\r\n\tThe fifth topic is “complications and drug side effects in the treatment of pigmentation disorders”. These include drug allergies, hyper- and hypopigmentation, persistent skin depigmentation, scars, skin burns, and the potential for skin cancer and skin lymphoma. The last topic is called “coping and support along with skin pigmentation diseases”. Increase the quality of life, psychotherapy, team therapy, and asking for understanding and support from family members.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-900-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-899-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-901-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"2ac6c9f424eec37ed85232c2c97ef6f6",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Shahin Aghaei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11698.jpg",keywords:"Melanoma, Post-inflammatory Hyperpigmentation, Albinism, Piebaldism, Vitiligo, Pityriasis Alba, Laser Therapy, Cosmetic Coverage, Drug Reactions, Skin Sensitivity, Quality of Life, Team Therapy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate Professor of Clinical Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery, lead author or contributor to nearly 60 articles published in international dermatology journals, and editor-in-chief of the Journal of Surgical Dermatology in Singapore.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"64024",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shahin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"shahin-aghaei",fullName:"Shahin Aghaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64024/images/system/64024.jpg",biography:"Shahin Aghaei, MD, graduated from Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Iran, in 2004. He was awarded a fellowship from the International Society of Dermatopathology (ISD) from Charles University, Czech Republic, in 2008 and a fellowship in Dermatologic Surgery from the Medical University of Graz, Austria, in 2010. He is currently editor in chief of the Journal of Surgical Dermatology in Singapore and Associate Professor of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery at Iran University of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine. 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The mechanism allows for blood to become reoxygenated in order to ensure sufficient perfusion throughout the patient’s body. The application of this novel concept is attributed to John Gibbon Jr., and its first successful clinical use was reported in 1953 [1]. However, it did not become more practically available until in 1955 when both John Kirklin at the Mayo Clinic and C. Walton Lillehei at the University of Minnesota introduced its routine use in open heart surgery [1].
The utilization of cardiopulmonary bypass increased significantly between the years 1960 and 1969 due to the increased demand brought on by advances in the field of cardiothoracic surgery. Prior to this era, the majority of cardiac surgeries being performed addressed congenital heart disease in an expeditious fashion. Bypass allowed more complex problems to be repaired by allowing more time for the surgeon to operate while the patient maintained perfusion. Additionally, the need for reliable extracorporeal circulation was expanded with the introduction of coronary artery bypass grafting, the development of artificial heart valves, the utilization of deep hypothermia to facilitate circulatory arrest, and heart transplantation [1].
With the use of cardiopulmonary bypass increasing so dramatically, research into further understanding and improvement of the process was initiated, particularly in the 1980s. Special investigative attention was given to the inflammatory reaction induced by cardiopulmonary bypass, the development of drugs to reduce adverse neurologic events, and flow pulsatility [1, 2, 3]. The field of cardiothoracic surgery and the advancement of cardiopulmonary bypass have continued to be refined and improved.
Arterial cannulation is necessary in order to provide oxygenated blood systemically during cardiopulmonary bypass. Currently, there are three different sites that can be utilized to achieve this function:
Distal ascending aorta
Femoral artery
Axillary artery
The most commonly utilized site is the distal ascending aorta. In this instance, cannulation is performed near the origin of the brachiocephalic trunk [4]. In the event this site is not a viable option, the femoral artery is the standard peripheral site. Femoral arterial cannulation can be accessed both by open cutdown technique and percutaneous techniques. If a percutaneous approach is taken, the arteriotomy will need to be closed using a percutaneous vessel closure device or an open repair. If both the distal ascending aorta and femoral artery prove to be high-risk options due to complications, the axillary artery is the next alternative, preferably on the right side. This vessel is accessed via the deltopectoral groove via a standard infraclavicular cutdown.
Determining which arterial cannulation site to use depends on factors such as the procedure being performed, patient body habitus, and the degree of atherosclerotic disease present [5]. Therefore, each case should be evaluated individually to decide upon the best course of action. Based on the surgical procedure, it must be determined if the distal ascending aorta is an appropriate cannulation site. Instances where this may not be the case include repeat sternotomy, emergency surgery, minimally invasive surgery, anatomic anomalies, prohibitive atherosclerotic disease, and robotic cardiac surgery, among others [4]. The benefits of antegrade versus retrograde flow must also be weighed. Both the distal ascending aorta and the axillary artery have the advantage of anterograde flow, whereas the femoral artery exhibits retrograde flow [5]. This is especially important in cases involving aortic dissection. When contemplating using femoral access, excessive arterial calcification, previous groin operations, and body habitus must be considered.
Obtaining the appropriate imaging studies prior to conducting cardiopulmonary bypass is essential, as the information gathered can influence the surgical approach. There are several different imaging options that can be utilized. The most routine preoperative imaging study performed is chest radiography. Chest x-ray (anteroposterior and lateral) can provide information such as the size and shape of the cardiac silhouette, traces of previous thoracic interventions or hardware, severe atherosclerotic disease, and significant pulmonary disorders, in addition to other pertinent information [6]. In the current era, nearly every patient who presents with chest pain has CT imaging ordered by a provider during the work-up. Chest CT can provide an abundance of information regarding the patient’s anatomy and quality of vasculature, as well as many anomalies and abnormalities. Certain findings such as porcelain aorta, dissections, and subclavian stenosis can alter the operative treatment plan. Recent data has suggested that CT should be the standard preoperative imaging for patients with prior sternotomy, as doing so has been associated with a lower risk of perioperative complication [7]. This type of imaging allows for the surgeon to visualize and analyze the sternum more effectively, providing information that will ultimately optimize planning of the surgical procedure [7].
