Parameters of Schottky diodes.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Indeed, it is the study of nature and natural phenomena, in an attempt to understand the principles and elucidate the underlying mechanisms, obtain ideas from nature, and apply concepts that may benefit science, engineering, pharmacy, dentistry, and medicine. Smart/Intelligent Biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine is a fine example. Yet, biomimicry can go above and beyond the simplistic inspiration and use of natural properties as the basis for the innovation of new products. It bridges the gap between the lab and the industry, via the intra-disciplinary design and formulation of functional solutions combining knowledge, methods, techniques, and advances in the fields of chemistry, biology, architecture, engineering, medicine, pharmaceutics, dentistry, and biomedical engineering. Three-Dimensional Printing, Self-Healing nanoCoatings, biomechanical Carbon nanoTubes, Stimuli-sensitive and -responsive Cell/Drug Delivery Systems, and Robotics are good examples. Those are some of the topics that will be covered in this new book, with the objective to provide the interested reader, whether a student or an expert, with a practical reference approaching biomimetics from a realistic and translational perspective, discussing problems and offering solutions, via including studies from basics to the clinic to scale-up and industrial or go-to-market obstacles.
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Haidar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11453.jpg",keywords:"BioMechanics, 3D Printing, BioInspired Chemistry, Adaptive Structure, Self-Healing, Bioinspired Thermal Control, Self-Organization, Visco-Elastic Materials, Artificial Intelligence, Implantable Devices, Molecule Recognition, In Vitro",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"DDS, Cert Implantol, MSc OMFS, FRCS(C), with an MBA in HealthCare Organizations Management and Ph.D. in BioEngineering and nanoPharmaceuticals (McGill University, Montréal, Canada). Presently, a Full Professor, leading the BioMAT’X R&D&I HAIDAR LAB at the CiiB, UAndes, Santiago de Chile.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"222709",title:"Prof.",name:"Ziyad S.",middleName:null,surname:"Haidar",slug:"ziyad-s.-haidar",fullName:"Ziyad S. Haidar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/222709/images/system/222709.jpg",biography:"Ziyad S. Haidar, DDS, Cert Implantol, MSC, FRCSc, MBA, Ph.D., is a Full Professor of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering and the scientific director of the Facultad de Odontología (Faculty of Dentistry), Universidad de los Andes (UAndes), Santiago, Chile. He is also the founder and head of the Biomaterials, Pharmaceutical Delivery, and Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Tissue Engineering Laboratory (BioMAT\\'X R&D&I Chile – HAIDAR Lab). In addition, he serves as the head of innovation at the Centro de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica (CiiB), a faculty/theses member in the bioMedicine Doctoral (Ph.D. bioMedicina) Program at UAndes, and a visiting clinical and surgical professor at the MaxilloFacial Division of the Universidad de la Frontera and the Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Lautaru Hospital, both in Temuco, Chile.\n\nDr. Haidar is a trained dentist, implantologist, and an oral and maxillofacial surgeon with a Ph.D. in Nanobiomaterials, Pharmaceuticals, and Tissue Engineering from McGill University, Montréal, Canada. He completed a post-doctoral training residency in orthopedics at the Montréal Shriners Hospital, McGill University Health Center, Montréal, Canada. Before moving to Chile, he served as Associate Professor of Bioceramics and the Chair of Excellence in BioEngineering at the Université de Limoges, Limoges, France and was an assistant professor in the Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry (cross-appointment with the Department of BioEngineering), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. Between 2010 and 2012 Dr. Haidar served as an adjunct professor of Head and Neck Surgery and the scientific director of the joint Utah–Inha R&D Center, Inha University Hospital, Incheon, Seoul, South Korea. \n\nHe has won several prestigious awards from the International Bone and Mineral Society, Society for Biomaterials, Canadian Biomaterial Society, and the Canadian and Lebanese Societies of Plastic Surgeons, to name a few. 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Besides the problems of recharging and replacing, size and weight, batteries are an exhaustible source with an adverse environmental effect. For these reasons, it is highly desirable to find an alternative solution in order to overcome these power limitations.
The environment represents a relatively good source of available energy compared with the energy stored in batteries or supercapacitors. In this context, energy harvesting, also known as power harvesting and energy scavenging, is an alternative process for primary batteries, where energy is obtained from the ambient environment. An energy harvester typically captures, accumulates, stores, and manages ambient energy in order to convert it into useful electrical energy for autonomous wireless sensor networks. The use of energy scavenging minimizes maintenance and cost operation; therefore, batteries can be eventually removed in WSNs as well as in portable electronic devices.
Many potential ways to harvest energy from environment are available, including solar and wind powers, radio frequency energy and ocean waves, and thermal energy and mechanical vibrations [1–3]. The publications on this topic in the literature are rising to a great extent. Hence, many papers have been published on energy harvesting as a feasible alternative to batteries. Work by Sardini et al. [4] proposed an autonomous sensor powered by mechanical energy coming from airflow velocity. Therefore, the battery-less sensor uses the power harvested in order to provide measurements of air’s temperature and velocity. A completely different approach is proposed by Tan et al. in Ref. [5]. The authors have explored a system for wind-powered sensor node. By measuring the equivalent electrical voltage or the frequency of a wind turbine generator output, the wind speed measurement can be indirectly obtained. Based on the sensed wind speed information, the fire control management system provides the spreading condition of a wildfire, so that the fire fighting experts can perform an adequate fire suppression action.
This paper focuses on the energy harvesting technology using electromagnetic energy captured from multiple available ambient RF energy sources, such as TV and radio transmitters, mobile base stations, and microwave radios. This technique is very useful for sensors located in harsh environments or remote places, where other energy sources, such as wind or solar sources, are impracticable. In this context, this work presents an overview of advances achieved in RF harvesting field. The main components of an RF energy harvesting system are discussed in Section 2. Section 3 provides different measurements of the ambient radio frequency energy obtained in published papers. An introduction to RF harvesting energy in radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology is presented in Section 4. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section 5.
