texture, etc. are important in the case of food products. Similarly for products from chemical processes, final composition or product purity as quality index is required.
\nSynthesis of various chemicals usually is carried out in a reactor which may or may not be followed by separator. Either the case may be choice of design variable is very important. The market value of overhead product or the bottom product relies on its purity. Also the need of any further treatment for enhancing the purity relies on the initial product composition. In view of this, the degree of freedom for the column should be zero; that means the number of variables should be the same or equal to the number of equations involved in modeling. For example for a distillation column, if a designer specifies reflux ratio or boil up ratio and a distillate rate, then there will be corresponding unique set of distillate and bottom composition with respect to a fixed feed flow rate.
\nVariability in the product purity is due to various factors including variable flow rate, reboiler heat duty, reflux rate, and temperature inside the column. These parameters can be controlled using various control techniques to meet final product specification requirement as per the market demand both for large market and small market.
\nVarious control techniques are available which can be suitably applied to get continuous controlled final product composition. Detailed process knowledge helps in control of such a nonlinear process. The control performance also affects plant processing rates and utility usage. Process control engineering helps in designing control loop system which helps in the control of multivariable system and the systems involved multiple inputs and multiple outputs.
\nA specification is the minimum requirement according to which a producer or service provider makes and delivers the product and service to the customer.
\nDesign and implementation of method of manufacture in actual plant condition permit to make product in the quickest and easiest way of manufacturing. These also require preparing manufacturing instructions, sequence of operations, and other procedures.
\nEverything that is required for manufacture must be selected, taking care that all the elements are capable of achieving the standard of quality demanded.
\nBenefits of reactive distillation include:
Increased speed of operation
Lower costs—reduced equipment use, reduced energy use, and handling being easy
Less waste and fewer by-products
Improved product quality—reducing opportunity for degradation because of less heat requirement
Modeling of RD column involves basic concept of distillation column carrying out reaction in a reactive zone in between the rectifying zone and stripping zone [18, 19, 20, 21]. Thus modeling can be represented by various balances for different zones of reactive distillation column. Non-equilibrium modeling was carried out for heterogeneous catalyzed packed RDC using first principle approach. The schematic view of heterogeneous packed RDC is shown in Figure 2.
\nSchematic diagram of packed RDC.
The basic assumptions for this model are as follows:
Constant relative volatility of the components
Constant liquid hold up in reactive zone, reboiler, and condenser
Assuming reactive zone to be a single stage
Negligible vapor holdup
Thorough mixing of vapor and liquid
Figure 3 gives flow of vapor and liquid over a plate/tray. As per the reaction of two reactants producing two products, component material balance for various sections of the column can be written as follows:
\nSchematic of a tray/plate.
1. Rectifying and stripping trays
\n2. Reactive trays
\n3. Feed trays
\n4. The net reaction rate for component j on tray n in the reactive zone is given by
\n5. Reflux drum
\n6. Column base
\n7. Due to exothermic reaction, the heat of reaction vaporizes some liquid in reactive section. Therefore, the vapor rate increases in the reactive trays, and the liquid rate decreases down through the reactive trays.
\n8. Vapor phase
\nwhere Vpi−1 is vapor entering the plate p, ypi−1 is the mole fraction of component i, and Pv is vapor added to the column, but these are leaving the column through condenser; therefore negative sign is considered, Vp is the vapor leaving the plate p, and nipv is gain of species i due to transport, i.e., mass transfer rates. It is given as.
\nwhere Nip is molar flux of species i at particular point in the two-phase dispersion.
\n9. Liquid phase
\nwhere Lpi+1 is liquid entering the plate p, xpi+1 is the mole fraction of component i, PLp is liquid added to the column, Lp is the liquid leaving the plate p, and nipl is loss of species i due to transport, i.e., mass transfer rates. It is given as.
\nwhere Nipl is molar flux of species i at particular point in the two-phase dispersion. Since there is no accumulation at phase interphase, it follows.
\nMt is the accumulation due to mass transfer.
\nThe experimental synthesis of methyl acetate esterification was performed in pilot-scale heterogeneous catalytic packed RDC shown in Figure 4. The characteristics of packed RDC are given in Table 2 and temperature data is given in Table 3. From the observations we conclude that the temperature of the reactive zone, from stage 3 to stage 6, lies between 50 and 70°C, which is an ideal condition for production of methyl acetate catalytic esterification reaction. The temperature of stripping zone lies between 50 and 59°C. Temperature of rectifying section lies between 30 and 45°C.