Additional imaging modalities that can be utilized preoperatively include transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) and transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE). Echocardiography has the ability to provide critical information in order to optimize hemodynamics and identify conditions that had not been appreciated on static imaging [8]. In regard to determining which form of echocardiography (TEE vs. TTE) is most appropriate, several factors should be considered. The imaging quality of TTE is limited by the structures the signal must traverse. TEE has shown to provide superior imaging, particularly for posterior structures that are closer in association to the esophagus including the aorta and both atria [9]. The disadvantages of TEE in comparison to TTE include its invasive nature, requirement for sedation, and increased time to perform. Despite these factors, TEE’s improved ability to visualize critical structures suggests that it should be the echocardiography imaging of choice for procedures requiring cardiopulmonary bypass. In our practice, TEE is regularly performed in the operating room after induction and prior to incision to verify and support the other preoperative cardiac function tests.
Aortic cannulas come in a variety of commercially available options. Cannula size should be selected in conjunction with the perfusionist team so as to utilize the appropriate cannula for adequate flow within the circuit. Too large of a cannula may require an aortotomy that is difficult to close in a standard fashion, while too small of a cannula will not allow sufficient flows. A narrower cannula can cause high pressure gradients, cavitation, or jets of flow which can increase the likelihood of dissection. Diffusion-tip cannulas are available which provide multidirectional flow to reduce jets. The tip of the cannula may be straight, tapered, or angled, as well as made from metal or plastic. Various tip modifications, such as flanges or adjustable rings, are available to prevent the cannula from being inserted too far into the aorta and impeding flow to the head vessels. When using an alternate arterial cannulation site, certain adjustments must be made. Adequate bypass support via femoral cannulation is best achieved with a long, wire-reinforced cannula, whereas the diameter of the axillary artery must be taken into account when selecting an appropriate cannula [10].
Arterial cannulation is almost always completed prior to venous cannulation during the setup for cardiopulmonary bypass. The steps below outline the appropriate manner in which arterial cannulation can be achieved.
Identify the appropriate cannulation site through the use of preoperative imaging, surgical history, and operator preference (Figure 1).
Utilize additional intraoperative imaging, such as TEE and epi-aortic ultrasound (discussed below), and surgical palpation to ensure avoidance of atherosclerotic regions to minimize risk of embolization. Adequate surgical exposure should be obtained through tedious dissection of the desired vessel. When using the axillary or femoral artery, proximal and distal control should be obtained in the form of vessel loops. Ascending aortic exposure should include the origin identification and isolation of the brachiocephalic trunk and the main pulmonary artery, at a minimum.
Two purse string sutures should be placed at the intended access site, typically with monofilament (Prolene™) or braided (Ethibond™) nonabsorbable suture, at a distance that can accommodate an average 20–22F cannula (Figure 2).
These should be snared in the standard fashion, as they will be tightened and tied after the cannula has been removed to close the aortotomy. The adventitia within the sutures is then gently divided to prepare for aortotomy (Figure 3).
Close attention should be paid to the systemic blood pressure, which should be below 100 mmHg prior to aortotomy to decrease the incidence of dissection. A #11 or #15 blade is used to make the aortotomy within the purse string sutures, while the adventitia superior to the incision is pulled gently inferiorly to cover the defect in order to prevent excessive bleeding (Figure 4). The incision should be adequate to accommodate the selected cannula but not excessively wide so as to cause difficulty snaring the cannula in place while on bypass. The selected cannula is then inserted into the aorta, and the sutures snared down (Figure 5). As previously mentioned, the cannula tip should not be inserted any further than necessary so as to provide optimal systemic flow.
Appropriate placement of the cannula is then verified by checking for adequate back-bleeding, which is an opportunity to de-air the cannula as well. Alternatively, the perfusionist may check the arterial waveform for flow verification after the line has been de-aired and connected to the circuit.
The arterial cannula and snares are then tied together with silk ties to provide additional stability [11] (Figure 6).
Ascending aortic exposure prior to cannulation.
Cannulation site opposite brachiocephalic artery with purse string sutures placed. Note the cannula at the lower border of the image with a flange marking the maximum length of desired insertion.
The adventitia is gently removed from the cannulation site within the purse string sutures.
A scalpel is used to make the aortotomy at the cannulation site, while gentle inferior traction is placed with the adventitia to prevent excessive bleeding.
The aortic cannula has been inserted, and the purse string sutures snared down.
The aortic cannula and snared purse string sutures are secured together with a heavy silk suture.
Closing the aortic cannulation site is rather straightforward. The purse string sutures that were placed prior to the cannula insertion are utilized to close the incision once the tubing has been removed. If needed, an additional mattress or figure-of-eight suture can be placed to reinforce the aortotomy [12]. The use of felt pledges is left to the discretion of the surgeon. These are composed of prosthetic material such as polytetrafluorethylene and are used to achieve a greater level of hemostasis, especially in patients with fragile tissue such as the elderly [12]. There is, however, a theoretically increased risk of bacterial infection with their use [12]. When closing femoral or axillary cannulation sites, a bovine pericardial patch is frequently used so as not to narrow the arterial diameter significantly.