The basic structure of a radio frequency energy harvesting system consists of a receiving antenna, matching circuit, peak detector, and voltage elevator. Where electromagnetic waves are captured by the antenna, voltage is amplified using the matching circuit, signal is converted to a voltage value thanks to the peak detector, and finally this voltage output is adjusted using the voltage elevator.
The whole system formed by receiving antenna, matching network, and rectifier is usually known as a rectenna or an RF/direct current (DC), which is able to harvest high-frequency energy in free space and convert it to DC power. The detail of each block is subsequently discussed in order to define specifications and limitations of the power conversion system.
Further, a block of power management and another for energy storage could be integrated into the energy harvesting system. The energy storage subsystem is responsible for storing all the captured energy and providing a constant output voltage.
Energy harvester is a promising power solution for WSNs. Instead of depending on centralized power sources for charging, sensor devices operate the existing energy in the environment. The DC voltage is stored in a holding capacitor or supercapacitor in order to power supply integrated circuits.
Antenna
RF energy harvesting technique needs, as mentioned in the previous section, an efficient antenna with a circuit capable of converting alternating current (AC) voltage to direct current voltage. The front end is a key component to ensure the successful operation of RFEH system. It has the duty of capturing electromagnetic waves, which will be used later to power the integrated system.
Moreover, the antenna efficiency is related to the frequency: energy obtained from an antenna with small bandwidth, than a wideband receiver antenna used to capture signals from multiple sources. RF antenna can harvest energy from a variety of sources, including broadcast TV signal (ultrahigh frequency (UHF)), mobile phones (900–950 MHz), or Local Area Network (2.45 GHz/ 5.8 GHz).
In principle, power harvested from RF signals is enough to supply microelectronic devices gradually; however, this power can dramatically rise by using an array configuration. Therefore, the maximum possible power can be achieved by properly arranging similar antennas (with the same matching circuit and power management) [6, 7], or by using antennas operating at different frequencies [8]. The trend is to include the antenna, usually patch antenna, and the rectifier on the same printed circuit board [9].
The equivalent electrical model of an antenna is an AC voltage source (
Antenna equivalent circuit.
Apparent power received (
The antenna impedance can be expressed by Eq. (3), where the real component is presented by two resistances: one is related to the material used (
Indeed, the concept of RF energy harvesting requires an efficient antenna with high performances. Hence, several researchers focused on highly efficient receivers for electromagnetic wave harvesting. Moon and Jung [10] proposed an interesting antenna design for RF energy harvesting system based on two radiators: the main one is a printed dipole radiator and the parasitic one with a loop structure. The parasitic radiator is suitable for receiving RF power in all directions from the main radiator. However, Xie et al. [11] designed a hexagonal microstrip patch antenna array that operates at 915 MHz, in order to achieve the maximum possible RF energy to convert into DC power for lighting light-emitting diodes (LED).
Matching circuit
Matching circuits are essentially used to match the antenna impedance to the rectifier circuit in order to achieve maximum power and improve efficiency, by using coils and capacitors [12, 13]. Several matching circuits are available; however, the main configurations that have been proposed are the transformer, the parallel coil, and the LC network, as shown in Figure 2.
For economic reasons, RFID tags and sensor networks use the shunt inductor and the LC network as matching networks instead of the transformer. Moreover, it is desirable for high-impedance antennas (e.g., dipole antenna) to use the parallel coil [12], whereas the LC network is used for small impedance antennas (e.g., Wi-Fi antenna) or when the available power
Matching network circuits: transformer (a), shunt inductor (b), and LC network (c) [
As previously mentioned, the impedance matching circuit is designed to increase the voltage gain and reduce the transmission loss; this means that the impedance seen by the antenna is equal to the impedance of antenna [14]. The equivalent circuit and the normalized input voltage are shown in Figure 3. Therefore, Vin reaches its maximum level when
In radio frequency range, the impedance mismatch between the antenna and rectifier could be replaced by a tuning circuit, in order to adjust the receiver frequency [15, 16]. Multiband commercial antennas are typically equipped with filters [17]; however, the output power is lower than it should be [18]. An example of matching circuit impedance intended for television frequency band, formed by passive components and using the LC network, is discussed in Ref. [19].
Further, a shorted stub can be added to the matching circuit, which is represented by a wire with a length depending on wavelength and finishing on the ground plane. Therefore, the system performs as a tank circuit [9, 20]. However, in Ref. [21], the authors proposed an approximate method using a resistor in series with antenna. The current trend is to include antenna, impedance matching, and rectifier in a printed circuit board [19]. The RFEH system is designed on the same printed circuit board avoiding cable losses (cf. Figure 4).
Transfer energy on matching circuit [
RFEH design circuit [
Rectifier
Radio frequency signal captured by the antenna is an alternating current (AC) signal. In order to get a DC signal out of AC signal and improve the efficiency of the RF–DC power conversion system, a rectifier circuit is used. Rectification subsystem or peak detector, which has been already used on crystal radio, consists only of diodes and capacitors.
When the distance from the RF source is far and the received power is not high enough, the rectifier input needs to be amplified in order to power the circuit (sensor networks or RFID tags require at least 3.3 V). The most popular rectifier used is a modified Dickson multiplier, which has the function of rectifying the radio frequency signal and increases the DC voltage. Moreover, many works have used complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology to replace the diodes [13, 22]. Other different ways to rectify AC signals have been introduced, including Greinacher circuit or voltage doubler [23], Cockcorft–Walton circuit [20], multiplier resonant [24, 25], Villance multiplier [26], and boost converter [23, 27].
