Performance comparison between various DCDM version and MSAC for 3 × 10 Gbit/s system setup.
\r\n\tIn order to understand the detailed content, these parameters are also divided into different classes such as inert, readily biodegradable, soluble COD, etc. However, still we do not possess detailed knowledge on organics in water sources or wastewater streams. Therefore, during the last decade, scientists tried to divide organics into different classes and understand their treatment potential and natural pathways. This book aims to fill out a very significant gap in this research field. Different treatment processes, monitoring and water determination chapters on dissolved organics, emerging organic pollutants, endocrine disruptors, emerging disinfection by-products, microplastic etc. in water or wastewater are welcome to this book project.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"358ff11fd43b59f3a36498ef0494189d",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Taner Yonar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8934.jpg",keywords:"COD, BOD, TOC, treatment, toxicity, fire retardents, bioacumulaion, treatment, pesticides, hormones, sources of microplastics, effects on health",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 2nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 31st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 18th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190012",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190012/images/system/190012.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Taner Yonar is a Professor of Uludag University, Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department. He has received his B.Sc. (1996) degree from the Environmental Engineering Department, Uludag University. He received his M.Sc. (1999) and Ph.D. (2005) degrees in Environmental Technology from Uludag University, Institute of Sciences. He did his post-doctoral research in the UK, at Newcastle University, Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials Department (2011). He teaches graduate and undergraduate level courses in Environmental Engineering on water and wastewater treatment and advanced treatment technologies. He works on advanced oxidation, membrane processes, and electrochemical processes. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55243",title:"The Future Electrical Multiplexing Technique for High Speed Optical Fibre",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68407",slug:"the-future-electrical-multiplexing-technique-for-high-speed-optical-fibre",body:'\nThe current trend of internet use for social applications, such as facebook and twitter, is a strong indication of the substantial demand for information and communication technology. Therefore, behind the success story of these popular social applications is the capability of telecommunication infrastructure to handle huge amount of information transfer worldwide. Optical communications have been widely used for this important task. Advancement in high capacity and high speed optical communication system has always become an important topic of discussion among the communications community. One of the important techniques in optical communication system is to realize high capacity data transportation through multiplexing technique. The technology is moving forward, where innovative alternative to the existing multiplexing method is indispensable to accomplish the future needs in optical communication implementation.
\nGenerally, multiplexing is required to share the huge bandwidth of well-known fibre optic medium with many users, hence provides more cost efficient for practical implementation for high capacity data transformation. Typical implementation of multiplexing can be done in electrical or optical domain. Electrical-based multiplexing is very important technique due to the capability of electronic technology to switch the data with high speed, efficiency and reliability [1].
\nIn this chapter, we report the investigation of system performance for recent electrical-based multiplexing technique known as multi-slot amplitude coding (MSAC) for high speed optical communication link. This work is very important in order to justify the benefit of MSAC as an innovative multiplexing compared to other electrical-based multiplexing such as electrical time division multiplexing (ETDM) and duty cycle division multiplexing (DCDM).
\nETDM is a technique that adopting electronic circuit to execute multiplexing process in electrical domain. In EDTM concept, the bit from multiple input tributaries is arranged as a single output tributary by allocating all the bits with smaller time slot as compared to the time slot of input channel. As a result, the bit rate or speed of output tributary is higher than the input bit rate so that all the bits at the input can be transferred correctly to the output. The output tributary bit rate, RT of ETDM is
\nWhere N is the number of input tributaries and R is the input tributary bit rate. The bit duration Tb of the input tributary is given by
\nThe basic concept of EDTM implementation based on three input tributaries depicted in Figure 1. In this figure, ETDM operates with three input tributaries so the output bit rate of EDTM is 3R bits/s and the output bit duration becomes Tb/3. The output of ETDM can be used to modulate the light source for data transmission. Due to simple and efficient operation of ETDM technology, it is extensively adopted for commercial application for synchronous optical network (SONET) , synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) and optical transport network (OTN). Currently, high speed electronic-based ETDM has been reported to support more than 40 Gbit/s serial data using advance material and state-of-the-art technology [2].
\nETDM concept.
Multiplexing process also can be realized using DCDM concept, and it has been proposed as an alternative technique to ETDM [3]. In order to implement DCDM concept, basic components can be used which are return-to-zero (RZ) convertor and electrical adder. Since, RZ convertor has the ability to adjust the duty cycle (DC) parameter, hence various DCs of binary signal can be obtained. In DCDM, each input tributary is applied to RZ convertor with the different predefined DC parameter. The outputs for all RZ convertors are combined by an electrical adder to generate the DCDM signal. This technique requires a synchronize bit and identical amplitude of non-return-to-zero (NRZ) format for all input tributary. Figure 2 shows an example of DCDM signal generation for three tributaries. Figure 2a–c shows the 8 bits sequence (all possible combination) of input tributary 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Figure 2d–f shows the RZ format with 25% DC of tributary 1, 50% DC of tributary 2 and 75% DC of tributary 2, respectively, after NRZ to RZ conversion. Combination of signals in Figure 2d–f using electrical adder generates DCDM signal as shown in Figure 2g. Based on this multiplexing, a unique signal waveform or symbol can be obtained. There is a transition at the beginning of the DCDM symbol because RZ conversion turns the signal from high to low for bit 1 s.