If the axillary artery is selected as the cannulation site, the exposure should be completed prior to median sternotomy. The right side is preferred. To isolate the artery, an incision is made 2 fingerbreadths inferiorly at the middle 1/3 of the clavicle. The incision may be extended laterally. The subcutaneous tissue is dissected down to the level of the pectoralis major. The pectoralis major is then split in the direction of its fibers, and the pecoralis minor is retracted laterally. The axillary vein is the first vascular structure encountered. It is dissected out and retracted inferiorly. Care should be taken to ligate small venous branches. The brachial plexus is superior to the artery and should be avoided if possible. Once the axillary artery is dissected from the surrounding tissue and isolated, the decision must be made to cannulate the artery directly or use an extension graft, such as Dacron. If the artery is to be cannulated directly, open transverse arteriotomy may be made or Seldinger technique employed for cannula placement. A graft is most helpful for small arteries where there is concern that the size of the cannula will completely occlude distal flow or if there is concern that the artery will be significantly narrowed when the arteriotomy is closed. If a graft is to be used, proximal and distal clamps should be placed on the artery, followed by a longitudinal arteriotomy. Graft anastomosis is typically completed with a 6-0 polypropylene suture. After the anastomosis is complete, the graft can be cannulated and blood flow to the arm restored. At the completion of cardiopulmonary bypass, the graft may be ligated and oversewn. If a graft is not used, the arteriotomy can be closed in the standard fashion after decannulation. Standard cannulation strategies should be used, as discussed above. After decannulation, the pectoralis major should be reapproximated so as to cover the arteriotomy, and the incision should be closed in layers [13, 14].
The femoral artery has long been used for cardiopulmonary bypass since the advent of cardiac surgery. As mentioned above, the femoral artery is a good alternative to direct aortic cannulation in the setting of porcelain aorta, type A aortic dissection, and re-operative cardiac surgery, as well as minimally invasive cardiac procedures [15, 16, 17]. The femoral artery can be cannulated percutaneously or directly. An extension graft is almost never needed for femoral cannulation, as opposed to axillary artery cannulation.
Several commercial sets are available to assist in percutaneous cannulation. A percutaneous cannulation is unlikely to be successful in patients who do not have a palpable femoral pulse. To start, the femoral artery should be identified by palpation or ultrasound guidance. The common femoral artery should be punctured well above the superficial/profunda femoral artery bifurcation so as to decrease the incidence of limb malperfusion. Seldinger technique is then employed to completed cannulation. When using femoral artery cannulation for aortic dissection, it is vital to identify the guide wire in the true lumen by TEE prior to cannula placement. Closure preferences for the arteriotomy vary. Several commercial closure devices are available, such as Perclose Proglide Vascular Closure Device (Abbott Inc., Santa Clara, CA) [18]. The field of endovascular closure devices is rapidly growing due to the popularity of endovascular procedures such as abdominal aortic aneurysm repair and transcatheter valve replacement. If the arteriotomy is not hemostatic after attempted endovascular closure and prolonged pressure, a femoral cutdown may be necessary for direct surgical closure of the artery.
For open surgical femoral artery cannulation, an incision should be made parallel to the inguinal crease. The subcutaneous tissues should be dissected down until the femoral artery can be identified and isolated. Proximal and distal control is obtained, and the common femoral artery can be directly cannulated. At the termination of cardiopulmonary bypass, the artery is the repaired directly, typically with 4-0 or 5-0 polypropylene suture. Femoral approach, both percutaneous and via cutdown, can be significantly more difficult to successfully perform on obese patients and patients with severe peripheral vascular disease.
Patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass are at risk for developing neurological deficits due to the dislodgement of atheroma from the aorta and proximal arch during the procedure [19]. Therefore, it is imperative that these atheromas are identified accurately to avoid the development of such complications. The standard method for detecting atherosclerotic disease of the aorta intraoperatively is manual palpation performed by the surgeon [20]. However, it has been noted that this traditional technique is unable to detect approximately 50% of atheroma lesions due to the presence of soft calcifications that the surgeon cannot appropriately identify [21].
An imaging modality that is routinely utilized in cardiac procedures is intraoperative transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE). TEE has shown to be effective in identifying areas of the aorta that are affected by atherosclerotic disease [10]. However, this method is not comprehensive as the bronchus creates a blind spot due to its position between the aorta and esophagus [19].
The best approach to identifying the presence of atheroma lesions in the aorta and proximal arch is epi-aortic scanning. This method involves directly imaging the aortic root and arch via ultrasound. An investigation conducted by Syliviris and colleagues [21] found that epi-aortic scanning was superior to both palpation and TEE in both identifying areas of atherosclerosis and grading the lesions.
Once the locations of atheroma lesions have been identified, modifications to the surgical approach can be made in order to ensure appropriate cannulation and clamping sites. Avoidance of these diseased locations will help to decrease the likelihood of neurologic complications due to disruption of the atherosclerotic regions.
Intraoperative bleeding can be a painful complication for both the surgeon and the patient. Bleeding from the aortic cannulation site is most commonly from too large of an aortotomy or inadequate snaring of the purse string sutures. To prevent this, careful attention should be paid to the diameter of the purse string “circle” that is created to ensure that it is 3–5 mm wider than the cannula diameter, typically 1.5–2 cm in total diameter. It can be challenging to place an additional circumferential suture after the aortotomy has been made. Additionally, care should be taken when making the aortotomy that the scalpel is not inserted too deeply so as to injure the posterior wall of the ascending aorta.
Monitor circuit and peripheral arterial line mean arterial pressures to ensure adequate systemic circulation. Unequal mean arterial pressures suggests cannula malposition, which can typically be corrected by slightly withdrawing the cannula while taking care not to withdraw the cannula completely. Circuit flow rates should be maintained around 2.4 L/min/m2 to ensure cerebral perfusion. If the flow rates are decreased, cannula position should be verified both visually and with intraoperative TEE.
Visual inspection and palpation of the distal ascending aorta prior to cannulation is of utmost importance in preventing embolic events. A calcified aortic wall is more likely to cause not only difficulty in successfully inserting an aortic cannula but also showering of plaque to the systemic circulation. In addition, intraoperative TEE and epi-aortic ultrasound can be employed to help select an adequate cannulation site for complex aortic walls. If a heavy calcified porcelain aorta is present but not appreciated on preoperative imaging (which would be rare), alternate cannulation sites should be considered. A caveat to this is that atherosclerotic disease that majorly affects the aorta is also likely to affect femoral or axillary vessels.