Choice of rectification circuits depends on the radio frequency signal and power received, since different values of DC voltage could be obtained with the same circuit and different radio frequency sources. The multiplier is usually formed using different stages; each stage includes two diodes and two capacitors. The voltage output is more important with a large number of stages. However, because diode loss increases with the stage number, the system efficiency is affected. The impact of rectifier stage number on the power received is presented in Figure 5. For the low received power (Pin < 0 dBm), the output voltage (
Multiplier efficiency (
Diodes commonly used as rectification components are Schottky diodes, while Germanium diodes are also used for radio circuit of the peak detector. Performance analysis of some Schottky diodes is outlined in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5E-6 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t0.14 | \n\t\t\t0.34 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t1E-04 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2.2E-8 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t0.65 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t1E-04 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t12E-6 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t0.03 | \n\t\t\t0.26 | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t10E-12 | \n\t\t
Parameters of Schottky diodes.
Stages multiplier versus output voltage and efficiency [
Rectifier equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 6, is modeled by an input impedance
Multiplier equivalent circuit [
Further, multiplier equivalent circuit can also be obtained by using the mathematical equation [14], model simulation [12], or measurement [26].
As mentioned previously, an RFEH system is able to recover energy from available RF electromagnetic sources present in the ambient environment such as phone stations, radio, and television broadcasting. In Table 2, the main features of RFEH systems proposed in literature are summarized. As can be seen, the energy harvested is significantly very low that involves a decrease of the circuit performance.
Figure 7 shows the received power as a function of distance from RF power source at UHF. As it can be seen, for a free space distance of 40 m, the maximum theoretical power available for conversion is 1 µW and 7 µW for frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 900 MHz, respectively.
As mentioned above, many other sources of energy, including vibration, photovoltaic, and thermal, have been cleverly converted to useful energy using a variety of techniques. Table 2 presents some harvesting methods with their power generation capability.
Despite the fact that the power density of RFEH is lower than other sources, this powering method can be useful, especially for sensor nodes located in harsh environments, where other sources like wind or solar energies are not feasible.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.01 to 0.1 μW | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t4 to 100 μW | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10 μW to 10 mW | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t20 μW to 10 mW | \n\t\t
Comparison of energy harvesting sources [29].
Received power versus distance [
Therefore, RFEH is a promising technology and an alternative source of energy to power the sensor nodes. As a result, these devices do not require any battery since they can use the power harvested from the ambient RF energy. Since battery replacement or its recharging is impracticable, autonomous WSNs need to exploit the RF ambient energy harvesting especially for long-duration applications.
It is important to note that the power density available depends on the radio frequency source and the distance. Values of this power are presented in Table 3 for different RF energy sources.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5/10 [km] | \n\t\t\t159/40 [μW/m2] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t100/500/1000 [m] | \n\t\t\t800/32/8 [μW/m2] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1/5/10 [m] | \n\t\t\t40/1.6/0.4 [mW/m2] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1/5/10 [m] | \n\t\t\t80/3.2/0.84 [mW/m2] | \n\t\t
Power density on RFEH with different sources [30].
Table 4 provides a summary of results obtained from various studies in the RFEH field, with a brief description of the significant components used: RF source, antenna, matching circuit, and rectifier circuit.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPatch antenna array is used (4×4). Maximum power received is −10 dBm | \n\t\t\t2.4 GHz | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\t373.248 μW | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tUsing the same antenna for different frequency band, TV signal (74% to 42.6%) and RFID reader | \n\t\t\t470–770 MHz 950–956 MHz | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\t74% (Pin=0 dBm) 54% (Pin=-20 dBm) 2% (Pin=−40 dBm) | \n\t\t\t0.74 mW (Pin=0 dBm) 5.4 μW (Pin=-20 dBm) 2 nW (Pin=−40 dBm) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tFM radio signals with loop antenna, tuned circuit, and Dickson charge pump 6 stages. AA supercapacitor is used to store energy | \n\t\t\t945 kHz | \n\t\t\t520 mV | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\t60.4 μJ | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMatching circuit using limited filter and rectifier with 1 stage. Maximum power received is −42 dBm (63 nW) | \n\t\t\t2.4 GHz | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\t0.60% | \n\t\t\t400 pW | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPatch antenna, matching circuit, and rectifier with 1 stage and boost converter | \n\t\t\t500−700 MHz | \n\t\t\t134 mV (Pin=–15 dBm) | \n\t\t\t18.2% (Pin=−20 dBm) | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMicrowave tooth antenna with filter, to matching circuit. A supercapacitor is used to store energy | \n\t\t\t470–505 MHz 520–560 MHz | \n\t\t\t3.7 V | \n\t\t\t> 50% (Pin=−5 dBm) | \n\t\t\t30 mW | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCommercial UHF antenna and Dickson multiplier with 4 stages | \n\t\t\tUHF band | \n\t\t\t6 V | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t
Review of measurement of RFEH.
A comparison of the commercial requirements for sensor network nodes is presented in Table 5. Therefore, the use of RFEH for WSNs depends especially on the application, the distance from the base station, the radio-frequency band, distance between nodes, etc.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIEEE 802.15.4/Zig Bee | \n\t\t\tIEEE 802.15.4/Zig Bee | \n\t\t\tIEEE 802.15.4 | \n\t\t\tIEEE 802.15.4 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t100 m outdoor 30 m indoor | \n\t\t\t500 m | \n\t\t\t30 m | \n\t\t\t125 m outdoor 50 m indoor | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 μA | \n\t\t\t62 μA | \n\t\t\t390 μA | \n\t\t\t2.6 μA | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t8 mA | \n\t\t\t9 mA | \n\t\t\t31–53 mA | \n\t\t\t500 μA | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t19.7 mA | \n\t\t\t49.56 mA | \n\t\t\t44 mA | \n\t\t\t18.8 mA | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t17.4 mA | \n\t\t\t50.26 mA | \n\t\t\t44 mA | \n\t\t\t17.4 mA | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2.7 V | \n\t\t\t3.3 V | \n\t\t\t3.2 V | \n\t\t\t2.1 V | \n\t\t
The results deduced from Tables 4 and 5 indicate that the RFEH is insufficient as a primary power source. Thus, it can be combined with other energy harvesting sources. As an example, for outdoor applications, when the base station is away from the sensor nodes, RFEH can be combined with photovoltaic energy. In a similar way, for human body sensors, this energy can be combined with thermal or vibration energy.