\nPilot-scale reactive distillation column.
Contents | \nCharacteristics and conditions | \n|
---|---|---|
No. of stages | \n10 including reboiler and condenser | \n|
Rectifying section | \n7–8 | \n|
Reactive section | \n3–6 | \n|
Stripping section | \n1–2 | \n|
Packing used | \nHYFLUX | \n|
Catalyst | \nAmberlyst-15 (Acidic ion-exchange) | \n|
Catalyst granularity | \n10–100 μm | \n|
Average particle diameter (m) | \n7.4 × 10−4 | \n|
Apparent density (g/cm3) | \n0.99 | \n|
Macro porosity of catalyst | \n0.32 | \n|
Condenser type | \nTotal condenser | \n|
Feed | \nMethanol | \nAcetic acid | \n
\n
| \n3 50°C Atmospheric 0.03 | \n6 50°C Atmospheric 0.03 | \n
Reflux ratio | \n5 | \n
Characteristics of packed reactive distillation column.
Time (min) | \nTemperature profile (°C) | \nPressure (mmHg) | \nReboiler temp (°C) | \n||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | \nT2 | \nT3 | \nT4 | \nT5 | \nT6 | \nT7 | \nT8 | \nP1 | \nP8 | \n||
10 | \n53 | \n52 | \n42 | \n43 | \n41 | \n36 | \n33 | \n22 | \n108 | \n280 | \n66 | \n
20 | \n52 | \n56 | \n49 | \n53 | \n51 | \n50 | \n42 | \n27 | \n138 | \n293 | \n66 | \n
30 | \n55 | \n57 | \n52 | \n55 | \n55 | \n51 | \n41 | \n30 | \n115 | \n270 | \n70 | \n
40 | \n56 | \n56 | \n54 | \n55 | \n61 | \n52 | \n42 | \n40 | \n115 | \n270 | \n70 | \n
50 | \n57 | \n55 | \n52 | \n56 | \n61 | \n52 | \n44 | \n41 | \n117 | \n272 | \n69 | \n
60 | \n56 | \n59 | \n55 | \n57 | \n68 | \n54 | \n43 | \n40 | \n138 | \n270 | \n72 | \n
70 | \n57 | \n58 | \n55 | \n56 | \n65 | \n52 | \n44 | \n40 | \n114 | \n273 | \n70 | \n
80 | \n58 | \n59 | \n56 | \n60 | \n64 | \n56 | \n45 | \n40 | \n115 | \n249 | \n66.4 | \n
90 | \n58 | \n59 | \n57 | \n60 | \n56 | \n57 | \n40 | \n41 | \n115 | \n249 | \n68 | \n
100 | \n56 | \n59 | \n55 | \n57 | \n60 | \n51 | \n44 | \n40 | \n169 | \n300 | \n70 | \n
110 | \n56 | \n55 | \n51 | \n55 | \n60 | \n48 | \n42 | \n40 | \n163 | \n295 | \n72 | \n
120 | \n56 | \n55 | \n51 | \n55 | \n60 | \n49 | \n43 | \n40 | \n163 | \n294 | \n72 | \n
Experimental results of methyl acetate synthesis.
We have set the reboiler temperature at 70°C which is close to boiling point of methanol. However it varies as the reaction proceeds. The composition of methyl acetate obtained experimentally is 96%. The pressure of the top stage varies between 108 and 163 mmHg and that of reboiler varies between 249 and 300 mmHg.
\nIt is obvious that the product composition continuously increases with respect to time and as soon as concentration of reactants decreases, the composition also decreases. For continuous process, continuous supply of reactants is required to maintain the product composition. The variation of composition with time is shown in Figure 5.
\nVariation in product composition WRT time.
Simulation and optimization are the act of obtaining the best result under given circumstances. Optimization can be defined as the process of finding the conditions that give the maximum or minimum value of a function. Process optimization is the discipline of adjusting a process so as to optimize some specified set of parameters without violating some constraints. The chemical industry has undergone significant changes during the past 25 years due to the increased cost of energy, increasingly stringent environmental regulations, and global competition in product pricing and quality. One of the most important engineering tools for addressing these issues is optimization. Modifications in plant design and operating procedures have been implemented to reduce costs and meet constraints, with an emphasis on improving efficiency and increasing profitability. Optimal operating conditions can be implemented via increased automation at the process, plant, and company levels, often called computer-integrated manufacturing. Computers and associated software make the necessary computations feasible and cost-effective [22, 23, 24, 25].