Aortic dissection is the most feared complication related to aortic cannulation. If not promptly recognized and addressed, the effects can be devastating. Placement of the cannula into the true aortic lumen, as detailed above using adequate pressure gradient monitoring in the bypass circuit, sufficient blood return in the cannula after placement, and verification of placement with TEE significantly decrease the risk of dissection. Atherosclerotic plaques can tear between the medial and intimal layers causing dissection if a cannula is attempted to be forced though a calcified area on the aortic wall. In addition, severe hypertension after decannulation when the aortic purse string sutures are being tied down can lead to tears in the aortic wall layers [3, 22, 23].
Cardiac surgery has undergone significant progress over the last 65 years that would not have been possible without the evolution of cardiopulmonary bypass. Several strategies, tips, and pitfalls have been presented above to provide the greatest opportunity for successful arterial cannulation for bypass.
Over the years, wireless and mobile communication standards have developed, where each phase brings more intriguing and innovative services and capabilities to the end-user. Since 1980, wireless and mobile networks have been evolving, and after almost every decade, a new generation has been established. Beginning with first-generation (1G) featuring analog modulation techniques, circuit switching, Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), and developing 2G and 3G on the way, the wireless network generations have matured into IP-based 4th generation (4G)/Long-Term-Evolution (LTE), with the internet as a core network [1]. Although higher data rates have been achieved with 4G/LTE standards, however, exponentially growing data rates requirement led by the rapidly increasing number of wireless devices and limited potential of the existing technologies to administer the impending technologies such as high definition (HD) video streaming, cloud services, Internet-of-Things (IoT), and device-to-device communication [2, 3, 4, 5, 6], instigated substantial development in establishing fifth-generation (5G) standards for commercial mobile and broadband wireless communication services [7]. As all the radio communication services, such as GPS, AM/FM radio, cellular, Wi-Fi, and satellite communication are operating in the microwave spectrum (300 MHz- 3 GHz), this resulted in the congestion and bandwidth inadequacy at the widely used microwave frequency band. Consequently, the underused millimeter-wave spectrum draws the attention of researchers in order to support 5G communication systems and applications.
Although the commercial deployment of 5G is underway in the world’s major countries, the rapidly increasing higher data rates and ultra-high-speed communication requirements have led to the introduction and development of sixth-generation (6G) wireless communication technology. The 6G wireless communication system is expected to emerge around 2030, and it is envisioned that at that time, the number of connected devices will increase by 500 billion [8, 9]. It is expected that 6G will offer ultra-reliable low-latency communication emphasizing internet machines, the use of Artificial Intelligence for wireless communication, and the enhancement of mobile broadband [10]. In order to fulfill these increasing demands, communication systems are shifting towards the higher frequency bands i.e., millimeter-wave and terahertz (THz) bands, as shown in Figure 1 [11, 12]. Both millimeter-wave and THz bands will play an essential role in the 6G wireless communication [13, 14, 15]. Some of the prominent proposed applications for THz band wireless communication are the internet of nano-thing (IoNT), health monitoring system, entertainment services, military, ultra-high-speed on-chip communication [14], augmented reality, and heterogeneous networks [15].
Mobile cellular spectrum from 1G (1980’s) to 6G (predicted around 2030s) [
An antenna is substantially important for any communication system as the design of the air interface is mainly dependent on the antenna design. With the evolution of wireless generations, technologies, and network capabilities provided by the manufacturers, the antenna design community has also shown extensive technological development to meet the continuously increasing customer requirements. This chapter describes the challenges associated with 5G communication and antenna designing. Also, it presents numerous literary works exploring various technologies and design methodologies to meet the users’ necessities for 5G antennas. In addition, design specifications, research directions, different technologies expected to be involved, and challenges in the design, fabrication, and measurement of the 6G antenna at the THz band are discussed in this chapter.
Mobile communication is considered one of the paramount innovations of the last few decades as it has played a significant role in the social and economic development of the countries. Due to the rapid upsurge in connected devices, the growth of data traffic is remarkable. The latest traffic anticipated by Cisco Systems, Inc., due to the increase in mobile devices is illustrated in Figure 2. It is noted that the number of global mobile devices is predicted to grow from 8.8 billion (in 2018) to 13.1 billion by 2023, with an 8% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) [16]. Due to this anticipated growth of connected devices and also due to the more value-added services such as virtual reality, ultra-high-definition video, cloud services, smart vehicles, etc., the industry progressed towards the 5G networks to provide the 1000x more capacity as compared to 4G, so that the incessantly growing data rates requirement can be met.
Global growth of mobile devices (Values in parenthesis refers to the years 2018 & 2023) [
The system specifications targeted by International Telecommunication Union (ITU) for 5G to meet the consumer requirements are demonstrated in Figure 3. Figure 3 depicts that 5G communication systems should have high data rates such as 10 Gbps, mobility up to 500 km/h, spectral efficiency near to 10 bits/s/Hz, as compared to 4G these systems should be 10× more cost-effective, and latency should be less than 1 ms [17]. Moreover, 5G must permit massive device connectivity by connecting a huge number of devices simultaneously to the network for the Internet of Things (IoT).