However, when the WSN is near to the base station, it is possible to use only RFEH as the power supply; in this case, the antenna and matching circuit must be compatible with the base station frequency. This system cannot be used for generic applications.
Further, the energy-harvested design for powering sensor networks depends on different modes: sleep, transmission, reception, and minimal supply voltage required to run, (cf. Table 5), that is, it depends on the application.
The RF harvesting technique is certainly a viable option for wide-range applications, including the passive RFID tags, where the signal used for communication is also used for powering [36, 37]. Therefore, RFID tags typically use the radio signal from a dedicated interrogator for power and communication. The antenna used could be designed for power harvesting and communication.
Table 6 shows the results of various studies that have been focused on RFID system powered by RFEH.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2.45 GHz | \n\t\t\t4 W EIRP | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\t3.1–2.1 m | \n\t\t\t70% | \n\t\t\t1.6 V | \n\t\t\t1.6 V LED | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t900 MHz | \n\t\t\t4 W EIRP | \n\t\t\t100 mW | \n\t\t\t7.5 dBi | \n\t\t\t3–3.5 m | \n\t\t\tn/a | \n\t\t\t0.6 V | \n\t\t\t2 μA | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2.45 GHz | \n\t\t\tRCD STD-1 | \n\t\t\t300 mW | \n\t\t\t20 dBi | \n\t\t\t10 m | \n\t\t\t40% | \n\t\t\t> 1 V | \n\t\t\t30 μW | \n\t\t
Review of RFID system using RFEH power.
It is well known that RFID systems generate and radiate electromagnetic waves; thus, they are justifiably classified as radio systems. However, they are not considered as RFEH systems, since they get their energy from readers. Hence, an RFID system uses the radio frequency signal in order to power and activate the tag, whereas in RFEH system, the energy source is usually not controlled by the reader. The identification process is presented in Figure 8. The energy is sent by using a radio frequency signal in order to receive the information from tags. Furthermore, the passive tags, as no battery, are smaller and lighter than the active and semi-passive tags.
RFID systems [
Regarding RFID frequencies, there are four main frequency bands available for RFID systems:
Low frequency (LF: 125–134 KHz).
High frequency (HF: 13.56 MHz).
Ultrahigh frequency (UHF: 956 MHz in USA and 866 MHz in Europe).
Microwave band (2.45–5.8 GHz).
Despite the excellent progress made in the RFID technology, several issues still need to be addressed appropriately related to reliability, security, speed of communications, and evolution to a global standard. Therefore, it is highly suitable to develop compact transponders applicable for a long reading range, with a low price and a long life.
RF energy harvesters open up new exciting possibilities in wireless communication and networking by enabling energy self-sufficient, environmentally friendly operation with practically infinite lifetimes, and synergistic distribution of information and energy in networks. The energy is harvested from commercial RF broadcasting stations, especially for powering wireless sensor networks or other applications that require only a small amount of energy (10−3 to 10−6 W). Further, RFID sensors can be powered by scavenging ambient power from radio frequency signals in order to prolong the lifetime to several decades and reduce maintenance costs.
This study is expected to provide a survey that offers a holistic view of RF energy harvesting process. Therefore, this paper covers various approaches of RF energy harvesting in order to meet the future demand for self-powered devices. All the subsystems of an RF harvester are discussed, including the receiving antenna, the matching circuit, and the rectifier. Hence, several research groups have proposed RF harvesters in order to achieve optimum power density and ensure a permanent power supply. Finally, RF energy harvesting is an emerging and active research area where more advancement is required to harvest energy efficiently.
Future works can be made to design antennas operating at several frequencies including at 2.3 GHz (Wimax), 2.4 GHz (WLAN), 2.6 GHz (LTE/4G), as well as 5.2 GHz (WLAN). Furthermore, the DC voltage of the rectenna needs to be improved in order to ensure that the optimum power transfer can be delivered.
This study was supported in part by the EMMAG Program, 2014, funded by the European Commission.
The Pomegranate fruit (
Cancer is one of the most common disease conditions which is becoming the leading cause of death even when detected in its early stages. In the year of 2021, almost 2 million new cancer cases are expected to happen just in the united states. The cancer death is reducing with each decade comparing to the initial few decades since its peak. With each passing year, there is rapid improvement in the cancer treatment strategies [9]. Pomegranate components can be used for treatment of many ailments as such or as an adjuvant in the treatment. One of the common problems related to cancer therapy is the lack of specificity in differentiating the cancer cells from the normal cells which manifests problems in the oral cavities as mucositis or candidiasis. This shows the prospect of using pomegranate extracts as an adjuvant in normal cancer chemotherapy in order to improve the quality of life of the people undergoing treatment. Also, the rind extract rich in the tannin punicalagin when used in combination with zinc is shows healing activity in the oral cavity due to the anti-inflammatory activity [10, 11].