\nAn example of DCDM signal.
MSAC technique is a latest multiplexing concept to enhance the utilization of signal level for generating waveform or symbol compared to DCDM and ETDM [4]. In this technique, the multiplexer converts all possible combination bits of each tributary as MSAC symbol based on predefine translation rule. MSAC symbols can be obtained based on two parameters, which are the number of slots, S and number of signal levels, M as depicted in Figure 3. Assuming an equal duration of slot, the slot duration of MSAC symbol, Td is given by
\nGeneral format of symbol for MSAC.
where TS is the symbol duration. TS is similar to the bit duration of the input tributary, Tb. Therefore,
\nwhere R is the input tributary bit rate.
\nFor equal signal level spacing, the maximum amplitude of MSAC, A is
\nwhere ∆ is amplitude spacing. Figure 4 displays an example of MSAC symbol for three users. There are nine symbols (x1(t) to x9(t)) for S = 3 and M = 3. Note that MSAC symbol allocates the first slot in symbol format as zero level.
\nExample of symbol waveform for M = 3 and S = 3.
Figure 5 shows the simulation setup for N tributaries MSAC in optical communication system. This setup consists of transmitter section, transmission section and receiver section. The component for the transmitter section is N pulse pattern generators, MSAC multiplexer, external modulator and continuous wave laser. The number of pulse pattern generator will depend on number of tributary. Each tributary consists of a pulse pattern generator for generating pseudo random binary signal (PRBS). Note that Tr1, Tr2 and TrN represent tributary 1, tributary 2 and tributary N, respectively. Each pulse pattern generator has a common clock signal in order to obtain synchronize binary data stream as input signal to the MSAC multiplexer. MSAC multiplexer model implements a conversion process based on the rule. The signal from MSAC multiplexer then modulates the light from a continuous wave laser (CW LD) at 1550 nm, using an external modulator. The optical power of CW LD is fixed at 0 dBm. The external modulator is based on an amplitude modulator (AM) model. Transmission section consists of an optical attenuator and optical fibre. The modulated optical signal is fed into an optical attenuator. In optical attenuator, the signal input electrical field for both polarizations is attenuated. This optical attenuator is used to control the amount of launch optical power from the AM. For this simulation, optical fibre is based on a single mode fibre model, and it is placed after the optical attenuator. The propagation of modulated optical signal in single mode fibre model is based on the Schrödinger equation [5]. The receiver section consists of an optical amplifier, PIN photodiode, electrical low-pass filter and clock and data recovery. An optical amplifier that acts as a pre-amplifier is placed before PIN photodiode in order to boost the signal. Note that the optical amplifier also introduces ASE noise. The received optical signal is then converted to an electrical signal using a PIN photodiode. In this simulation, the signal is corrupted with typical noises in optical system such as shot noise and thermal noise. The PIN photodiode output signal is filtered with a Gaussian low-pass filter (LPF). In order to optimize the system performance, the cut-off frequency of filter is set at 0.75 BW, where BW is the first null bandwidth of baseband MSAC signal. The filtered electrical signal is fed into the clock and data recovery module to regenerate each tributary data stream. In clock and data recovery module, data recovery process is implemented using MATLAB programming based on the recovery rules of MSAC demultiplexer.
\nMSAC system setup.
Figure 6a–c illustrates the optical spectrum of MSAC 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s, respectively. This spectrum has been observed at the transmitter side (after external modulator) using an optical spectrum analyser.
\nOptical spectrum of MSAC (a) 3 × 10, (b) 4 × 10 and (c) 5 × 10 Gbit/s.
From this figure, simulated null-to-null spectral width of MSAC 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/sis around 60 GHz. This result shows that spectral width of MSAC remains the same even though N is increasing from 3 to 5. This is because they have similar number of slots in a symbol. In this case, number of slots is three, thus slot period is 1/(3 × 10 Gbit/s). This slot determines the width of main-lobe of optical spectrum. Therefore, increasing aggregate capacity from 30 to 50 Gbit/s using this technique will not affect the required optical bandwidth. Moreover, the modulation speed remains unchanged because of the fixed slot interval.
\nAnother important characteristic of the optical signal spectrum is to visualize the clock information in which the frequency is similar to the symbol rate. Note that impulse or spike in optical signal spectrum means high clock frequency in the signal. As shown in Figure 6a, there are seven impulses in the null-to-null spectral width, where f0 is impulse at optical carrier (1550 nm).Note that the spectral is symmetrical at f0. Besides that the impulses appear at 10 GHz (f1) and 20 GHz (f2) away from f0 on the right side of the main-lobe. The impulse at 10 GHz (f1) can be used to recover the clock frequency by a clock recovery circuit in receiver. Note that these impulse frequencies are similar for 4 × 10 (Figure 6b) and 5 × 10 Gbit/s (Figure 6c).