Requirements for 5G Communication [
The officially allocated 5G bands at the ITU World Radio-communication Conference 2019 (WRC-19), are illustrated in Figure 4 [18]. The allocated spectrum for 5G considers low bands i.e., 700 MHz, and Sub-6 GHz bands, including 3.3–4.2 GHz and 4.4–5 GHz bands. The most potential technique to enhance the capacity and data rates in mobile and wireless communication systems is to increase the bandwidth [19]. As higher frequencies offer more bandwidth, therefore, higher frequency bands i.e., mm-wave band covering 26 GHz, 28 GHz, 37GHz, 39 GHz, 47 GHz, and 60 GHz, have been widely considered for 5G applications. It is expected that at the ITU World Radio Conference in 2023 (WRC-23), some additional IMT identifications could be approved across several bands between 3.3 GHz and 10.5 GHz for 5G [20].
5G frequency bands (Licensed, Unlicensed/shared, Existing band [
With the immense technological advancements in the reliability, capacity, availability, and latency that which 5G mobile communication standard put forward, the regulatory bodies such as European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI) and 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) also set antenna specifications and requirements for 5G systems. This requires the identification of new technologies for 5G mobile antenna design [21]. The foremost areas to be considered for the 5G mobile antenna design are illustrated in Figure 5 [22]. The following sub-sections discuss the 5G antenna design considerations.
Antenna design considerations for 5G mobile devices [
The rapid evolution of mobile communication systems towards 5G demands the multi-band and wide-band antennas to support the interoperability, provide more coverage, and lessen the complexity of the system [23, 24, 25]. Especially at mm-wave frequencies, a 5G mobile antenna should be compact in size, complying with the bandwidth and radiation efficiency requirements. The mm-wave spectrum suffers more path loss due to increased atmospheric absorptions and attenuations at higher frequencies [26]. Therefore, the 5G antennas should have high gain with increased directivity in order to overcome the path loss. In addition, another challenge in mobile communication at both microwave and mm-wave frequencies is that the orientation and location of the mobile device are not consistent. Thus, the direction of communication is not known. Therefore, to mitigate the path losses, for better spatial coverage, and to obtain high directivity and gain, antenna arrays, and beam-steerable antennas are widely identified as key enablers for the 5G mobile and broadband communication. Moreover, to meet the higher capacity requirement and for a broader coverage area, MIMO technology has been extensively explored recently for 5G communication [27]. MIMO is one of the enabling technologies to achieve 100 times more bandwidth as compared to 4G/LTE systems.
At the mm-wave spectrum, the conductive and dielectric losses are higher as compared to the microwave spectrum [28]. At microwave spectrum, the Radio Frequency Integrated Circuit (RFIC), antenna, and modem chips are categorized as separate design blocks, and the whole radio system establishes a horizontal integration known as a multiple-chip module, as shown in Figure 6a [29, 30]. This configuration increases the chip area, thus limiting the suitability of this approach for the cellular and other wireless devices as the device size follows the trend of continuous reduction with the development of technology. As the antenna has to be interfaced with the electronic circuitry, whether in a discrete or integrated manner, therefore impedance should be matched at the antenna circuit interface to ensure maximum power transfer from one component to the other. Thus, the standard interconnects elements such as coaxial cables, C-clips, and RF switches with specific impedance values (50 Ω) are used to establish a stable feeding network.
An illustration of (a) Multi-chip module, (b) Antenna in package, and (c) Antenna on chip [
However, at mm-wave frequencies, the signal attenuation characteristics of the RFIC components are degraded radically, and consequently, the noise figure has deteriorated. Moreover, contrary to the current mobile antennas, the antennas should essentially be placed in close proximity to RFIC for 5G mm-wave devices. Therefore, for 5G mm-wave mobile antennas, highly integrated and compact antenna packaging schemes are characterized into two major groups [29, 31] i.e., the antenna in package (AiP) and Antenna on Chip (AoC).
On the path of technology evolution, there is the transition from microwave communication to mm-wave 5G communication. The existing technologies such as 3G/4G/Wi-Fi and sub-6 GHz 5G will co-exist with mm-wave 5G. Consequently, this has provoked microwave engineers to design antennas for mobile devices with backward compatibility. Moreover, it is expected that 5G will continue to evolve, for example, as 5G+, just like 4G where LTE became to LTE-Advanced. Therefore, it is also essential to implement the forward-compatible integrated antennas in addition to backward compatibility. The smartphone illustrated in Figure 7 exhibits the expected placement of different antennas supporting various wireless standards in a smartphone. Although integrated antenna solutions are necessary, however, to design such integrated antenna modules are quite challenging for microwave engineers [33].
A general illustration of 5G mobile smartphone [
International regulatory bodies like Federal Communication Commission (FCC) and International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation have established some regulations and standards regarding human safety and exposure to electromagnetic radiation [34, 35]. Thus, wireless devices have to comply with these standards. Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) and Power Density (PD) are two important parameters to measure human exposure to electromagnetic waves [36]. Power density demonstrates the density of power carried towards the tissue. As the human body is conductive and absorbent, therefore, it will significantly affect the mobile antenna performance if hindered in the path of antenna radiations. At mm-wave frequencies, it is expected that the overexposure to the electromagnetic radiations can cause only superficial burns and no serious injuries in tissues, as the radiations are concentrated at the surface tissues only [37, 38].
In order to design an efficient antenna for 5G communication devices, several challenges are required to be administered at the microwave spectrum. As microwave frequencies have to go through high latency, low data rate, and low capacity, therefore, in order to meet the relentless customer needs, antenna design is of considerable importance. In recent years, substantial research has been carried out to design antennas for 5G devices in the sub-6 GHz range of the spectrum. The antennas reported in the literature for lower 5G bands are usually large in size and are monopole antennas. Considering the structure, antennas are categorized as a single element, array, and MIMO configurations. This sub-section describes the 5G single elements, arrays, and MIMO antennas operating at lower 5G frequencies.