\nProstate cancer is the most prevalent type of cancer in men with an incidence rate above 30 worldwide [12]. From the multicenter studies conducted in human prostate cancer using pomegranate extracts rich in polyphenols, the extracts were found to cause an inhibition in the proliferation of the cells in both in
The studies on LNCaP cell lines which are modified to over express androgen receptors so that a situation similar to that of androgen independent prostate cancer. By using the different pomegranate extracts rich in polyphenols, the study later on showed a decrease in expression of the gene for the androgen synthesizing enzymes. Since the down regulation of androgen receptors is evident from the study, pomegranate extracts can be of use in the treatment of prostate cancer with an up-regulation of androgen receptors [15]. In androgen independent prostate cancer, there is an observed activation of the nuclear factor NF-κB. The activation of this nuclear factor is a common event in many types of cancer including breast cancer and cervical cancer [16]. In the molecular studies conducted using pomegranate extracts on the activity of NF-κB. It was found that the pomegranate extracts were able inhibit the NF-κB activity which was shown in the androgen independent cells, DU145 with increasing doses. Congruent results were obtained from the electro mobility shift assay conducted on the same cells using pomegranate extracts. In the DU145 and CL-1 cells which are the androgen independent cell lines, the activity of NF-κB was found to be activated through the TNF-α. Pomegranate extracts showed promising activity in the inhibition of NF-κB cells activated in this way as well. In the LAPC4 xenograft induced model of cancer, the extracts from pomegranate was found to delay the initiation of prostate cancer through prevention of proliferation of the cells [17].
\nPunicalagin is an important polyphenol constituent of pomegranate and as discussed before, the antioxidant activity of which is very evident in the cancer cells. The antiproliferative activity of punicalagin was examined in previous studies using the DPPH assay and the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays. Along with this, the study checked the cytotoxic activity and viability effects were also determined using punicalagin. It was found that punicalagin inhibited proliferation of cancer cells in prostate cancer and that the prostate cancer cells remained intact in the presence of punicalagin which was further supported by evidences from cell viability assays. The antioxidant activity of the polyphenol was further shown in the DPPH free radical scavenging assay which showed that it scavenged the free radicals in a dose dependent manner. The lipid peroxidation was also inhibited in the presence of punicalagin. PC-3 is another major cell line which is involved in prostate cancer and the polyphenol was found to reduce the PC-3 cells through apoptosis with higher concentrations [18, 19].
\nFurther, it was found that pomegranate extracts affect the bio synthesis of androgens from the studies conducted using prostate cancer models. In the in vivo study conducted on the animal model using PTEN (Phosphatase and tensin homolog) knockout mouse which represents prostate cancer, there was observable reduction in the levels of steroids in the serum and in the case of in vitro studies using prostate cancer cell lines LNCaP and 22RV1, pomegranate extracts were found to cause a fall in the production of androgens. The in vitro and in vivo date obtained from various studies further shows the possible activity of pomegranate extracts in the treatment of Prostate cancer [20].
\nBreast cancer is the most common type of cancer diagnosed in women and the leading cause of death due to cancer in women with over 2 million cases being diagnosed from recent studies [21]. The major causative factor for the cancer proliferation in breast cancer proliferation is estrogen and the enzymes which catalyzes the production of estrogen. The enzyme aromatase aids in the conversion of androgen into estrogen. So, the inhibition of this enzyme can further aid in the treatment of breast cancer. In vitro studies conducted on one of the major constituents of the pomegranate namely extract ellagic acid and urolithins A and B showed promising results on the inhibition of aromatase enzyme. The placental microsome aromatase assay conducted on ellagitannin derived compounds from pomegranate extracts namely, methylated urolithin B, methylated urolithin A and urolithin A further showed the aromatase inhibiting activity of pomegranate extracts. Which in turn inhibits the proliferation of cancer cells [22].
\nFrom the in vivo studies conducted on mammary organ culture in mice using the pomegranate seed oil rich in punicic acid and the fermented fruit extracts, it was found that the extracts of pomegranate caused a reduction in the number of lesions obtained and supports the activity of pomegranate extracts in the treatment of breast cancer [23].
\nThe in vitro studies conducted on cancer stem cells derived from MMTV-Wnt-1, pomegranate extract was found to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cell by arresting the cell cycle at an early phase and induced apoptosis of the cancer cells. Pomegranate extracts caused an elevation I the levels of the enzyme caspase 3 which aids in the apoptosis. Among the various extracts, ellagic acid and ursolic acid along with luteolin were found to cause the inhibition of cell proliferation. Also, pomegranate extracts showed promising results in the molecular studies conducted on the MCF-7 cells of breast cancer through the inhibition of proliferation of the cancer cells. In the MCF-7 cells, the anti-cancer activity was found to be due to the cell cycle arrest, down regulation of genes which proliferate the cancer cells and also through the upregulation of the genes which aids in the regulation of proliferation and apoptosis. Hence, pomegranate extracts are relevant in the treatment of breast cancer therapy in the cases which are relatively resistant to the existing agents of treatment [24, 25].
\nColorectal cancer is currently one of the most common diagnosed cancer in men and women and it manifests with the uncontrolled proliferating of the epithelial cells and the suppression of their apoptosis [26]. One of the major constituents of pomegranate, the ellagitannin urolithin A plays a key role in the inhibition of proliferation of colon cancer cells through cell cycle arrest and the inhibition of mitogen activated protein kinase signaling (MAPK) [27].
\nThe action of ellagitannins and urolithin on the CYP1 enzymes is important as these enzymes lead to the activation of inactive carcinogens into active carcinogenic chemicals in colon cancer. In the cell line study using HT-29 colon cancer cells, the evaluation of activity of CYP1 enzyme by employing EROD assay (ethoxy resorufin-
From the animal studies conducted on rats which were induced with colon cancer using N-methylnitrosourea which caused an increase in antigens which were specific to colon cancer along with and increase in plasma levels of Bcl2 and TGF-β, it was found that pomegranate peel extracts caused a fall in the cancer specific parameters which were induced in the mice. The in vivo study further suggests the efficacy of pomegranate in the treatment of colon cancer through the inhibition of proliferation and increased apoptosis which was evident from the fall in CEA and CCSA-4 prostate cancer cell markers along with the down regulation of β-catenin genes which has a pivotal role in the advancement of colon cancer. The down regulation of the specific gene disrupts the signaling pathway involving Wnt/β-catenin [29, 30].