\nIn optical communication system based on wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technology, more than one WDM channel can be propagated in optical fibre. Each WDM channel is separated with channel spacing such as 25, 50, 100 or 200 GHz. Note that spectral efficiency in WDM optical system can be calculated based on formula in [6]. Although the simulation is based on 1550 nm or single channel wavelength, MSAC technique can be implemented over WDM system as well. In order to operate with WDM system, WDM channel spacing must be greater than the spectral width of MSAC signal in order to avoid serious interference between adjacent channels. Since the spectral width of MSAC signal is around 60 GHz, therefore 100 or 200 GHz WDM channel spacing can be used. Assuming that WDM channel spacing is 100 GHz, these are corresponding to 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 bit/s/Hz of spectral efficiency for 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s, respectively.
\nBit error rate (BER) estimation in this simulation is based on probability of error method. BER versus received optical power of MSAC at 3 × 10, 4 × 10 s and 5 × 10 Gbit/s has been plotted as in Figure 7. Note that this simulation is based on back-to-back setup (optical fibre is not included). As a result, the performance of MSAC system is limited by noises from optical amplifier and PIN photodiode. Inter symbol interference is minimized by setting the cut-off frequency of low-pass filter at 0.75 BW. From this figure, the required received optical power or receiver sensitivity of MSAC 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s at BER of 10−9 is −26.0, −22.8 and −18.5 dBm, respectively.
\nBER versus received optical power of 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC.
This simulation results show that 3 × 10 Gbit/s has the lowest received optical power, whereas 5 × 10 Gbit/s has the highest received optical power. Power penalty of around 3.2 and 7.5 dB is observed for 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s at BER of 10−9, respectively, compared to 3 × 10 Gbit/s. The reason for this penalty is due to the number of signal levels increased. MSAC 3 × 10 Gbit/s uses three signal levels; therefore, it has the lowest received optical power, whereas MSAC 5 × 10 Gbit/s uses six signal levels, thus it has the highest received optical power.
\nFigure 8 shows the BER versus OSNR of MSAC at 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s. From this figure, the required OSNR of MSAC 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s at BER of 10−9 is 25.5, 28.8 and 33.2 dB, respectively. Power penalty due to adding tributary is around 3.3 and 7.7 dB for 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s, respectively. As expected, MSAC system requires more OSNR in order to maintain the BER performance when tributaries increase because the number of levels increases. Note that the variation between power penalty for OSNR and received optical power is small. This indicates that received optical power and OSNR are important parameters for reliable communication.
\nBER versus OSNR of 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC.
Chromatic dispersion (CD) is one of the optical fibre impairment in high speed optical communication system. The CD effect in silica fibre will degrade the BER performance due to evolution of signal shape. In order to achieve high performance quality, the accumulated CD must not exceed the allowable CD tolerance. CD tolerance is determined by estimating the amount of CD (positive and negative) at the target BER of 10−9.
\nIn order to determine the chromatic dispersion tolerance, a standard single mode fibre model is included in this simulation setup. The dispersion parameter of optical fibre model is varied from negative dispersion to positive dispersion. Other fibre impairments effect such as attenuation, self-phase modulation (SPM) and non-linear fibre effect are ignored so that the system performance is determined by fibre dispersion only.
\nFigure 9 depicts the BER versus dispersion of MSAC 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s. Chromatic dispersion tolerance of MSAC 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5× 10 Gbit/s at BER of 10−9 is ±164.5, ±149.5 and ±69 ps/nm, respectively. This comparison shows that CD tolerance decreases when the number of signal levels increased. Note that optical power at the highest level for higher number of signal levels of MSAC is high compared to MSAC with small number of signal levels for BER of 10−9. In terms of dispersion mechanism, pulses at higher signal level experience highest energy loss compared to signal at lower level, thus reduces the eye opening and induces a power penalty. Therefore, at similar average power, MSAC with higher number of signal levels losses its CD robustness capability.
\nBER versus dispersion of 3 × 10, 4 × 10 and 5 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC.
In previous work, the separation of signal level or level spacing in MSAC symbol format is equally spaced. The level spacing between level i and level i-1 is ∆. This means that level spacing ratio is 0, 0.5 and 1 for level 0, level 1 and level 2, respectively. This setting is, therefore, known as equal level spacing (ELS). Figure 10 shows the BER of MSAC against normalized signal spacing of level 1 between 0.1 and 0.6. The optimum level spacing (OLS) is observed at normalized signal spacing of level 1 of 0.31. As expected, higher level spacing for upper level compared to lower level spacing in order to achieve equal probability of error region for each signal level.
\nBER of MSAC against normalized signal spacing of level 1 between 0.1 and 0.6.
Figures 11 and 12 show the comparison between equal level spacing (ELS) and optimize level spacing (OLS) of back to back (b2b) BER performance of 3 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC system based on received optical power and OSNR, respectively. From the figure, the received optical powers of −26 and −29.5 dBm are obtained at BER of 10−9 for ELS and OLS, respectively. This is an improvement of 3.5 dB when OLS MSAC is adopted at receiver. In term of OSNR, ELS requires 25.5 dB, in contrast OLS requires 21.8 dB. This clearly shows that there is OSNR improvement when OLS method is applied, with improvement around 3.7 dB.