Some of the literary works have reported a single element antenna for 5G applications [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. The 5G antenna reported in [39] is a magneto-electric dipole antenna with tapered H-shaped ground, operating at a sub-6 GHz band. By employing the tapered ground technique, the height of the antenna is reduced. The peak gain obtained by this antenna is 6.8 dBi. Similarly, the work in [40] presents a single compact antenna supporting a 5G sub-6 GHz band. The proposed antenna is a slotted antenna with U and E-shaped slots with a full ground plane. This antenna attains a peak gain of 1.1 dBi. Moreover, a flexible co-planar waveguide (CPW) fed circular-shaped single antenna [41], as shown in Figure 8, is proposed for sub-6 GHz 5G applications, whereas a peak gain of 3 dBi is achieved for the proposed antenna. The antenna design reported in [42] is a hexagonal-shaped frequency reconfigurable antenna operating at the sub-6 GHz frequencies for 5G systems. The reported antenna is an omnidirectional antenna with a peak gain of 1.5 dBi. Likewise, another frequency reconfigurable single element antenna, as depicted in Figure 9, is presented for 5G devices [43]. Gain for this antenna ranges from 1.2 to 3.6 dBi at the operating frequencies. The antenna proposed in [44] is a printed low-profile antenna with frequency and pattern reconfigurability. PiN diodes are used to control the beam; thus, depending on the state of the switches, the antenna can steer the bean in seven different directions. The antenna gain for different switch states ranges from 1.7 to 3.8 dBi. Another work reported a triangular-shaped monopole antenna for 5G sub-6 GHz devices [45], featuring frequency reconfiguration, as illustrated in Figure 10. The peak gain obtained by this antenna in different switch states is above 2.5 dBi. It is observed from the literature review that it is easy to design a single-element antenna, and also it can easily be integrated into 5G communication devices. However, the peak gain obtained by the single antennas is low.
Flexible CPW fed 5G antenna (a) Perspective view, (b) Fabricated prototype [
Frequency reconfigurable multi-band 5G antenna with biasing circuit [
Top and bottom view of fabricated sub-6 GHz 5G antenna [
In order to overcome the propagation losses due to atmospheric attenuations and absorptions, high gain antennas are required for 5G communication. As a single-element antenna cannot obtain high gain, therefore, multi-element array configuration is one of the principal methodologies to deal with this issue. In an array, multiple antenna radiations are added constructively to enhance the gain of the antenna, thus, administering the path loss to some extent [46]. Recently, various antenna array designs have been reported for 5G sub-6 GHz systems [47, 48, 49, 50]. The strategy proposed in [47] is a four-element antenna consisting of four hybrid antennas, as illustrated in Figure 11, operating at a sub-6 GHz band for 5G. The proposed geometry obtained a peak gain of 8.4 dBi, which is considerably high for 5G devices. Likewise, in [48], a dual-band filtering antenna array with dual polarization is presented. The presented geometry, as shown in Figure 12, is a 1 × 4 array, which attained a very high gain of 17.7 dBi, thus making it suitable for 5G base station systems operating at sub-6 GHz. Another work [49] reported a metasurface-based 4 × 4 antenna array for sub-6 GHz 5G applications. The reported antenna is a low profile and high gain antenna with a peak gain of 7.2 dBi. Moreover, the sheet array consists of capacitively coupled elements placed over a ground plane have made a new contribution in antenna engineering to overcome the problems associated with narrow bandwidth and low gain [50]. The performance of the proposed antenna array is tested by placing it at different body parts such as the palm, knee, backhand, etc. The peak gain obtained is nearly 6 dBi. It is observed that antenna arrays reported in literary works discussed in this section have obtained high gain (which is required for 5G communication) at the cost of increased size and design complexity.
The geometry of antenna: (a) single antenna, (b) four-element array [
(a) Geometry of the single antenna, (b), (c) Front and back side of the fabricated 1 × 4 array [
MIMO antenna system is a system with multiple radiating elements employed at both the transmitting and receiving terminals, as illustrated in Figure 13. MIMO is considered to be the pivotal solution for capacity enhancement of a channel as compared to the conventional Single-Input-Single-Output (SISO) wireless systems [51, 52]. Although MIMO technology offers several benefits, however, placing multiple radiators in close proximity to each other increases the coupling between the adjacent radiators. As a result, the diversity performance of the antennas is compromised [53]. Therefore, designing a MIMO antenna with better diversity is indeed a challenge for antenna designers. Along with essential parameters to measure the antenna performance, such as gain, bandwidth, efficiency, etc., a few other parameters are also necessary to be inspected to measure the MIMO characteristics. These parameters are Envelope Correlation Coefficient (ECC) [54, 55], Diversity Gain (DG) [56], Mean Effective Gain (MEG) [57], Total Active Reflection Coefficient (TARC) [58, 59], and Channel Capacity Loss (CCL) [58].
