Pollen gathering by bees after anesthetic treatments.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"149",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances on Video Coding",title:"Recent Advances on Video Coding",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is intended to attract the attention of practitioners and researchers from industry and academia interested in challenging paradigms of multimedia video coding, with an emphasis on recent technical developments, cross-disciplinary tools and implementations. Given its instructional purpose, the book also overviews recently published video coding standards such as H.264/AVC and SVC from a simulational standpoint. Novel rate control schemes and cross-disciplinary tools for the optimization of diverse aspects related to video coding are also addressed in detail, along with implementation architectures specially tailored for video processing and encoding. The book concludes by exposing new advances in semantic video coding. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"544",title:"Image Processing",slug:"computer-and-information-science-computer-graphics-image-processing"}],chapters:[{id:"15138",title:"A Tutorial on H.264/SVC Scalable Video Coding and its Tradeoff between Quality, Coding Efficiency and Performance",doi:"10.5772/19227",slug:"a-tutorial-on-h-264-svc-scalable-video-coding-and-its-tradeoff-between-quality-coding-efficiency-and",totalDownloads:11773,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:25,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Iraide Unanue, Inigo Urteaga, Ronaldo Husemann, Javier Del Ser, Valter Roesler, Aitor Rodriguez and Pedro Sanchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15138",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15138",authors:[{id:"24419",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Del Ser Lorente",slug:"javier-del-ser-lorente",fullName:"Javier Del Ser Lorente"},{id:"38506",title:"Prof.",name:"Ronaldo",surname:"Husemann",slug:"ronaldo-husemann",fullName:"Ronaldo Husemann"},{id:"38761",title:"Mr.",name:"Valter",surname:"Roesler",slug:"valter-roesler",fullName:"Valter Roesler"},{id:"40832",title:"MSc.",name:"Iraide",surname:"Unanue Calvo",slug:"iraide-unanue-calvo",fullName:"Iraide Unanue Calvo"},{id:"40833",title:"MSc.",name:"Iñigo",surname:"Urteaga Aldasoro",slug:"inigo-urteaga-aldasoro",fullName:"Iñigo Urteaga Aldasoro"},{id:"40834",title:"MSc.",name:"Aitor",surname:"Rodríguez Rubio",slug:"aitor-rodriguez-rubio",fullName:"Aitor Rodríguez Rubio"},{id:"76537",title:"MSc.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Sánchez",slug:"pedro-sanchez",fullName:"Pedro Sánchez"}],corrections:null},{id:"16265",title:"Complexity/Performance Analysis of a H.264/AVC Video Encoder",doi:"10.5772/16821",slug:"complexity-performance-analysis-of-a-h-264-avc-video-encoder",totalDownloads:4345,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hajer Krichene Zrida, Ahmed Chiheb Ammari, Mohamed Abid and Abderrazek Jemai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/16265",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/16265",authors:[{id:"26401",title:"Dr.",name:"Hajer",surname:"Krichene Zrida",slug:"hajer-krichene-zrida",fullName:"Hajer Krichene Zrida"},{id:"33897",title:"Mr.",name:"Ahmed C.",surname:"Ammari",slug:"ahmed-c.-ammari",fullName:"Ahmed C. 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\r\n\tThoughts, emotions, behaviors, and body sensations are interrelated, and a change in one of these structures can affect the others. Today, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is in the position of a psychotherapy school with a wide application area, which includes a group psychotherapy approach based on this view. CBT is an effective treatment approach for many mental disorders/problems such as depression, anxiety disorders, alcohol-substance use disorders, marital problems, eating disorders, and severe mental disorders. Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive effect of CBT on functionality and quality of life. Since its emergence, CBT has made significant advances in clinical practice and research. This book will cover the historical development, basic principles, and application areas of CBT. It is aimed that the book chapters are prepared in the light of current literature findings will be an essential reference source for the readers.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-897-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-896-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-898-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"849acf69df0db62876816078930b4481",bookSignature:"Prof. Cicek Hocaoglu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11890.jpg",keywords:"Exposure, Homework Assignments, Formulation, Treatment Rationale, Depression, Anxiety Disorders, Eating Disorders, Personality Disorders, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Psychotherapy, Dysthymia",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Cicek Hocaoglu received postgraduate training in psychiatry at the Medical School of Karadeniz Technical University. She is currently a Professor and Head of the Department of Psychiatry at the Recep Tayyip Erdogan University Medical School. She has published over 100 national/international scientific articles, book chapters, and papers presented. Her interests include consultation-liaison psychiatry, suicide, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, and psychopharmacology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"28322",title:"Prof.",name:"Cicek",middleName:null,surname:"Hocaoglu",slug:"cicek-hocaoglu",fullName:"Cicek Hocaoglu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/28322/images/system/28322.jpg",biography:"Cicek Hocaoglu obtained her medical degree from Uludag University Faculty of Medicine, Bursa, Turkey. She received postgraduate training in psychiatry at the Medical School of Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey. She is currently Professor and Head of the Department of Psychiatry at the Recep Tayyip Erdogan University Medical School, Rize, Turkey. She has many published national/international scientific articles, book chapters, and papers presented in congresses. Her interests include consultation-liaison psychiatry, suicide, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, and psychopharmacology.",institutionString:"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466997",firstName:"Patricia",lastName:"Kerep",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466997/images/21565_n.jpg",email:"patricia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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As being the most successful and commercially exploited pollinators in agro-ecosystems not just for their pollination duties but for commercially valuable by-products such as, honey, wax, propolis, etc. as well, honey bees faces more diverse stresses in nature. Honeybees (
The introduction of chemical pesticides and further increase in its demand in the market is not actually the basic requirements of the farmer; rather it is their mere ignorance. The farmers discriminately use these agro-chemicals with a purpose to manage the pests; instead, they end up with killing their own beneficial insects, i.e., the pollinators. Honey bees and other pollinators get exposed to different toxic agro-chemicals in nature through different paths and these different pesticides affect honey bee colonies to different levels thus; to minimize the losses to pollinators from the adverse effect of pesticide poisoning is a burning topic of interest for human to protect the pollinators.