\nReceived optical power comparison between ELS and OLS of b2b 3 × 10 _Gbit/s MSAC system.
OSNR comparison between ELS and OLS of b2b 3 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC system.
The performance in terms of dispersion tolerance for ELS and OLS method is plotted as shown in Figure 13. Based on that figure, ELS and OLS methods are capable of tolerating positive and negative chromatic dispersion of 329 and 311 ps/nm at BER of 10−9. The reduction of 18 ps/nm is observed for OLS method compared to ELS method.
\nThe effect of the signal level is also investigated for the MSAC system with setup of 4 × 10 Gbit/s. In general, the approach to determine the optimum level is similar for previous setup (3 × 10 Gbit/s). Since 4 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC has four signal levels, both signal levels 1 and 2 are adjusted while signal levels 0 and 3 are fixed. It is found that the optimum level spacing is achieved when the normalized signal level 1 and signal level 2 are 0.183 and 0.51, respectively.
\nDispersion tolerance comparison between ELS and OLS of b2b 3 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC system.
Figure 14 shows the comparison between ELS and OLS in terms of the received optical power for b2b 4 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC system. The received optical powers of ELS and OLS MSAC are −22.8 and −27.1 dBm, respectively, at BER of 10−9. The improvement of receiver sensitivity around 4.3 dB is observed. The comparison between ELS and OLS in terms of OSNR is shown in Figure 15. Based on this graph, OSNR is 28.8 dB for ELS, whereas 24.5 dB for OLS. This result shows that the OSNR improvement has been achieved with similar amount for receiver sensitivity improvement. Figure 16 shows the comparison between ELS and OLS in terms of CD tolerance. The CD tolerance is ±149.5 and ±73.1 ps/nm for ELS and OLS, respectively.
\nReceived optical power comparison between ELS and OLS of b2b 4 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC system.
OSNR comparison between ELS and OLS of b2b 4 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC system.
Dispersion tolerance comparison between ELS and OLS of b2b 4 × 10 Gbit/s MSAC system.
The performance comparison between other electrical-based multiplexing is made according to transmission capacities, which are 30 and 40 Gbit/s. For this comparison, other versions of DCDM such as DCDM-amplitude distribution controller (DCDM-ADC), DCDM with dual drive Mach Zehnder modulator (DD-MZM), new multiplexed pattern DCDM (NMP-DCDM) and absolute polar DCDM (AP-DCDM) are included. Table 1 shows the performance comparison between MSAC with various types of DCDM. It is very clear that MSAC with OLS has better performance compared to DCDM-ADC, DCDM with DD-MZM and NMP-DCDM. Note that level spacing for DCDM-ADC was optimized by installing a controller, whereas DCDM with DD-MZM was optimized using a dual drive Mach Zehnder modulator. MSAC with OLS offers better performance in terms of CD tolerance compared to AP-DCDM; however, the receiver sensitivity and spectral width are almost similar. Another advantage of MSAC compared to AP-DCDM is high frequency component at symbol rate. This feature is obtained because MSAC symbols are equipped with guard slot, like DCDM or RZ, therefore, increases the transition density in the modulated signal. As a result, a complex circuit is not required for recovering clock frequency in receiver. This comparison indicates that MSAC provides significant advantages against DCDM and AP-DCDM for multiplexing high speed data stream in electrical domain.
\nTechnique | \nGuard slot | \nRS BER @ 10−9 | \nOSNR BER @ 10−9 | \nSpectral width (GHz) | \nCD tolerance (ps/nm) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DCDM-ADC | \nYes | \n−28.9 | \n23.35 | \n80 | \n±93.5 | \n[7] |
DCDM with DD-MZM | \nYes | \n−28.85 | \n23.3 | \n80 | \n−59 to +100 | \n[8] |
AP-DCDM | \nNo | \n−29 | \n22.82 | \n60 | \n±109 | \n[9] |
NMP-DCDM | \nYes | \n−28.4 | \n23.5 | \n– | \n– | \n[10] |
MSAC with OLS | \nYes | \n−29.5 | \n21.8 | \n60 | \n±155 | \n
Performance comparison between various DCDM version and MSAC for 3 × 10 Gbit/s system setup.
Abbreviations: RS, receiver sensitivity; DCDM-ADC, DCDM amplitude distribution controller; DD-MZM, dual drive Mach Zehnder modulator; AP-DCDM, absolute polar DCDM; NMP-DCDM, new multiplexed pattern DCDM; NA, not available.
Table 2 shows the performance comparison between DCDM-ADC, AP-DCDM and MSAC for optical transmission system with 40 Gbit/s setup. In general, the performance for all parameters for MSAC with OLS is better than DCDM-ADC. This finding is consistence with the result in Table 1. The performance of MSAC is also better than AP-DCDM version with guard slot. The receiver sensitivity for MSAC is inferior when comparing with the optimized level spacing AP-DCDM using DD-MZM, but it has better performance in terms of the spectral width and CD tolerance. Moreover, upgrading MSAC from 3 (3 × 10 Gbit/s) to 4 tributaries (4 × 10 Gbit/s) is achieved without extra spectral width. For ETDM, spectral width of 160 GHz is required for RZ format and 80 GHz for NRZ format for 40 Gbit/s system [13]. This means that ETDM is not bandwidth efficient compared to MSAC.