The MIMO architecture [
As MIMO allows multiple antennas to radiate simultaneously, enhancing the channel capacity and data rates with multi-Gbps throughput (required for 5G systems), therefore, it draws the attention of researchers, and in recent years MIMO has been widely studied. Numerous works have been reported with MIMO antenna designs operating at 5G sub-6 GHz [60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66]. Sarkar et al. [60] suggested a four-element MIMO structure consisting of inverted L-shaped monopole antennas, as shown in Figure 14. The recommended design obtains inter-element isolation of ≥11 dB, while not involving any complex decoupling technique. This MIMO structure received a wide operating band and an average gain of 4 dBi. Authors have also investigated ECC and MEG to analyze the MIMO performance. The work in [61] reported a two-element MIMO configuration, where each element is a bow-tie antenna with a T-probe feeding structure. In order to decouple the antenna elements, a compact metasurface superstrate is employed, as shown in Figure 15. The introduction of the metasurface layer not only improves the isolation between the MIMO antennas but also enhances total efficiency and ECC between the two antennas; thus, ascertaining the suitability of this design for 5G sub-6 GHz devices. Another work [62] presented a four-element dual-polarized MIMO configuration. The main antenna is coupled and fed by the two pairs of differentially driven feed lines. The presented structure demonstrates port isolation of more than 35 dB. Parchin et al. [63] proposed a four-element MIMO antenna system for sub-6 GHz 5G devices, where each antenna is a diamond-ring slot antenna placed at the corners of the printed circuit board, as shown in Figure 16. Due to the orthogonal placement of L-shaped microstrip feed lines, pattern and polarization diversity are obtained. The data-mode/talk-mode characteristics are explored. The work in [64] introduced a ten-element MIMO structure for smartphone applications, operating at a 5G sub-6 GHz frequency band. The antenna structure is a shorted half-wavelength loop antenna placed in a 2D array configuration. In this work, ECC and channel capacity are calculated to analyze the MIMO characteristics. In addition, the impact of the user’s hand on the antenna performance and SAR analysis is also carried out. Another MIMO antenna system composed of four dielectric-loaded horn antennas is reported in [65] for vehicle-to-everything communication at 5G sub-6 GHz frequencies. Likewise, the study in [66] reported a four-element MIMO antenna system for 5G devices with the orthogonal placement of antennas. In order to reduce mutual coupling, four different structures i.e., electromagnetic bandgap (EBG) structure, capacitive elements, defected ground structure (DGS), and neutralization lines (NL) are investigated. To analyze the MIMO characteristics, ECC, DG, MEG, and TARC are also inspected.
(a) Fabricated prototype of the MIMO antenna, and (b) S-parameters, (c) ECC & MEG [
(a) Top view of MIMO antenna, and (b) metasurface superstrate [
Fabricated mobile phone antenna array (a) top view, and (b) back view [
Recently, several works reported antenna designs for mm-wave 5G communication devices. At mm-wave spectrum, atmospheric losses are high, therefore, high gain antennas are required for 5G systems. As single patch antennas have low gain, therefore, a lot of work has been done to improve the performance of the antenna in terms of bandwidth, gain, and coverage area [67, 68, 69, 70, 71]. Lin et al. in [67] proposed an omnidirectional circular polarized antenna for 5G device-to-device communication by integrating electric and magnetic dipoles in a disc-shaped structure such that they have parallel orientation. In another work [68], a cross dipole antenna is reported, as shown in Figure 17, where an electric and magnetic dipole are integrated to enhance the antenna performance. Similarly, the work in [69] presented a circularly polarized patch antenna. In order to improve the antenna performance in terms of gain, bandwidth, and axial ratio, a square ring-shaped metasurface is mounted above the patch antenna, as illustrated in Figure 18. Likewise, in order to increase the spectral efficiency, an antenna with a switchable beam for 5G mm-wave applications is proposed in [70]. In this work, beam switching is achieved by incorporating the two PIN diodes at the ground plane. Tahir et al. in [71] suggested a wide-band antenna for 5G mm-wave communication devices, where high gain is achieved by using a corporate fed four-element linear antenna array, as shown in Figure 19.
Fabricated prototype of patch antenna with vertically coupled Meta-plate [
Fabricated prototype of circularly polarized antenna with metasurface [
The corporate fed four-element linear array [
As MIMO is a key enabler for 5G mm-wave communication, therefore, recent research widely explored MIMO antenna designs to obtain higher channel capacity. However, a drawback associated with MIMO configuration is coupling between the multi-elements. Various techniques such as EBG [72], DGS [73], frequency selective surfaces (FSS) [74], metasurfaces, and metasurface corrugations [75, 76, 77], have been used to reduce the coupling effects and also to improve the radiation characteristics of the recently reported MIMO antennas.
As the mm-wave 5G antennas are expected to be compatible with the previous technologies such as 4G/LTE, therefore, integrated or co-existing 4G/LTE and mm-wave 5G antennas will be an effective solution for long and short-range communication. On the other hand, designing such antennas is really challenging due to increased coupling effects between closely packed antennas. Some of the recent studies [78, 79, 80, 81] reported antenna designs for handheld devices where 4G/LTE and mm-wave 5G antennas co-exist on the same substrate board. The integrated antenna solution proposed in [78] is a two-element MIMO antenna system at microwave frequencies and an mm-wave array. The proposed antenna system is planar and is designed for smartphone devices. Similarly, in [81], a MIMO antenna structure operating at microwave frequencies and an mm-wave tapered slot antenna array, as shown in Figure 20, are suggested as an integrated antenna solution for handheld devices. The tapered slots array is also used as a decoupling structure at microwave frequency. In another work [82], a two-element MIMO antenna for LTE and four-element MIMO antenna structure for mm-wave 5G is reported to be co-existing on the same board, as illustrated in Figure 21. The proposed design incorporates rectangular and circular slots as DGS to improve the antenna performance. The SAR and PD analysis are also carried out to verify if the proposed antenna system satisfies the international human safety standards.
Integrated 4G/5G antenna’s schematic diagram and its fabricated prototype [
(a) The geometry of the Integrated antenna solution, (b) PD analysis, and (c) SAR Analysis [
The rapid advancement of emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, three-dimensional (3D) media, virtual reality, and the Internet of Things (IoT) has increased the volume of data traffic. This demand for substantial data rates led to the transition and up-gradation of 5G technology to 6G communication. As it is an early stage of development, therefore, 6G wireless communication system is not completely defined yet. However, the main focus of 6G will be on higher capacity, ultra-low latency, broader coverage, and high security [83, 84]. The critical candidate technologies for 6G communication are shown in Figure 22 [85]. The terahertz (THz) frequency band (0.1–10 THz) will primarily be used for 6G communication systems. 6G wireless communication will be involved in all areas of society, including health, industry, land, oceans, and space [15].