\nThe different types of pesticidal formulations travel across the plant through different ways in order to protect the plant or part of it from different factors such as weeds, pathogen, insect pests or rodents, etc. According to the nature of the different pesticides, three principal application methods that are often used to treat crops are: direct spray, which is often used around homes and gardens; soil applications and seed applications, typically used in larger treatment systems. These different methods of application play a crucial role in the exposure of these chemicals to the insect pollinators, visiting a crop (Figure 1).
\nDifferent routes of pesticidal exposure to honey bees.
Thus, on the basis of different application methods and the persistence of different pesticides in nature, bees get exposed to different pesticides through these major routes:
Direct contact with chemical during foraging on a treated plant
Pesticide particles of dust formulations sticking to the foraging bees or to whole colony via drift through wind
Pesticidal runoff from the treated fields to nearby water reservoirs
Pesticidal drift to non-treated foraging plants growing nearby to the treated crop [12]
Pesticidal residues in pollen through seed treatment [12]
These different routes for exposure of various pesticides to honey bees facilitate their entry into a honey bee colony system, but still the mode by which, these chemicals are pulled out by the forager bees from the fields are quite different being either by oral, respiratory or dermal intake. These different modes of intake of such chemicals are described here.
\nOral intake of chemical pesticides from fields is facilitated through the foraging worker bees. Plants treated with different systemic insecticides, produce nectar and pollen containing these insecticides and thus, worker bees collecting this floral resource carries to the colonies to store it into the colony and further use to feed the young developing brood [13]. Several reports of an extremely high concentration of different pesticidal compounds, including insecticides, fungicides, miticides and herbicides have been reported from pollen samples of several crops [12, 14]. These events, from collecting the pollen in the field to feeding to the developing brood results in to a chain of catastrophic events as: foragers are killed during collecting and transporting such contaminated pollen, nurse bees are killed while storing and feeding pollen and the brood are killed by consuming the toxic pollen, thus, leading to a total collapse of the colony.
\nRespiration of pure oxygen plays a vital role in an organism’s growth and development since it ensures proper functioning of various organs in the organism. But, respiration of air admixture with toxicants causes various abnormalities such as abrupt behavioral changes and degradation of learning ability [15]. Pesticide formulations like, dust and fumigants travels through the air called ‘drift’ can either be carried out onto the body surface of foraging bees or can be absorbed through trachea (respiratory organs) in sufficient concentrations to be toxic to the bees (Table 1).
\n\n | N2O | \nCO2\n | \nAmmonium nitrate | \nControl | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
With pollen | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n15 | \n
Without pollen | \n16 | \n33 | \n25 | \n25 | \n
Pollen gathering by bees after anesthetic treatments.
Source: Data extracted from Mackensen [22].
This is the major mode of intake of toxicants by the bees since they are exposed to direct contact of pesticides in the fields while foraging on the crops. Honey bee foragers come in direct contact with several pesticides while foraging and such chemicals can be lethal even in small quantities. Dermal toxicity through topical spray has been reported for various insecticides and thorax has widely been regarded as a major route of dermal exposure of pesticides to the honey bees [16, 17]. Other than thorax, insect wings have been reported as a more lethal route of exposure to the bees [18]. Some of the majorly important and frequent ways of dermal intakes are following:
Majority of bee poisoning is due to application of insecticides to crops during blooming period.
Bees coming in contact of treated areas.
Bees coming in contact with insecticides residues on plants and collect insecticide dust with pollen.
Bees drinking or touching contaminated water or honeydew on the ground or foliage or from nearby water bodies.
Contamination through treated nectar sources. Dimethaote is the only systemic insecticide known to be excreted in hazardous amount in nectar under field conditions.
\n
One of the obvious signs of pesticide poisoning is the presence of a large number of dead or dying bees at the hive entrance. These bees are foragers who have been exposed to pesticides sprayed in the fields.
Another common symptom includes the presence of a moist and sticky mass of dead bees at the hive entrance. This results from poisoning by some fast-acting pesticides, e.g., organophosphorus pesticides. Dying bees extend their tongues through which nectar is regurgitated resulting in sticky and moist dead bees. Bees that have been exposed to a pesticide may regurgitate a thick and dark fluid.
Swiftly-acting insecticides kill foraging bees in the field itself, while only some of them manage to return to the hive. Sometimes, while spraying is done in the nearby fields to the apiaries, if such chemicals come in direct contact with colony, the whole colony may also die instantly. Stronger colonies suffer greater losses from pesticidal poisoning than weaker ones, because they have larger numbers of foraging bees.
Foraging bees often carry residual pesticides in their pollen loads while returning to the hive. As a result, the behaviour of bees in the hive changes abruptly. Honeybees in such colonies become more aggressive or agitated. When a hive containing pesticide-affected bees is opened, the bees fly out of the hive sometimes straight at the face of the beekeeper handling them.
Other symptoms include stupefaction, paralysis, aggressiveness and abnormal behaviour, jerky, spinning movements. Slowing down of activity and crawling of bees around the hive entrance. They lose their ability to fly and ultimately die 2 or 3 days after poisoning. Poor egg laying patterns or abnormal supercedure of queens.