\nSteady-state simulation of methyl acetate esterification was carried out using Aspen Plus simulator. Radfrac module, NRTL property method, and other operating conditions such as feed condition, feed location, operating pressure, column configuration including number of stages and reaction stage, type of condenser, type of reboiler, and feed flow rate of the components used are specified in Aspen Plus environment. The specification and other results are included in Table 4. The simulation flow sheet is shown in Figure 6. The product purity is attaining a highest value at the top stage. The composition profile of the column is shown in Figure 7. As shown in figure, the maximum composition of product methyl acetate obtained is 95.4%. The amount of methanol and acetic acid is much lower at the top of the column; this indicates the complete consumption of reactants and formation of product.
\nParameters | \nValues | \n|
---|---|---|
No. of stages Reactive stage Rectifying stage Stripping stage | \n10, including reboiler and condenser 3–6 (reactive zone) 2–3 7–9 | \n|
Input condition | \nMethanol | \nAcetic acid | \n
Temperature Flow rate | \n50°C 0.03 L/min | \n70°C 0.05 L/min | \n
Reboiler heat duty | \n0.2 kW | \n|
Reflux ratio | \n5 | \n|
Condenser temperature | \n57.40°C | \n|
Distillate rate | \n10.56 mole/hr | \n|
Reflux rate | \n52.81 mole/hr | \n|
Reboiler temperature | \n62.66°C | \n|
Bottom rate | \n86.12 mole/hr | \n|
Boil up rate | \n23.62 mole/hr | \n|
Boil up Ratio | \n0.274 | \n
Input condition and result of RDC.
Flow sheet of methyl acetate RDC.
Composition profile of methyl acetate RDC.
The temperature profile of the column is shown in Figure 8. As shown in figure, we can clearly observe that the temperature of the reactive section is higher than the other section; this is because of the exothermic nature of the esterification reaction. Also, temperature of reboiler is higher than the temperature at condenser. As it can be observed from the figure, the condenser temperature which is 57.4°C is lower than reboiler temperature which is 62.7°C. The temperature of the reactive zone is varied between 61.3 and 77.8°C, making it compatible to the exothermic nature of the esterification reaction. The maximum temperature of the condenser during experiment was 58°C, and the temperature of the condenser obtained from Aspen Plus was 57.4°C, which shows good agreement between experimental and simulation results.
\nTemperature profile of methyl acetate RDC.
Reactive distillation exhibits multiple steady-state conditions throughout the operation. This is known as multiplicity of the process. There are two types of multiplicity; one is known as input multiplicity, and the other is known as output multiplicity. This is the condition in which column gives same output for the different sets of process condition. In this paper, we have studied input multiplicity, in which we obtained same output for different input conditions. To analyze the situation, we have performed sensitivity analysis in Aspen Plus simulator.
\nFor sensitivity analysis, we have first chosen molar flow of methyl acetate on the basis of heat duties whose lower and upper bounds are fixed as 1 and 3 kW, respectively. For the second case, we have calculated mass fraction of methyl acetate by setting the molar flow of acetic acid in feed in the range of 0.01–0.08 L/min. In the third case, we have calculated distillate flow rate by varying feed flow rate in the range of 0.01–0.08 L/min to calculate the distillate-to-feed ratio (D/F). Similarly we have also calculated bottom-to-feed ratio (B/F). The result curves are shown in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. A shown in Figure 9, we can observe that the flow rate of methyl acetate is increasing as heat duty is increasing and found the maximum flow rate to be 0.927 lbmol/hr. at heat duty of 6820 Btu/hr. Similarly, we can observe that in Figure 10, the variation in flow rate of acetic acid is observed WRT mole fraction of product methyl acetate. The maximum product fraction is observed as 95.2% at flow rate of 0.0872 cuft/hr. The effect of change in distillate-to-feed Ratio (D/F) and change in bottom-to-feed (B/F) ratio on composition was also observed. It was found that optimized distillate-to-feed (D/F) ratio obtained 0.6275 and optimized bottom-to-feed (B/F) ratio obtained 0.4238 to get maximum product purity.