The key candidate technologies for 6G [
Design specifications for the 6G antenna depend on the type of application. However, general antenna specifications for 6G communication systems are:
Ultra-wideband and multi-band antenna [14].
Omnidirectional antennas will be required for some applications, whereas for some other applications highly directional antennas will be preferred [14]. Considering the application, a high gain omnidirectional antenna with a gain between 18 and 34 dBi or even up to 60 dBi, or a highly directional antenna of 25 dBi will be required [86, 87].
The 6G communication band is the THz band (0.1–10 THz).
6G antenna should be compact in size [14] and have a low cost.
Circular polarization is preferred for communication at 6G frequencies [88].
Multiband antennas can be used to increase the bandwidth, data rate, and capacity of the THz communication system [89]. Also, multi-band antennas offer multi-functionality and thus can be used for multiple purposes. As the THz frequency band suffers from high atmospheric absorption and path losses, therefore, high gain antennas are necessary to overcome these losses for 6G communication systems [15]. Highly directional antennas are required for ultra-broadband THz wireless communication in 6G systems. Furthermore, as the circularly polarized antenna receives signals both in the horizontal and vertical planes as compared to the linear polarized antenna, therefore, circular polarized antennas are preferred for 6G indoor and outdoor applications as multipath fading will have negligible effects in this case as compared to linear polarization [88]. In addition, lens-coupled photoconductive antennas are also envisioned to be used in THz 6G communications and have been widely studied in the literature [90, 91, 92, 93, 94]. These antennas offer the high gain characteristics to cope with the high propagation losses in the THz regime.
This chapter describes the specifications and requirements for 5G and 6G THz wireless communication. Spectrum allocation for 5G mobile communication is also discussed briefly. Moreover, essential design considerations for 5G and 6G antennas are explained in detail. The state-of-the-art works related to 5G sub-6 GHz and 5G mm-wave antenna designing are also demonstrated. It is described in detail how these antennas are utilizing key enabling technologies such as arrays and MIMO to improve the radiation characteristics of the 5G and 6G antennas. In addition, recently reported integrated 4G/LTE and 5G antenna systems for handheld devices are also discussed.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Clonal complex 398 (CC398), a predominant clonal lineage of livestock-associated-MRSA in domestic animals and retail meat, is capable of infecting humans. In order to monitor and prevent MRSA contamination, it is critical to understand its source and transmission dynamics. 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This group is often detected in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, including ulcerative colitis. That is why new rapid methods for their isolation, purification, and identification are important and necessary. In this chapter, the methods of mesophilic SRB isolation from various environments are described. Particular attention is paid to the purification of mesophilic SRB since they can be in close interaction with other microorganisms (Clostridium, Bacteroides, Pseudomonas, etc.), which are their frequent satellites. Moreover, the main methods of mesophilic SRB identification based on their morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetical characteristics are presented.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"Ivan Kushkevych",authors:[{id:"252191",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kushkevych",slug:"ivan-kushkevych",fullName:"Ivan Kushkevych"}]},{id:"65773",title:"Life Cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate Hosts",slug:"life-cycle-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-in-the-invertebrate-and-the-vertebrate-hosts",totalDownloads:1497,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs. T. cruzi is a single-celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle alternating between reduviid bug invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. This article will look at the developmental stages of T. cruzi in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate hosts, the different surface membrane proteins involved in different life cycle stages of T. cruzi, roles of different amino acids in the life cycle, carbon and energy sources and gene expression in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The author will also look at extracellular vesicles (EV) and its role in the dissemination and survival of T. cruzi in mammalian host.",book:{id:"8806",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",fullTitle:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi"},signatures:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",authors:[{id:"245368",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenechukwu C.",middleName:null,surname:"Onyekwelu",slug:"kenechukwu-c.-onyekwelu",fullName:"Kenechukwu C. 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The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"55437",title:"Biological Control of Parasites",slug:"biological-control-of-parasites-2017-07",totalDownloads:4334,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Parasites (ectoparasites or endoparasites) are a major cause of diseases in man, his livestock and crops, leading to poor yield and great economic loss. To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmental and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities”. Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strategies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti",authors:[{id:"191763",title:"Dr.",name:"Tebit Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kwenti",slug:"tebit-emmanuel-kwenti",fullName:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti"}]},{id:"70336",title:"Plastics Polymers Degradation by Fungi",slug:"plastics-polymers-degradation-by-fungi",totalDownloads:1459,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The studies on plastic degradation are very important for the development of biodegradable plastics, and for reduction of pollution, since plastic waste can remain in the environment for decades or centuries. We have showed the degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic bags and green polyethylene by Pleurotus ostreatus. This fungus can also produce mushrooms using these plastics. The plastic degradation was possibly by three reasons: (a) presence of pro-oxidant ions or plant polymer, (b) low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes, and (c) the presence of endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In this chapter, the plastic bags’ degradation by abiotic and microbial process using the exposure to sunlight and the use of a white-rot fungus will described. The physical, chemical, and biological alterations of plastic were analyzed after each process of degradation. The degradation of plastic bags was more effective when the abiotic and biotic degradations were combined.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"José Maria Rodrigues da Luz, Marliane de Cássia Soares da Silva, Leonardo Ferreira dos Santos and Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya",authors:[{id:"217699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Da Luz",slug:"jose-maria-da-luz",fullName:"Jose Maria Da Luz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"151",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. 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In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11409,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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