\nTechnique | \nGuard slot | \nRS BER @ 10−9 | \nOSNR BER @ 10−9 | \nSpectral width (GHz) | \nCD tolerance (ps/nm) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DCDM-ADC | \nYes | \n−26 | \n26.38 | \n100 | \n±58 | \n[7] |
AP-DCDM | \nYes | \n−26.8 | \n25.8 | \n100 | \n±62 | \n[11] |
AP-DCDM with DD-MZM | \nNo | \n−31 | \nNA | \n80 | \n±68 | \n[12] |
MSAC with OLS | \nYes | \n−27.1 | \n24.5 | \n60 | \n±73.1 | \n
Performance comparison between DCDM, AP-DCDM and MSAC for 4 × 10 Gbit/s setup.
NA, not available.
The evaluation of MSAC technique in fibre optic-based optical communication system has been carried out through an intensive numerical simulation. From the analysis, it is found that MSAC system performance is certainly better than DCDM-ADC, DCDM with DD-MZM and NMP-DCDM in terms of spectral width, spectral efficiency, receiver sensitivity, OSNR and CD tolerance. Besides that MSAC is also capable of achieving higher bandwidth or spectral efficiency compared to ETDM and AP-DCDM. Note that MSAC system is implemented using simple intensity modulation and direct detection scheme. As a result, the complexity of transmitter and receiver for this system is less than that of coherent scheme or optical time division multiplexing (OTDM) system. This issue is crucial for future high speed optical communication system in metropolitan region. This work has successfully demonstrated the possibility of implementing MSAC as advance multiplexing in the cost efficient high speed optical communication system for metropolitan application.
\nThis work has been funded by the Ministry of Higher Education, Government of Malaysia under project FRGS/1/2015/TK04/UTHM/03/5.
\nThe secondary metabolism is a biosynthetic source of several interesting compounds useful to chemical, food, agronomic, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. The secondary pathways are not necessary for the survival of individual cells but benefit the plant as a whole [1]. Another general characteristic of secondary metabolism is that found in a specific organism, or groups of organisms, and is an expression of the individuality of species [2]. The secondary metabolism provides chemical diversity to organic molecules with low molecular weight that are related by the respective pathways; such organic molecules are called secondary metabolites. The secondary metabolites are often less than 1% of the total carbon in plant molecules [3]. These organic molecules isolated from terrestrial plants are the most studied, and their syntheses have an important role in the protection against pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation [3]. Secondary metabolism reflects plant environments more closely than primary metabolism [4]. There are three principal kinds of secondary metabolites biosynthesized by plants: phenolic compounds, terpenoids/isoprenoids, and alkaloids and glucosinolates (nitrogen- or sulfur-containing molecules, respectively) [5]. Phenolic compounds are biosynthesized by the shikimate pathway and are abundant in plants. The shikimate pathway, in plants, is localized in the chloroplast. These aromatic molecules have important roles, as pigments, antioxidants, signaling agents, electron transport, communication, the structural element lignan, and as a defense mechanism [6], Figure 1. The seven steps of the shikimate pathway and the metabolites for branch point are described in this chapter, as factors that induce the synthesis of phenolic compounds in plants. Some representative examples that show the effect of biotic and abiotic stress on the production of phenolic compounds in plants are discussed.
\nPhenolic compound biosynthesis promoted by biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivores, pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, CO2, O3, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation).
The shikimate biosynthesis pathway provides precursors for aromatic molecules in bacteria, fungi, apicomplexan, and plants, but not in animals [2, 7]. Shikimic acid is named after the highly toxic Japanese shikimi (Illicium anisatum) flower from which it was first isolated [8]. This biochemical pathway is a major link between primary and secondary metabolism in higher plants [6]. In microorganisms, the shikimate pathway produces aromatic amino acids L-phenylalanine (L-Phe), L-tyrosine (L-Tyr), and L-tryptophan (L-Trp), molecular building blocks for protein biosynthesis [9]. But in plants, these aromatic amino acids are not only crucial components of protein biosynthesis; they also serve as precursors for diverse secondary metabolites that are important for plant growth [10]. These secondary metabolites are called phenolic compounds and are synthesized when needed by the plant [11]. These molecules play an important role in the adaptation of plants to their ecosystem, and their study advances biochemical techniques and molecular biology [3, Bourgaud]. The principal aromatic phenolic compounds synthesized from L-Phe and L-Tyr are cinnamic acids and esters, coumarins, phenylpropenes, chromones (C6-C3), stilbenes, anthraquinones (C6-C2-C6), chalcones, flavonoids, isoflavonoids, neoflavonoids (C6-C3-C6), and their dimers and trimers, respectively (C6-C3-C6)2,3, lignans, neolignans (C6-C3)2, lignans (C6-C3)n, aromatic polyketides, or diphenylheptanoids (C6-C7-C6) [12]. L-Trp is a precursor of alkaloids in the secondary metabolism [2]. Additionally, diverse hydroxybenzoic acids and aromatic aldehydes (C6-C1) are biosynthesized via branch points in the shikimate pathway, Figure 2. Phenolic compounds biosynthesized from the shikimate pathway have structural versatility.