Within the hive, a break in the brood cycle (stages of young bees) or a spotty pattern of the brood could also indicate a pesticide problem.
Classification of different toxicants to honey bees can be done either on the basis of levels of toxicity or on the basis of sources in the nature. Different toxicants have variable toxicity levels, according to their mode of action on bees and this toxicity level is measured as LD50, which is the dose at which 50% of the bee population dies due to the intoxication. On the basis of their LD50 levels, toxicants have been classified into four different categories [19].
highly toxic (acute LD50 < 2 μg/bee)
moderately toxic (acute LD50 2–10.99 μg/bee)
slightly toxic (acute LD50 11–100 μg/bee)
nontoxic (acute LD50 > 100 μg/bee) to adult bees
Second type of classification is based on the type of toxicants which are originated from different sources, due to human interventions. These toxicants include:
\nThe modern time has become an era of the greenhouse gases and global warming. The ever-increasing concentration of various poisonous gasses in the atmosphere has affected a vast majority of the living beings in this world and honey bees are also not any exception with carbon di oxide being the most important of these gasses. Several scientists have worked on the toxicity of carbon dioxide on honey bees and have found some drastic effect of this gas on honey bee at both the levels including individual bees as well as at the colony level, which includes narcosis in foraging honey bees [11], earlier oviposition of queen [20], reduction in life expectancy [21] and reduction in pollen gathering by foraging bees [1].
\nBees treated with a mixture of air and CO2 for 5 min have shown to stop their movement and went motionless but regaining their activity, once it was left for 30 min. The same experiment when repeated with only air for comparative study showed that only air did not anesthetize the bee. Thus, it can be concluded that the CO2 at even low concentrations is detrimental to honey bees since they have a narcotic effect [1].
\nThe drastic effect of different chemicals used in the apiaries has been shown to decrease the pollen gathering ability of the forager bees. This decrease in the pollen supply during the blooming seasons can cause a severe threat to the reserves of the colony during winter season, where most of the pollen is consumed for the survival of the colony. This decrease in pollen gathering ability in the worker bees have been observed by different workers and such chemicals like, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and ammonium nitrate have been found to be decreasing the pollen gathering capacity of as many as 40 treated worker bees with a threatening outcome of no bee being able to gather pollen after the exposure to abovementioned chemicals, which are widely used in apiaries for different purposes [22].
\nContinued anthropogenic pressure due to the ever-highest human population, which has no signs to slow down in near future have put an alarming metal and metalloid pollutants pressure over the past century because of anthropogenic emissions into the environment. These pollutants may have negatively impacted the pollinators that reside in the soul of machinery responsible for the food production that sustains this human population. Metal pollutants are discharged into the air, water, and soil through different human activities including mining, agriculture, coal burning, hydraulic fracturing to extract gas and oil, and industrial and municipal waste production. Of all the toxic metals collected cadmium, copper and lead have been proved to be the most toxic to bees [23]. These three metals (Cd, Cu and Pb) have also been reported to change the feeding behavior in bees with increased sensitivity towards sucrose.
\nOnce in soil, Cd and Cu is actively absorbed by plant roots, transferred via vascular bundles into the nectar and pollen, and subsequently accumulates in the pollinators and bee products since the pollinators collect the contaminated pollen and nectar. Copper is an essential trace element in plants and is able to accumulate in different plant tissues. Cu co-acts with several essential proteins to enhance growth and development of honey bees but it is toxic when it exceeds the cellular needs.
\nAs lead is not easily trans-located within plants, thus, is also shown to be having a residual effect on forager honey bee. Lead gets trans-located within bees due to transfer through air and dislodgeable residues, resulting from deposition on surface contacted by bees [23].
\nA proper maintenance of an apiary depends upon the sanitation aspect of beekeeping but a proper and timely application of different synthetically formulated chemicals is also important for avoidance or management of severe health problems. Different health problems like infestation of
Both FA and OA have been proved to be effective to control
Increased mortality
Negative effects on brood development
Reduced fitness of treated colony
Decreased division of labour
Reduced hive cleaning and increased self-grooming
The mode of action of FA against
As OA is generally provided to the honey bee colony in sugar syrup, in order to increase its efficacy against the
Chemical control for insect pest management contributes as the major part of insect pest management strategies used all over the world [37]. Insecticides have been used since early 1940s for the effective pest management and have been a successful tool for the pest management as saving serious crop losses through insect pest infestations [38]. But, at the same time, the negative effects of these synthetic chemicals have created havoc throughout the world by suppressing the overwhelming populations of several non-target insect species, mainly including the biological control agents and the pollinators. Honey bees are susceptible to many insecticides and different harmful effects of these insecticides are believed to be the prime most reason for the decline in global honey bee populations [9, 39, 40]. The different insecticides have been highly criticized for their possible role in widely discussed and seriously concerning worldwide losses of honey bee colonies [41, 42]. Since the first detailed report and description of the term ‘colony collapse disorder’ (CCD) in 2006 [43] in America and followed by Europe, had again initiated the long term agitation of banning the use of insecticides, posing a serious threat to the billion dollar industry. Since the CCD, possible role of insecticidal residues in weakening the honey bee colonies for an increased susceptibility towards different environmental and pathogenic pressure on different colony levels has widely been discussed in scientific community [7, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
\nLethality of any pesticide to honey bee is measured during toxicological tests of lethality by observing the mortality of bees after the application of pesticides either by oral administration or by topical application. The bee is usually considered dead when it exhibits “no movements after prodding”. Investigation on lethality of any insecticide includes the use of correlation metrics to link the lethality and dose of a toxic chemical or substance to the bees [51, 52]. List of lethality of different class of insecticides was compiled from supporting information from Hardstone and Scott [53], and for the same information regarding fungicides and herbicides was compiled through ECOTOX database [54].