\nFrom the cell line studies using HCT116 and HT-29 colon cancer cell lines, pomegranate extracts comprising of punicalagin, ellagic acid and tannins showed a drastic antiproliferative activity which led to complete inhibition of proliferation depending on the dose. The extract was found to cause apoptosis in the selected cell lines. Further, the extracts were found to have effect on the colon cancer cells which were not metastatic. The cell line studies further cement the role of punicalagin, ellagic acid and pomegranate tannins in the cancer protective activity in colon cancer [31].
\nHead and neck cancers are one of the prevalent type of cancer which usually includes squamous cell carcinomas found in the epithelial cells of the pharynx, larynx and the oral cavity [32]. Due to the underdeveloped methods of screening of the disease, the chances of predicting the cancer at an early stage is less. This condition further leads to the increase in number of people who are diagnosed at a late stage of disease progression. In the current scenario, the treatment strategy of the disease mainly involves chemoradiation and surgery. The therapeutic approach to head and neck cancer comes with the common side effects of mucositis and dermatitis. Pomegranate extracts were studied for its protective effect in ameliorating the side effects of the treatment. In the clinical setup of a cohort containing patients with head and neck cancer, it was found that the extracts reduced the extend of damage caused by radiation induced dermatitis as well as mucositis [33].
\nRadiation therapy is applied in the cancer therapy for a long time because of its ability to kill the tumor cells but this will also lead to the production of reactive oxygen species that will damage the normal adjacent cells. Pomegranate extract has been studied in the amelioration of cellular damage induced by these reactive oxidants. From a study conducted using the extracts from pomegranate fruit and seeds, it was found that the treatment with the extracts increased the levels of antioxidant and the enzymes which has antioxidant property. Further the extracts were found to cause a decline in the lipid peroxidation levels suggesting the protective effect of pomegranate extracts in the cancer treatment as an adjuvant to reduce the unwanted side effects [34].
\nOther than in chemoradiation, pomegranate fruit extracts rich in punicalagin has been found useful in acting as a protective agent for the skin fibroblast cells namely the SKU-1064 from possible apoptosis due to UV-A and UV-B exposure. The extracts were found to suppress the NF- κB activation and through the downregulation of caspase-3 which is proapoptotic. Further studies found an increase in DNA repair through the increase in G0/G1 phase [35]. All these findings further supports the fact that pomegranate extracts can be applied in the treatment of cancer as an adjuvant also as a protective for radiation induced cellular damage.
\nLung cancer is one of the leading causes of death related to cancer worldwide in both men and women. Cigarette smoking is attributed to e the major cause of the condition. Along with lung cancer, cigarette smoke causes an increase in oxidative stress and DNA damage. From the animal studies conducted on the formation of lung nodules associated with lung cancer and other cancer related factors like the attenuation of mitosis and the levels of hypoxia inducible factor-1α or HIF1 α because of cigarette smoke, it was found that pomegranate juice supplements wee able to reduce the formation of lung nodules which is a common observation in the case of cigarette smoke exposure along with the reduction of mitosis and HIF-1 α [36].
\nFurther, pomegranate fruit extract treatment in the cell line study using human carcinoma cell associated with lung cancer namely the A549 cells showed an inhibition of the markers of cell proliferation and angiogenesis such as MAPK, NIF-kappa B and PI3K/Akt. The treatment with the extracts further arrested the growth of tumor cells. Thus, pomegranate may be useful as a chemo preventive or as a chemotherapeutic agent against cancer affecting lungs [37]. Methotrexate is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent but it causes injuries in the lung cells due to oxidative stress. In the animal studies employed to study the effect of pomegranate extracts on the protective action against the lung injury caused due to methotrexate, it was found that the use of pomegranate extracts as a prophylactic significantly reduced the total oxidant status and the oxidative stress index along with elevating the total antioxidant capacity. This in turn shows the application of pomegranate extracts as an adjuvant as well in the therapy of lung cancer [38, 39].
\nPomegranate extracts from seed, peel and the whole fruit have been proven to be beneficial in the treatment of many cancer treatments. Skin cancer is the most common cancer among the Caucasian population and it varies depending on the type of cells affected. UV radiation is the major cause of skin cancer since it initiates and promotes tumor [40]. The in vivo and in vitro studies has shown the efficacy of pomegranate as a protectant in the UVB radiation induced skin damage. The oral treatment of pomegranate juice and extract in the Fitzpatrick II-IV skin type showed the possibility of enhancement in the protective from UV damage since it is able to increase the threshold of the UV dose required to cause erythema of skin [41].
\nThe oil extracted from seed of pomegranate fruit was studied on animals as a topical prophylactic in the mice which was induced with skin cancer using 12-
Pomegranate and the products derived from it has been proven to show various medicinal properties. Even though it has been in use in various traditional medical folklore since ages, the medicinal property of pomegranate is not explored much to be of use in the current medical scenario. Pomegranate is still being used as just a fruit and from the studies which are conducted so far on the fruit, it is to be noted that the extracts of the fruit rather than the whole fruit as such possesses many medicinal properties.
\nThe role of pomegranate in the therapy of cancer as such and as an adjuvant in therapy is explored very less as there are very few studies has been conducted on humans, even though there are a handful of studies which are conducted on animal models or cell line studies which deems the fruit and its extracts effective in the therapy of cancer. The studies conducted so far shows the potency of pomegranate and its components in the treatment of cancer relating to prostate, breast, head and neck, colon, lungs and skin or as an adjuvant in the treatment to minimize the unwanted side effects. The various components of pomegranates because of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory property can be applied to various treatment strategies in numerous types of cancer in one way or the other.