\nThe shikimic and chorismic acids are the common precursors for the synthesis of L-Phe, L-Tyr, and L-Trp and diverse phenolic compounds.
The shikimate pathway consists of seven sequential enzymatic steps and begins with an aldol-type condensation of two phosphorylated active compounds, the phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP), from the glycolytic pathway, and the carbohydrate D-erythrose-4-phosphate, from the pentose phosphate cycle, to give 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP), Figure 3. The seven enzymes that catalyze the pathway are known: 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase (DAHPS; EC 4.1.2.15, now EC 2.5.1.54), 3-dehydroquinate synthase (DHQS; EC 4.2.3.4), 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase (DHQ/SDH; EC 4.2.1.10/EC 1.1.1.25), shikimate kinase (SK; EC 2.7.1.71), 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS; EC 2.5.1.19), and chorismate synthase (CS; EC 4.2.3.5) [13], Table 1.
\nShikimate pathway.
Reaction step | \nSubstrate | \nEnzyme/cofactor | \nProduct | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPhosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), erythrose-4-phosphate | \n3-Deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase (DAHPS; EC 4.1.2.15, now EC 2.5.1.54)/Co2+, Mg2+ or Mn2+ [15] | \n3-Deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP), Pi | \n
2 | \n3-Deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP) | \n3-Dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4)/Co2+, NAD+ [15, 16] | \n3-Dehydroquinic acid (DHQ), Pi | \n
3 | \n3-Dehydroquinic acid (DHQ) | \n3-Dehydroquinate dehydratase (DHQ dehydratase EC 4.2.1.10) [15] | \n3-Dehydroshikimic acid (DHS), H2O | \n
4 | \n3-Dehydroshikimic acid (DHS), NADPH + H+ | \nShikimate dehydrogenase (SDH; EC 1.1.1.25) [18, 19, 20, 21] | \nShikimic acid, NADP+ | \n
5 | \nShikimic acid, ATP | \nShikimate kinase enzyme (SK; EC 2.7.1.71) | \nShikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P), ADP | \n
6 | \nShikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P), PEP | \n5-Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase, also called aroA enzyme (EPSPS; EC 2.5.1.19) [25] | \n5-Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate (EPSP), Pi | \n
7 | \n5-Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate (EPSP) | \nChorismate synthase (CS; EC 4.2.3.5)/FMNH2 [2, 19, 30, 31] | \nChorismic acid, Pi | \n
Substrates, enzymes, and products of the shikimate pathway.
Pi, phosphate; NAD+, oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NADPH, reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; FMNH2, reduced flavin mononucleotide.
The shikimate pathway has special characteristics that are present only in bacteria, fungi, and plants. The absence of the pathway in all other organisms provides the enzymes catalyzing these reactions with potentially useful targets for the development of antibacterial agents and herbicides. For example, 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase (EPSP-synthase) catalyzes the transfer of the enolpyruvyl (carboxyvinyl) moiety from PEP to shikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P) [6].
\nIn the second reaction step, DAHP loses phosphate (Pi); the enolic-type product is cyclized through a second aldol-type reaction to produce 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ). The 3-dehydroquinate synthase (DHQS) catalyzes this cyclization in the shikimate pathway. The DHQ dehydrates to produce 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) (3-dehydroquinate dehydratase); this compound has a conjugated double carbon-carbon, Figure 3. The protocatechuic and the gallic acids (C6-C1) are produced by branch-point reactions from DHS [2]. The fourth step in the pathway is a reduction reaction of DHS with reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), Figure 3. The fifth section of the pathway is the activation of shikimic acid with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (shikimate kinase, SK) to make shikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P). The sixth chemical reaction is the addition of PEP to S3P to generate 5-enolpyruvylshikimic acid 3-phosphate; the enzyme that catalyzes this reaction step, 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), has been extensively studied. The reason for this interest is because glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] is a powerful inhibitor of EPSPS [2], so glyphosate has been used as a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide. It is an organophosphorus molecule, phosphonic acid, and glycine derivative that has a similar molecular structure to PEP, Figure 4.
\nPEP and glyphosate (powerful inhibitor of the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase, EPSPS).
The last reaction step of the shikimate pathway is the production of chorismic acid from catalytic action on the chorismate synthase (CS). This reaction is a 1,4-trans elimination of Pi, to yield the conjugated molecule, chorismic acid, Figure 3.
\nThe first reaction of the shikimate pathway is an aldol-type condensation of PEP and carbohydrate erythrose-4-P, to give 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP), Figures 3 and 5. A new stereogenic center is generated in the condensation product DAHP catalyzed by the 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase enzyme (DAHPS; EC 4.1.2.15, now EC 2.5.1.54). Results of enzymatic kinetic and labeled PEP with tritium (Z)-[3-3H] PEP suggest that the nucleophilic attack of PEP is from the Si face of PEP to the Re face of the carbonyl group of D-erythrose-4-P, Figure 5 [14]. Two isoenzymes of DAHPS have been found for the catalysis of this first reaction step. One isozyme needs only Mn2+, and the other, either Co2+, Mg2+, or Mn2+ for the catalysis [15].