\nThe different class of chemical insecticides poses variable threat to the individual honey bee and a colony level health, thus, the toxic effects and toxicity symptoms of different insecticides can be discussed under one umbrella of major classes of insecticide causing toxicity to the honey bees which is described here.
\nThe two widely used groups of insecticides, organophosphates and carbamates acts on insects in a similar way as acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors which in normal conditions, inhibits the activity of neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the insect nervous system [53]. These two groups of insecticides have deeply investigated for their toxic effects on honeybees and have been reported to have high larval as well as chronic toxicity to the adult bees causing toxicity symptoms like memory loss and behavioral agitations [55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. These two classes of insecticides have a variable amount of topical toxicity to the bees with LD50 ranging between 0.018 and 31.2 μg/bee [61, 62], with some of the widely used insecticides enlisted in Tables 2 and 3.
\nInsecticide (organophosphate) | \nLD50 (μg/bee) | \nRisk ranking | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Mean | \nRange | \n||
Chlorpyrifos | \n0.01 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Coumaphos | \n31.2 | \n— | \nLow | \n
Diazinon | \n0.2 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Dicrotophos | \n1.62 | \n0.410–3.05 | \nHigh | \n
Dicholorvos | \n2.73 | \n0.290–5.01 | \nHigh | \n
Fenitrothion | \n1.66 | \n0.180–3.83 | \nHigh | \n
Malathion | \n0.2 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Methidathion | \n0.236 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Methyl parathion | \n1.66 | \n0.610–3.24 | \nHigh | \n
Paraoxon | \n0.600 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Parathion | \n1.36 | \n0.100–3.50 | \nHigh | \n
Phorate | \n2.45 | \n0.910–3.20 | \nHigh | \n
Phosmet | \n1.06 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Phosphamidon | \n4.89 | \n0.020–14.5 | \nHigh | \n
TEPP | \n0.410 | \n0.010–1.20 | \nHigh | \n
List of organophosphate insecticides with respective toxicity to the bees.
Source: Data compiled in Hardstone and Scott [53].
Insecticide (carbamates) | \nLD50 (μg/bee) | \nRisk ranking | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Mean | \nRange | \n||
Oxamyl | \n0.094 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Methomyl | \n0.16 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Carbaryl | \n1.1 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Carbofuran | \n1.55 | \n1.49–1.60 | \nHigh | \n
Aldicarb | \n2.36 | \n1.52–2.85 | \nHigh | \n
Bendiocarb | \n2.64 | \n1.00–4.28 | \nHigh | \n
Aminocarb | \n4.40 | \n0.85–11.2 | \nHigh | \n
List of carbamates insecticides with respective toxicity to the bees.
Source: Data compiled in Hardstone and Scott [53].
\n
Regurgitation of ingested food
Disoriented movements
Distended abdomens
Erratic movement of the bees
Wings hooked together, held away from body
Extended tongues
Death of the bee
\n
Erratic movement of the bees
Stupefaction (numb)
Paralysis
Break in brood cycle
Queen ceases egg laying
Development of supersedure queen bees
Most bees die at colony
Leaves of
The neonicotinoids which are synthetic analogs of nicotine insecticides have a greater affinity to nAChR in the insect nervous system, including bees as well. In recent years, several studies and workers have portrayed these insecticides as the most serious cause of well discussed CCD [63, 64, 65, 66]. However, these studies have been criticized for using unrealistic doses and duration of exposure [67]. The nitro guanidine neonicotinoids, including imidacloprid, clothianidin and thiamethoxam have been reported to be highly toxic to bees [68], with toxicity levels ranging from 0.004 to 0.075 μg/bee [69, 70] (Table 4). The insecticides like, thiacloprid and acetamiprid which are the member chemicals of cyanoguanidine neonicotinoid group, were much less toxic to the bees with topical or contact LD50 in a range of 7.1–14.6 μg/bee [70]. This relatively lesser toxicity of cyanoguanidines to the bees is probably due to rapid cytochrome P450 detoxification.
\nInsecticide (neonicotinoids) | \nLD50 (μg/bee) | \nRisk ranking | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Mean | \nRange | \n||
Acetamiprid | \n8.1 | \n— | \nModerate | \n
Imidacloprid | \n0.0039 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Thiacloprid | \n17.32 | \n\n | Low | \n
Thiamethoxam | \n0.0005 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Clothianidin | \n0.00368 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Dinotefuran | \n0.0023 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
List of neonicotinoid insecticides with respective toxicity to the bees.
Source: Data compiled in Hardstone and Scott [53].
The nitroguanidine insecticides also show their toxic effect through impairing the ability of foraging honey bees to return to the hive [28, 71, 72].
\nPyrethrin insecticides, produced by pyrethrum flowers (
Insecticide (organophosphate) | \nLD50 (μg/bee) | \nRisk ranking | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Mean | \nRange | \n||
Bifenthrin | \n0.0146 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Cyfluthrin | \n0.037 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Esfenvalerate | \n0.017 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Fenpropathrin | \n0.05 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Gamma-Cyhalothrin | \n0.0061 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Lambda-cyhalothrin | \n0.038 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Permethrin | \n0.024 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Pyrethrin + PBO | \n0.002 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Pyrethrum | \n0.022 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
Zeta-cypermethrin | \n0.181 | \n— | \nHigh | \n
List of pyrethroid insecticides with respective toxicity to the bees.
Source: Data compiled in Hardstone and Scott [53].