\nSensitivity analysis based on reboiler heat duty.
Sensitivity analysis based on acid flow rate.
Model analysis tool under Aspen Plus simulation facilitates optimization of the reactive distillation column. In this analysis we defined mass fraction of methyl acetate as objective on the basis of standard volumetric flow rate of acetic acid to obtain the minimum product composition that can be achieved at the top of the column. Heat duty was defined as constraint with fixed values between 1 and 3 kW as lower and upper limits, respectively. After the optimization, we obtained 26.99% as the minimum composition of methyl acetate and 2 kW as the required optimized heat duty.
\nThe summary of optimization and sensitivity results obtained from Aspen Plus simulation is included in Table 5. The optimized value of reboiler heat duty obtained was 2 kW, and optimized reflux ratio obtained was 4.69. These values are close to the experimental values which again show good agreement between experimental and simulation studies. The optimized flow rate of methyl acetate obtained using reboiler heat duty as manipulated variable is 0.093 lbmol/hr., and optimized product fraction obtained using standard volumetric flow rate of acetic acid is 0.96. The sensitivity result curve for optimized flow rate and composition of methyl acetate is shown in Figure 11, and sensitivity result curve for variation in column temperature based on reflux flow is shown in Figure 12.
\nRow | \nCase I Variation in reboiler heat duty Btu/hr | \nOptimized flow rate of methyl acetate lbmol/hr | \nCase II Variation in volumetric flow rate of acetic acid, ft3/hr | \nOptimized product composition | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \n3412.14 | \n0.0549 | \n0.0211 | \n0.4808 | \n
2 | \n4170.39 | \n0.0637 | \n0.0376 | \n0.6776 | \n
3 | \n4928.64 | \n0.0723 | \n0.05414 | \n0.8070 | \n
4 | \n5686.90 | \n0.0807 | \n0.07062 | \n0.9011 | \n
5 | \n6445.15 | \n0.0888 | \n0.08710 | \n0.9522 | \n
6 | \n6824.28 | \n0.0926 | \n0.10358 | \n0.9596 | \n
7 | \n7203.41 | \n0.0920 | \n0.10594 | \n0.9604 | \n
8 | \n7961.66 | \n0.0904 | \n0.12006 | \n0.9643 | \n
9 | \n8719.91 | \n0.0902 | \n0.13655 | \n0.9676 | \n
10 | \n9478.17 | \n0.0900 | \n0.15303 | \n0.9700 | \n
11 | \n10236.42 | \n0.0893 | \n0.16951 | \n0.9719 | \n
Summary of the sensitivity and optimization results.
Sensitivity curve for optimized flow rate and composition.
Sensitivity curve for column temperature based on reflux ratio.
This chapter gives details of reactive distillation as effective unit for various synthesis and manufacturing. The detailed case study envisaged to produce methyl acetate using methanol and acetic acid in a pilot plant reactive distillation column. The operating conditions were maintained as feed temperature of 50°C, column pressure of 1 atmosphere, feed rate of 0.03 L/min, and initial reboiler temperature of 70°C. The experiment yielded high purity of methyl acetate. We have succeeded in obtaining 95% purity of methyl acetate. The experimentation was then followed by simulations so as to contrast the results. The Aspen Plus simulation gives methyl acetate purity of 91.1%. This was followed by validation of results using sensitivity and optimization analysis. The optimized value of reflux was obtained as 4.69 and required reboiler duty 2 kW. The sensitivity analysis registered distillation-to-feed (D/F) ratio as 0.6275 and bottom-to-feed (B/F) ratio 0.4235 to obtain maximum product purity. These encouraging results establish a good agreement between experimental and simulation studies.
\nstoichiometric coefficient
\nreaction rate on nth stage
\nliquid holdup on nth stage
\nforward reaction rate on nth stage
\nbackward reaction rate on nth stage
\nliquid composition on nth stage
\nflow rate of vapor on nth stage
\nflow rate of liquid on nth stage
\nheat of reaction
\nnet heat of vaporization
\ntotal number of stages
\ndistillate flow rate
\nbottoms flow rate
\nvapor composition on nth stage
\nreflux ratio
\nfeed flow rate on nth stage
\nfeed composition on nth stage
\npure component vapor pressure
\ntemperature at nth stage
\ntotal pressure
\nIntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\\n\\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\\n\\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. 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