\nStereochemistry of the condensation reaction of (Z)-[3-3H]PEP and D-erythrose-4-phosphate by DAHP synthase [14].
The second reaction of the shikimate pathway is an intramolecular aldol-type reaction cyclization, where the enol (C6-C7) of DAHP nucleophilically attacks the carbonyl group (C2), to produce a six-member cycle, the 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ), Figures 3 and 6. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction, 3-dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4), is a carbon-oxygen lyase enzyme that requires Co2+ and bound oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) as cofactors [15, 16]. The Co2+ is essential for the catalytic activity of DHQS. Bender et al. [16] found that DHQS, from Escherichia coli, is a monomeric metalloenzyme that contains tightly bound Co2+, and DHQS is deactivated with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). The presence of the substrate (DAHP) blocks the inactivation by EDTA. The NAD+ cofactor dissociates form the DHQS enzyme rapidly in the presence of DAHP [16]. The reaction mechanism of the enzyme-catalyzed conversion of DAHP to DHQ involves five transformations from the DAHP hemiketal form, a pyranose: (1) oxidation of the hydroxyl at C5 adjacent to the lost proton that requires NAD+ (NAD+ need never dissociate from the active site), (2) the elimination of Pi of C7 to make the α,β-unsaturated ketone, (3) the reduction of C5 with NADH + H+, (4) the ring opening of the enol to yield an enolate, and (5) the intramolecular aldol-like reaction to produce DHQ. All five-reaction steps occur through the function of DHQS, Figure 6.
\nReaction mechanism of DAHP (hemiketal form) to 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ) by 3-dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4) [16].
The reduction reaction of DHQ leads to quinic acid at this branch point in the shikimate pathway. Quinic acid is a secondary metabolite that is free, forming esters or as part of alkaloids such as quinine. Quinic acid is found in high quantities in mature kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis and other species of Actinidia) and is a distinguishing characteristic of fresh kiwi fruit [7]. Also, the quinic acid is abundant in roasted coffee [17].
\nThe third and fourth reaction steps of the shikimate pathway are catalyzed by a bifunctional enzyme: 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase (DHQ dehydratase/SDH; EC 4.2.1.10/EC 1.1.1.25). The DHQ dehydratase enzyme is a hydro-lyase kind, and the SDH is an oxidoreductase enzyme. The DHQ dehydratase, in the third reaction step, converts DHQ into 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) by eliminating water, and this reaction is reversible, Figure 7. The DHS is converted to shikimic acid in the fourth reaction step, by the reduction of the carbonyl group at C-5 by the catalytic action of SDH with NADPH, Figure 3. The biosynthesis of DHS is a branch point to shikimic acid and to the catabolic quinate pathway. If the DHS dehydrates, it produces protocatechuic acid (C6-C1) or gallic acid, Figure 3. Gallic acid (C6-C1) is a hydroxybenzoic acid that is a component of tannins [2].
\nReaction mechanism to produce 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) by type I DHQ dehydratase enzyme [21].
Two structurally different kinds of 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase are known: type I (not heat-stable) and type II (heat-stable). Type I enzyme is present in bacteria and higher plants, and type II is found in fungi, which have both types of enzymes [18, 19]. The catalytic mechanism of the type I DHQ dehydratase has been detected by electrospray MS [20]. This catalytic mechanism involves the amino acid residue Lys-241 that forms a Schiff base with the substrate and product, Figure 7 [21]. The fourth step is the reduction of DHS with NADPH that enantioselectively reduces the carbonyl of the ketone group of DHS to produce shikimic acid (shikimate dehydrogenase, SDH), Figure 3.
\nSigh and Christendat [22] reported the crystal structure of DHQ dehydratase/SDH from the plant genus Arabidopsis. The crystal structure has the shikimate bound at the SDH and the tartrate molecule at the DHQ dehydratase. The studies show that Asp 423 and Lys 385 are key catalytic amino acids and Ser 336 is a key-binding group.
\nThe shikimate kinase enzyme (SK; EC 2.7.1.71) catalyzes the phosphorylation of the shikimic acid, the fifth chemical reaction of the shikimate pathway, and the products are shikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P) and ADP, Figures 3 and 8. Shikimic acid is phosphorylated with ATP in the 5-hydroxyl group of shikimic acid. SK is an essential enzyme in several bacterial pathogens and is not present in the human cell; therefore the SK enzyme has been classified as a protein target for drug design, especially for chemotherapeutic development of antitubercular drugs [23, 24].
\nPhosphorylation of shikimic acid with ATP.
The 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase, also called aroA enzyme (EPSPS; EC 2.5.1.19), catalyzes the condensation of PEP to the 5-hydroxyl group of S3P in the sixth reaction of the shikimate pathway to form 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate (EPSP). The reaction mechanism involves the protonation of PEP to subsequent nucleophilic attack of the hydroxyl at C-5 of S3P to form an intermediate that loses Pi to form EPSP, Figure 9 [25].