Other than pyrethrins, the pyrethroids, and organochlorine insecticides, show their action on the voltage-gated Na+ channel in the axons of nerve cells, by delaying the closing of the Na+ channel and prolonging the recovery period of the nerve cells, following the transmission of an action potential [74]. Bees show more tolerance towards some of the pyrethroids because of their rapid detoxification by cytochrome P450s. Being a pyrethroid, tau-fluvalinate a widely used miticide also appears to be less toxic or safer to the honey bees but in higher concentrations this chemical has been reported to affect the health of different castes of honey bee colony. Colonies exposed to high doses of tau-fluvalinate had smaller queen bees [75]. Drones exposed to tau-fluvalinate during development were also reported to be affected with lesser chances of attaining sexual maturity [14].
\n\n
Regurgitation of ingested food
Erratic movement of the bees
Paralysis
Many bees die between foraging area and colony
“A fungicide is a specific type of pesticide that controls fungal disease by specifically inhibiting or killing the fungus causing the disease.”
\nIt is believed to be nontoxic to bees by farmers and hence it is mostly applied during the flowering of plant coinciding with maximum bee activity. Thus, fungicides often account for most of the pesticide content of pollen [9]. An alarming concentration of fungicide chlorothalonil (99 ppm) has been reported from the honey bee pollen [76]. Other than chlorothalonil, in other studies, fungicides like vinclozolin (32 ppm) and iprodione (5.5 ppm) captan (contact) and difenoconazole [77] have also been reported from beebread. While fungicides are considered to be fairly safe for use around adult honey bees, beekeepers have reported losses of brood in larval and pupal stages coinciding with fungicide use during bloom. Fungicide applications also have been determined to trigger hypothermia in adult honey bees [78]. Fungicide was causing toxic effects to honey bee brood based on finding malformed, and frequently wingless, pupae and recently emerged adult bees. The affected bees accumulated on the bottom boards and at the entrance so hives about 2 week after applications. The toxicity levels for different fungicides lies in the range of LD50 > 200 to as small as 0.2 μg/bee (Table 6).
\nActive ingredient | \nTrade name | \nLD50 (μg/bee) | \n
---|---|---|
Dicloran | \nBotran | \n0.2 | \n
Captan | \nCaptan | \n10 | \n
Dodine | \nSyllit FL | \n12.5 | \n
Propiconazole | \nBumper | \n25 | \n
Ziram | \nZiram | \n46.6 | \n
Thiram | \nThiram | \n74 | \n
Sulfur | \nDisperss | \n>100 | \n
Mancozeb | \nDithane | \n178.9 | \n
Trifloxystrobin | \nFlint | \n>200 | \n
Even though the main purpose of using different herbicides is to control the unwanted weed populations in the fields and there is no such objective to kill insects through them. The toxicity level of herbicides is known to be very less to most of the insects and due to this these pesticides are applied without any restrictions regarding insects. Bees usually come across these chemicals in higher concentrations [79] and toxic effects of these have also been reported on honey bees. Toxicity levels in LD50 values differ from one chemical to another with a range of 14.5–100 μg/bee (Table 7). A widely used herbicide, paraquat has been reported to be toxic to the bees in laboratory conditions, causing median life of worker ten times reduced than the normal, on injecting at the rate of 15 μg per worker and death within a span of 3 days’ time, when sprayed at the rate of 4.5 kg AI/ha [79]. These pesticides may harm the bees in other way around as well as they reduce the number of plants offering floral resources to the bees.
\nHerbicide | \nLD50 (μg/bee) | \n
---|---|
2,4-DB acid | \n14.5 | \n
2,4-DP-P, dimethylamines | \n25 | \n
Trifloxysulfuron-sodium | \n25 | \n
Pendimethalin | \n49.5 | \n
Triclopyr, butoxyethyl ester | \n62.5 | \n
Alachlor | \n68.1 | \n
Simazine | \n96.7 | \n
Atrazine | \n97 | \n
Picloram, potassium salt | \n100 | \n
Glyphosate, isopropylamine | \n100 | \n
2,4-D, 2-ethylhexyl ester | \n100 | \n
\n
Dusts are more hazardous than the liquid formulations as these chemicals can reach and enter a honey bee colony through drifting along with the air current. Ultra-low-volume (ULV) formulations are also more hazardous than the other liquid formulations as they can enter or reach a colony in the same manner as well.
Emulsifiable concentrates are less hazardous than wettable powders.
Granular formulation is also safer for the bees as these chemicals are provided to the lower parts of the plant canopy, which minimizes their direct contact with any flower visiting pollinator.
Pollinators in general, either insects or the handful of other animal species are of utmost importance for their continuous support to most of the cross pollinated plant species for their reproduction. The honey bees, which is considered as the most important among all the pollinators is responsible for achieving of global food production demand every year. With ever increasing population, human have constantly been searching for a way to maintain this demand of global food production and in order to achieve this goal, the conventional agriculture has evolved over the centuries. In this sequence, for the proper management of insect, plant pathogens and weed plants in agro-ecosystem various chemical pesticides were discovered in the nineteenth century. Ever since the introduction of these chemical pesticides, the serious debate on their effects on non-target insects and other organisms have also started. Thus, this chapter focuses on the different routes, modes and effects of interaction between various pesticidal applications and their toxic effects on honey bees, at both individual and colony level. Agrochemicals used in fields focusing mainly on minimize the crop losses are harmful for non-target organisms and hundreds of pollinator species, including honey bees are also no exception to this. Being the worker caste of the colony honey bee foragers visit various fields and gather pollen and nectar from different plant sources, which makes them in a phase of constant exposure to various chemicals, either natural or synthetic in nature. These foraging workers collect provisions from floral resources from chemically treated plants and carry them to their colony and thus, unknowingly with each visit they carry with them, a serious threat to their own life as well as to their colony as well. The different kinds of agrochemicals may be a fungicide residue, remaining in a plant after the seed treatment; a herbicide molecule, sprayed directly over the weed plants; an insecticide residue either coming through a direct spray or reaching the colony via air current (drift). Other than these agrochemicals, a serious threat for honey bee colonies has also been imposed by the various synthetic chemicals applied to the bees in apiaries itself for the proper management of honey bee health. Several such chemicals, used for the management of honey bee pests have also been reported to be toxic to the bees.