\nHence it can be concluded that pomegranate extracts can be made to much use for humans in improving the treatment strategies in turn improving the quality of life, for which there has to be more human, animal and cell line studies so that the complete potency of pomegranate can be uncovered.
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Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. 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These devices can be used widely both in daily life and industrial applications such as steam generators in thermal power plants, distillers in chemical industry, evaporators and condensers in HVAC applications and refrigeration process, heat sinks, automobile radiators and regenerators in gas turbine engines. This chapter discusses the basic design methods for two fluid heat exchangers.",book:{id:"5395",slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Design, Experiment and Simulation"},signatures:"Cüneyt Ezgi",authors:[{id:"187086",title:"Prof.",name:"Cüneyt",middleName:null,surname:"Ezgi",slug:"cuneyt-ezgi",fullName:"Cüneyt Ezgi"}]},{id:"48647",title:"Modeling and Design of Plate Heat Exchanger",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-plate-heat-exchanger",totalDownloads:9642,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"4563",slug:"heat-transfer-studies-and-applications",title:"Heat Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat Transfer Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Fábio A.S. Mota, E.P. Carvalho and Mauro A.S.S. Ravagnani",authors:[{id:"35110",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Ravagnani",slug:"mauro-ravagnani",fullName:"Mauro Ravagnani"}]},{id:"53559",title:"Design of Heat Transfer Surfaces in Agitated Vessels",slug:"design-of-heat-transfer-surfaces-in-agitated-vessels",totalDownloads:4503,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The project on heat transfer surfaces in agitated vessels is based on the determination of the heat exchange area, which is necessary to abide by the process conditions as mixing quality and efficiency of heat transfer. The heat transfer area is determined from the overall heat transfer coefficient (U). The coefficient (U) represents the operation quality in heat transfers being a function of conduction and convection mechanisms. The determination of U is held from the Nusselt’s number, which is related to the dimensionless Reynolds and Prandtl’s, and from the fluid’s viscosity relation that is being agitated in the bulk temperature and the viscosity in the wall’s temperature of heat exchange. The aim of this chapter is to present a summary for the literature concerning heat transfer in agitated vessels (equipped with jackets, helical coils, spiral coils, and vertical tube baffles) and also the many parameters of Nusselt’s equation for these surfaces. It will present a numerical example for a project in an agitated vessel using vertical tube baffles and a 45° pitched blade turbine. Subsequently, the same procedure is held with a turbine radial impeller, in order to compare the heat transfer efficiencies.",book:{id:"5395",slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Design, Experiment and Simulation"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]},{id:"40354",title:"Calculation Methods for Heating and Ventilation System of Electrical Machines",slug:"calculation-methods-for-heating-and-ventilation-system-of-electrical-machines",totalDownloads:5429,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3091",slug:"heat-transfer-phenomena-and-applications",title:"Heat Transfer Phenomena and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Transfer Phenomena and Applications"},signatures:"Otilia Nedelcu and Corneliu Ioan Sălişteanu",authors:[{id:"142213",title:"Dr.",name:"Otilia",middleName:null,surname:"Nedelcu",slug:"otilia-nedelcu",fullName:"Otilia Nedelcu"},{id:"154781",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan Corneliu",middleName:null,surname:"Salisteanu",slug:"ioan-corneliu-salisteanu",fullName:"Ioan Corneliu Salisteanu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"826",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80334",title:"Zero Emission Hydrogen Fuelled Fuel Cell Vehicle and Advanced Strategy on Internal Combustion Engine: A Review",slug:"zero-emission-hydrogen-fuelled-fuel-cell-vehicle-and-advanced-strategy-on-internal-combustion-engine",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102057",abstract:"Global energy consumption has gradually increased as a result of population growth, industrialization, economic development, and rising living standards. Furthermore, as global warming and pollution worsen, the development of renewable energy sources is becoming more essential. Hydrogen is one of the most promising clean and sustainable energy carriers because it emits only water as a byproduct without carbon emission and has the highest energy efficiency. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of raw resources, including water and biomass. Water electrolysis is one of many hydrogen production technologies that is highly recommended due to its eco-friendliness, high hydrogen generation rate, and high purity. However, in terms of long-term viability and environmental effect, Polymer Electrolyte Membrane water electrolysis has been identified as a potential approach for producing high-purity, high-efficiency hydrogen from renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) produced are directly employed in fuel cells and other industrial uses. As a result, an attempt has been made in this work to investigate hydrogen synthesis and utilization in fuel cell vehicles. Low-temperature combustion technology has recently been applied in engine technology to reduce smoke and NOx emissions at the same time. The advantages and limitations of homogeneous charge compression ignition, partially premixed charge compression ignition, premixed charge compression ignition, and reactivity regulated compression ignition are described separately in low-temperature combustion strategy.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Babu Dharmalingam, Ramakrishna Reddy Ramireddy, Santhoshkumar Annamalai, Malinee Sriariyanun, Deepakkumar Rajagopal and Venkata Ramana Katla"},{id:"82176",title:"Replacement of Diesel Fuel by DME in Compression Ignition Engines: Case for India",slug:"replacement-of-diesel-fuel-by-dme-in-compression-ignition-engines-case-for-india",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104969",abstract:"Decarbonising of transport, industrial and all sectors of economy is a necessity to stop or reverse global warming. Use of batteries, fuel-cells, hybrid topographies with smaller IC engines and use of alternative fuels like methanol, ethanol, DME in the IC engines are some of the ways through which emission of green-house gases can reduced/eliminated. Diesel engines are highly efficient due to higher compression ratios and are used in the heavy-duty transportation vehicles. DME is a single molecule fuel having high cetane number and which can be used as a drop-in fuel on the diesel engines albeit with retro-fitment of these engines with a new pressurized fuel system. DME with a chemical formula CH3-O-CH3 can be produced by different feedstocks such as coal, natural gas, biomass and bio-waste and municipal solid waste. India has a large reserve of high ash coal and generates high quantities of biomass and MSW, all of which can be converted to DME by use of clean production technologies. India’s transport and industrial sectors consume about 100 billion liters of diesel fuel per year produced entirely from imported petroleum. This amount of diesel can be replaced by indigenously produced DME from locally available coal, biomass and MSW.