\nReaction mechanism of the condensation of S3P with PEP by EPSPS (EC 2.5.1.19) to form EPSP [25].
EPSPS is the most studied enzyme of the shikimate pathway because it plays a crucial role in the penultimate step. If this enzyme is inhibited, there is an accumulation of shikimic acid [26], and the synthesis of aromatic amino acid is disabled, leading to the death of the plant [27]. Therefore, EPSPS is used as a target for pesticides, like glyphosate, Figure 4, the active ingredient in the herbicides RoundUp™, Monsanto Chemical Co., and Touchdown™, Syngenta. Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) inhibits EPSPS and is a potent nonselective herbicide that mimics the carbocation of PEP and binds EPEPS competitively [28]. Because the glyphosate is nonselective and kills food crops, there is interest in finding glyphosate-tolerant genes for genetically modified crops [29]. Two types of EPSPS enzymes have been identified: type I EPSPS (sensitive to glyphosate) identified mostly in plants and bacteria and type II EPSPS (nonsensitive to glyphosate and has a high affinity for PEP), found in some bacteria [27].
\nThe seventh and last reaction step of the shikimate pathway is the 1,4-trans elimination of the Pi group at C-3 from EPSPS to synthetize chorismic acid. This last step is catalyzed by chorismate synthase (CS; EC 4.2.3.5) that needs reduced flavin mononucleotide (FMNH2) as a cofactor that is not consumed [2, 19]. The FMNH2 transfers an electron to the substrate reversibly [30]. Spectroscopic techniques and kinetic isotope effect studies suggest that a radical intermediate in a non-concerted mechanism is developed [30, 31], Figure 10. Chorismic acid, the final molecule of the shikimate pathway, is a key branch point to post-chorismic acid pathways, to obtain L-Phe, L-Tyr, and L-Trp, Figure 2. L-Phe is the substrate to phenylpropanoid and flavonoid pathways [13].
\nReaction of mechanism to yield chorismic acid by chorismate synthase [30].
The expression of phenolic compounds is promoted by biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivores, pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation). UV radiation is divided into UVC (≤280 nm), UVB (280–320 nm), and UVA (300–400 nm). UVA and UVB radiation are transmitted through the atmosphere; all UVC and some UVB radiation (highly energetic) are absorbed by the Earth’s ozone layer. This accumulation is explained by the increase in enzymatic activity of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and chalcone synthase enzymes, among others [12]. Studies have been done about the increase of phenolic compounds, such as anthocyanins, in plants when they are exposed to UVB radiation [13]. Another study demonstrates that UVB exposure enhances anthocyanin biosynthesis in “Cripps pink” apples (Malus x domestica Borkh.) but not in “Forelle” pears (Pyrus communis L.) [32]. This effect may be due to UV radiation exposure and the cultivar of the plants studied. It is known that if plants are under stress, they accumulate phenolic compounds.
\nThe increase in phenolic compounds in blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) plantlets cultivated in vitro exposed to aluminum (Al) and cadmium (Cd) has also been studied. These heavy metals cause high toxicity in plants, because they increase the oxidative stress by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The authors of the study suggest that the phenolic compounds, specifically chlorogenic and ellagic acids, Figure 11, reduce the ROS in blueberry plants [33].
\nChemical structure of chlorogenic (C6-C3) and ellagic (C6-C1) acids.
An interesting study was carried out in 2011 by Mody et al., where they studied the effect of the resistance response of apple tree seedlings (Malus x domestica) to a leaf-chewing insect (Spodoptera littoralis) [34]. The authors found a significant herbivore preference for undamaged plants (induced resistance) was first observed 3 days after herbivore damage in the most apical leaf. Also, the results showed higher concentrations of the flavonoid phlorizin, Figure 12, in damaged plants than undamaged plants. This indicates that insect preference for undamaged apple plants may be linked to phlorizin, which is the main secondary metabolite of the phenolic type in apple leaves.
\nChemical structure of phlorizin (C6-C3).
Knowledge of the biosynthetic pathway of shikimic acid leads to understanding the reaction mechanisms of enzymes and thus discovering antimicrobials, pesticides, and antifungals. Studies with isotopic labeling of substrates, the use of X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), mass spectrometry (ES), biotechnology, as well as organic synthesis have contributed to explaining the shikimate pathway. Although the seven steps of the biosynthetic pathway are elucidated, these metabolites are the precursors of phenolic compounds, more complex molecules that are necessary for the adaptation of plants to the environment. So, the shikimate pathway is the basis for the subsequent biosynthesis of phenolic compounds. There is scientific interest in continuing to investigate the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds from several points of view: pharmaceuticals, agronomy, chemical and food industries, genetics, and health.
\nThe authors thank Carol Ann Hayenga for her English assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. The Technological University of the Mixteca provided support.
\nThe authors have no conflict of interest to declare and are responsible for the content and writing of the manuscript.
This chapter does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
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