\nAlthough, several studies have been put forward regarding pesticidal toxicity to honey bees, but still a proper management strategy in order to minimize the honey bees exposure is still lacking. However, all pesticidal applications should be done in a way to minimize their exposure to honey bees, so as to prevent the further decline of honey bee population throughout the world. Furthermore, there exists a need of an extension program, for the farmers and beekeepers to spread the awareness regarding the hazardous effects of different agrochemicals to the honey bees, in order to make the existing management strategies more effective in future.
\nRape, an unlawful carnal knowledge of man or woman is assuming a threatening dimension in Nigeria. While Nigeria has no reliable statistics which could show the extent and prevalence of the crime, media reportage and statement from law enforcement agency such as the police provides insight into the magnitude of the problem. Between January and May, 2020, Nigeria’s Inspector General of Police stated that the force arrested 799 suspects associated with 717 rape cases. Out of this figure, six hundred and thirty-one of these cases have been charged to court while 55 cases were still being investigated (
As a global concern, problems associated with rape have to do with how to prevent its occurrence or reduce it to its barest minimum and the challenge of low convictions of rapists [5]. These two problems of rape are exacerbated by the prevailing rape myths supporting attitudes. Kimberly and Fitzgerald [6] define rape supporting attitudes as beliefs and notions which tend to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women. Of course, this conception favours women and does not capture the interests of males who are also victims of rape from women. Even in Nigeria, the percentage of male victims captured by the media is small [4].
\nIn relation to convictions, behaviours of the Criminal justice actors (police, lawyers and jurors) influence the outcomes of a rape case. Whitey [5] argues that if rape myths are reduced or neutralised, there is the possibility of getting more rape convictions. What this implies is that when CJS actors are influenced by rape myths, their judgement and reactions to rape reduces conviction rates and vice versa. This is true as Whitey [5] notes that such myths legitimises offending behaviour and inhibits women from relating experiences as rape. While not all rape cases get reported to the police, the few ones reported may also suffer attrition [7]. This attrition may be caused by the decision of the handling officer who is to determine how far the case can go, the possibility of securing a conviction, or insufficient evidence. Worse still, the police may decide what should be recorded into the crime record or simply treat what is reported as mere information or intelligence. While rape attrition has been a major cause of concern in the past three decades [8], Stanko and Williams [9] unpacks how context of reported rape could impact on its outcomes. They show how social believability vulnerabilities (mental ill-health, under 18 years, under the influence of drugs/alcohol at the time of rape, were former partners of assailants or mental issues) could affect the outcomes of the rape. In particular, victims with mental health issues may suffer their allegations not being framed as rape and their cases are not likely to result into conviction.
\nIn South Africa, Rumney and van der Bijl [10] found that rape supporting culture exists and this is shared by CJS professionals. Where such rape supporting culture exists, victims of rape do not generally come out to report their victimisation. Indeed, Jewkes and Abrahams [11] describe South Africa has a climate tolerant of violence and rape. Rape is also a social problem in South Africa where significant law reforms have been made to arrest the menace. The reforms were thought as a way of protecting victims of rape. Indeed, South African Courts joins the condemnation of the legal system which fails to protect rape victims. Burt [12] did not absolve the complicity of parents, families and society in exerting pressure on males to discourage rape. Accordingly, Jewkes [11] notes that males are permitted to do anything they can get away with while coercion is only queried if it affects victims of higher social status in the society. Wood et al. [13] also found that women are blamed for their victimisation. They are accused women straying beyond expected boundaries of female behaviour such as being intoxicated. This social attitude and beliefs also influence CJS response to rape and the eventual outcomes. Temkin and Krahé [14], p. 209 argue that social definition of rape narrows the understanding of rape by law enforcement agents. To them: “rape stereotypes affect the judgements made by individuals dealing with rape cases, for example as police officers, judges or members of a jury, and thereby shape the understanding of rape as it is represented and dealt with in the criminal justice system”. Consequent upon these attitudes, the CJS utilises stereotypical notions to ascertain if a woman has been raped or not. Certainly, these erroneous assumptions surrounding rape affect the way victims or rape are treated along the Criminal justice system corridor. Shelley et al. [15] contend that the highly gendered nature of law enforcement organisations may have influence the situation where jaundiced notions about males and females influence the norms and practices in the agency. It remains inconclusive in literature whether women officers are more likely to believe the stories of rape victims or whether they will be more hostile to them [16, 17].
\nSince its birthing by Cohen and Felson [18], routine activity theory (RAT) has been variously deployed to explain how time and space are important factors in criminal victimisation. Their basic idea was that the convergence in time and space of a motivated offender, suitable or attractive target in the absence of capable guardianship would result in criminal victimisation. According to Cohen and Felson [18], p. 589 “the lack of any one of these elements is sufficient to prevent the successful completion of a direct contact predatory crime”. In other words, no criminal victimisation will take place if there is a motivated offender and there is no attractive target and vice versa. We are also unlikely to have a criminal victimisation take place where there is capable guardianship and attractive target because the presence of capable guardianship will neutralise any victimisation instinct. This is rightly captured by Pratt and Turanovic [19], p. 2, when they averred that “one gets victimised if the three key elements converge, if any of the three are missing victimisation does not happen and the probability has little or nothing to do with it”. In deploying this theory to understand how selected cases of rape occurred in Nigeria, I argue that rapists are masters of the routines of their victims, sufficiently knowledgeable of when their attractive targets will be unprotected and more vulnerable for their sexual predation. It follows therefore that rapists’ understanding of the routines of their victims and when they will be more vulnerable to attack makes sexual violence of rape to be successful.