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Anirudh Gautam and Ankita Singh"},{id:"81979",title:"The Influence of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oil Blends and Conventional Diesel",slug:"the-influence-of-exhaust-gas-recirculation-on-performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-a-diesel-e",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105011",abstract:"Through an experimental study, this work focused on finding the influence of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on waste plastic pyrolysis oils (WPPOs) with diesel as a base comparison fuel. The results show the amount of carbon monoxide emissions seemed to decrease at low engine loads up to intermediate loads of (50%), thereafter continued to increase significantly but marginally. Among fuels tested, blend WPPOB100 reported the highest BSFC, at 0% EGR flow rate. The value was 0.4751g/kW.hr. compared with 0.7235 g/kW.hr. at 30% EGR flow rate. Increased blend ratio had a direct decrease in brake power linearly. At 30% engine load, CD, WPPOB10, WPPOB20, WPPOB30 and WPPOB40 recorded values of 2.125 kW, 2.15 kW, 2.05 kW, 1.98 kW, 1.86 kW and 1.75 kW, respectively. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) at 30% EGR flow rate, blend WPPOB10 had the highest reduction in temperature compared with the any other WPPO blends at 320°C. Increased blend ratio and EGR percentage flow rate increased smoke emissions within the test fuels blends. At 15% EGR flow rate, the following data were recorded: 7.53%, 7.1%, 6.72%, 6.25%, 6.0% and 5.4% for CD, WWPO10, WPPO20, WPPO30, WPPO40 and WPPO100, respectively.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Semakula Maroa and Freddie L. Inambao"},{id:"81895",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel as Diesel Engine Fuel",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-hydrogenation-derived-renewable-diesel-as-diesel-engine-",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104820",abstract:"Growing anxieties about the continued depletion of fossil fuel reserves, improving the performance of diesel engines, and mandates to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have made the search for alternative fuels for diesel engines more imperative. Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel (HDRD) is recognized as a sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective alternative to petroleum-based diesel (PBD) fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines. This may be because the physicochemical properties of HDRD are similar to that of PBD fuel. The current effort examines the performance and emission characteristics of HDRD in unmodified CI engines. Performance emissions characteristics such as power, torque, brake specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, particulate matter, and exhaust gas temperature were interrogated and compared with that of PBD fuel in a CI engine. The outcome of the study shows that HDRD is better than biodiesel and a sustainable replacement for PDB fuel to achieve improved performance and reduced emissions of CI engines. Going forward, more investigations are needed to further simplify the preparation and democratize the utilization of HDRD as CI fuels for various applications.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Omojola Awogbemi, Daramy Vandi Von Kallon and Josiah Pelemo"},{id:"81114",title:"Research and Innovation to Improve the Efficiency of Modern Diesel Engines",slug:"research-and-innovation-to-improve-the-efficiency-of-modern-diesel-engines",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102759",abstract:"Modern diesel engines are one of the main mobile energy sources and are characterized by a high degree of workflow completeness, design, and manufacturing technology. The chapter summarizes the authors’ experience in improving diesel engines, increasing specific volume power, and reliability, ensuring a low level of environmental pollution emissions. The results of research using industry 4.0 technologies for systematization, choice of directions, and the search for rational ways to improve the efficiency of diesel engines are presented. The application of anergo-exergy method for analyzing the efficiency of the working process of the engine and its systems is considered. Taking into consideration the operating conditions, technical solutions are proposed to improve the reliability of the most heat-stressed parts of high-powered engines. The possibilities for a comprehensive assessment of the fuel efficiency and environmental qualities of diesel engines have been expanded taking into account CO2 emissions when using traditional, alternative, and hybrid diesel fuel.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Andriy Marchenko, Igor Parsadanov, Volodymyr Pylyov, Oleksandr Osetrov, Linkov Oleh, Serhii Kravchenko, Oleksandr Trynov, Denys Meshkov, Serhii Bilyk, Anatolii Savchenko, Inna Rykova and Rasoul Aryan"},{id:"81849",title:"A Comparative Evaluation of Biodiesel and Used Cooking Oil as Feedstock for HDRD Application: A Review",slug:"a-comparative-evaluation-of-biodiesel-and-used-cooking-oil-as-feedstock-for-hdrd-application-a-revie",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104393",abstract:"The search for clean energy for transportation fuel across the globe has grown in intensity. The use of biodiesel as a fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines has shown some deficiencies, e.g., poor storage, and poor pour point. The carbon chain of biodiesel is one of the factors to be considered; the longer carbon chain length leads to decreased ignition delay, which leads to the formation of OH during the premixed combustion phase. The major challenges that render biodiesel inefficient are discussed, like higher viscosity, lower energy content, higher nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions, lower engine speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high cost, and higher engine wear. The novelty of this work is that it shows that biodiesel conversion to green diesel is possible using a biowaste heterogeneous catalyst to obtain quality and high yield of HDRD with lower cost. This renewable energy (HDRD) possesses properties that are directly compatible with CI engines and transportation engines. This research reviewed biodiesel and UCO as feedstocks for the production of HDRD, including the cost–benefit of these feedstocks. Hydrogenation of biodiesel has the potential to overcome the drawbacks of conventional chemically catalyzed processes.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Josiah Pelemo, Kayode Timothy Akindeji, Freddie L. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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