\nThis paper adopts exploratory design and utilised secondary sources of data collection. Purposively, rape cases reported by the media during the COVID-19 lockdown in Nigeria formed the cases adopted for this study. During this lockdown, schools, offices and markets were shut down. While street crimes reduced, domestic violence and rape surged. Five cases of rape were selected for their uniqueness and the concern they generated both online and offline. They occurred between April 27 and June 6, 2020. They unveil different dimensions of victimisation and offenders’ use of space or mastery of routines of the victims and/or their guardians. We relied on the reported account of Nigerian national newspapers which covered the rape stories. In particular, The Punch, The Nation and the Vanguard newspapers provided account of relatives, parents and guardian of the victims on how the rape occurred. In analysing the data, I utilise the basic elements of routine activity theory: Motivated offender, attractive target and absence of capable guardianship.
\nUnder this section, attempt is made to analyse the data concerning each of the five cases and situated within the analytical framework of the routine activities theory. While studies have been looking for the personality of the rapists, looking for how rape occurs is capable of unveiling how to keep attractive female/male targets safe from motivated sexual predators. Felson and Cohen had maintained that crime could still occur even without the traditional notion of criminogenic factor like economic deprivation. Indeed as noted by Felson and Boba [20], crime and victimisation feature in everyday life of leaving home and going to work. Just like properties can be victim of motivated offender attacks, rape victims also become objects of sexual predators. It means that the dispersal of capable guardian from suitable target could provide a loophole for the motivated offender lurking around to strike. This is why Cohen and Felson [18], p. 591 posits that “daily work activities separate many people from those they trust and the property they value”.
\nEveryday activity that takes one away from the protective custody of guardians to the waiting or monitoring hands of motivated offenders could include being alone at home, visiting ‘evil’ peers and selling on the streets around motivated offenders. Case 1 is the case of Jennifer which happened on April 27 when she was joined a male friend who had called him to meet him at a place where she would later be gang raped by those whom her sister said ‘she trusted’. She would later drink alcohol, lost self-guardianship to resist sexual assault and was gang raped. It follows therefore that the ‘gang’ had planned to remove their victims from the location where she could be saved from being raped to a location where all three elements of rape victimisation was sure. While we could analyse how ‘trust’ could make one vulnerable to being raped, not leaving and staying back when the other girls were leaving was itself a risky choice. Pratt and Turanovic [19] posits that people tend to self-select into the risky behavioural routines such as behaving in such a way that makes them vulnerable to attacks. This includes falling for the trick to drink alcohol, a tool to make her lose consciousness and self-guardianship. It shows how being at home or outside can both expose one to victimisation in the absence of capable guardianship. What this implies is that anyplace can be site for victimisation provided the elements of attractive targets, motivated offender and the absence of capable guardian converge to make rape victimisation a success.
\n\n
A case of gang rape was reported in Kaduna state. The sister of the victim narrated what happened to the Punch reporter. “On April 27, 2020, one of the victim’s male friends called her to come and meet him somewhere. When she got there, she met two other girls and six boys. One of the boys had previously asked her for an intimate relationship and when it was time for the other two girls to leave, the victim also stood up to go, but one of the boys asked her not to leave yet that they wanted to talk to her on behalf of the young man asking her out. She trusted them and stayed back; they offered her alcohol, which she declined, but they coerced her into taking it after which she lost consciousness. Five of the boys raped her, while the sixth kept threatening his friends to stop or he would report them, but he never did. After they had raped her, the boys dropped her around 7 pm by the bridge close to the house and called her friends to come and get her, alleging that she had been sleeping since morning. As soon as she got home, she was taken to hospital, because she was unconscious and all necessary tests were conducted and the matter was reported at the Barnawa Police Station that same night. The case was transferred to the State Criminal Investigation and Intelligence Department and since then, the police have not arrested the three other boys or invite their parents to the station. The police are making no effort at all to arrest the suspects or question their parents. The police have been frustrating the case to the extent that the mother of the victim is already contemplating dropping the case. The parents of the two boys in custody are offering N15,000 each as damages for what their sons have done to the victim and the police have decided to release them on bail
\nPeriod of uncertainty or crisis could also provide opportunity for rape victimisation. Just like the case of Jennifer, Uwaila (see Case 2 narration) innocently moved away from home where she could have benefitted from the protective custody of relations who were at home during COVID-19 lockdown. However, her routine of going to the church to read had been mastered by her rapists. This is also made possible because the church did not have night guard to guide the church facility and to the victim, the church was a sanctuary where criminals ought not venture into but she was wrong. The rapists were sufficiently motivated by a woman who paid them money to get the blood of a lady for alleged ritual. From the narrations of the offenders after they were arrested, they positioned themselves to ensure that their operation was successful. They entered the church, initiated a conversation with their target, attacked her, raped her, cleaned her blood and escaped before they were later arrested. Certainly, the mastery of routine of the victim and the absence of capable guardianship within the precinct of the church made the motivated rapists successful with their victimisation.
\n\n
Late Uwaila Vera Omozuwa was a 22-year old microbiology student of University of Benin in Edo state. Following the lockdown of higher institutions due to coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), Uwa had to go back home to her family to continue to hold up while the COVID-19 pandemic is expected to reduce before returning to school. She was studious and a choir of the Church where she was raped and murdered. Due to the lockdown which brought many people home, Uwa had complained about the disturbance of family members to her reading because of their noise and sought to continue using the Church to read. This became a normal way to her. On May 27, she was met inside the church in the pool of her blood. She was raped, beaten and hit with fire extinguisher on her head. She would later die in the hospital. The church security officer had gone to collect the key to the church from its keeper when he was told someone was in the church already. The security officer was to alert them of the incident in the church. The police paraded her killers on August 26, 2020. They confessed to raping and killing Uwa since they understood her movement. They were paid one million naira to kill her by suspected woman ritualist to use white handkerchief to clean her blood. The Police stated that post-mortem showed she was raped. (Vanguard newspaper June 12,020: How 22-year old UNIBEN student was raped inside church, murdered. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/06/how-22-year-old-uniben-student-was-raped-in-church-murdered/)
\nSite of victimisation can be home or outside the home on the street. Pratt and Turanovic [19] posited that it is theoretical to assume that home is a safe location for victimisation. They argue that victimisation such as child abuse, domestic violence, intimate partner violence all occur within the home.
\n\n
On June 1, 2020, 18-year old student of Federal College of Animal and Production Technology in Ibadan was raped and murdered for suspected ritual purpose. Her father narrated “I was not at home when the incident happened. The victim’s younger sister was not at home too; she went for Quaranic lessons, but when she returned home, she saw Barakat at the back of the house with deep cuts all over her body. She had been raped and killed. Somebody called me on phone that I should come home but he refused to tell me what happened. When I got home, I saw that my daughter had been raped and hacked to death.” The victims’ mother too was not at home while the incident happened. She was the only one at home in an isolated and bushy environment where the incident occurred
\nIn the case of Barakat, the victim was home alone with no one around her. They also live in isolated place where help was far. The house was surrounded by bush. Understanding this terrain, the motivated offender would later attack her, raped her and killed her.
\nCase 4 presents another dimension to dangerous spaces where motivated offenders lurks and awaits attractive targets before they strike. For sexual predators, timing of attack is vital. What set the capable guardianship apart from the attractive target is the time the guardian is away from the attractive target. Therefore, leaving home to eke out a living on the streets becomes a risky routine which increases the susceptibility of the hawker to be attacked.
\n\n
A 17-year old sachet and soft drinks hawker was attacked by three hoodlums around 7 pm and raped her. She was threatened with broken bottles and was with them for 45 minutes.
\nTiming of economic activity contributed to the victimisation. Selling at odd hour in the neighbourhood of anti-social elements presents opportunities for defilement since guardianship and visibility to poor.
\nThe fifth case for our analysis is that which also happened during the lockdown of Lagos state which is the epicentre of Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) infections in Nigeria. Children and their parents were restricted to their residence except for those on essential services duty. Schools had started series of online classes to keep their pupils busy learning. The father was at home as a capable guardian, at least with potential to protect her daughter against attacks. However, that the rapists could attack their victim while the father (guardian) rushed to buy fuel for his daughter to continue online learning unpacks and lay credence to the important of routine activity in understanding sexual predation.
\n\n
A 12-year old girl was defiled while playing alone in her compound. Her parents were not around when the masked men came in to defile her. Her mother narrated that ‘I went to the office and was called (on the phone) and told that my daughter was raped in our house. I learnt she was having her online class when suddenly, there was a power outage. My husband rushed out to get fuel at a filling station so that she could participate in the class seamlessly. Blessing (not her real name) told us that while she was in the compound, four masked men jumped into the house through the fence. They took her inside and took turns to have sex with her, leaving her with multiple injuries. Immediately I received the call, I became so mad. I headed for the hospital where my daughter was rushed to. When I got there, I was told she suffered ‘vaginal trauma’. The underneath of her clitoris was bruised and she had a deep tear that made her bleed severely, She could have passed out if not that her dad got back home early. She lost a lot of blood. The bleeding stopped after the tear was stitched; although, she is still experiencing very severe pain. I do not think we are secure anymore because it seems like we are being monitored. They perpetuated their evil within the few minutes it took my husband to buy fuel. They could not enter through the gate because of an ongoing construction at a building opposite ours. The site was crowded and that made them avoid entering through the front door. They scaled the fence. Some policemen followed us to the house and saw how the attackers scattered our things around
\nThe rapists scaled the fence, avoided where crowd was and violated the underage before the father returned. This rape defilement follows this order: motivated offender, absence of capable guardian, attractive target attack and defilement and disappearance after the defilement. This finding aligns with the Cohen and Felson [18] who explained how dispersion for legitimate activities away from home could lead to the victimisation of valued object or material.
\nMaume [25] posited that inequality may contribute to rape indirectly through lifestyle. This partly explains the rape of the 12-year old where the father had to rush to buy fuel for generating power. It is assumed that if generating set were to be available without having to wait for a time to buy fuel, victimisation would not have been possible. This undoubtedly contributed to the victimisation since the guardian had to move away from the attractive target of the rapists, his daughter.
\nIn terms of target suitability, Franklin and Menakar [26], p. 2 posited that individual variation in routine activities may enhance or diminish the chances that someone will be viewed as vulnerable and be selected as target. This is useful in explaining Jennifers’ exposure to sexual predatory gang who pulled her away from save zone to their territory. Scholars [27] underscore how women’s selective routine may heighten their victimisation by sexual predators. They list 1) increasing sexual vulnerability through target attractiveness and exposure to would-be perpetrators and 2) decreasing the capacity to avoid unwanted sexual contact by limiting self-guardianship. It follows therefore that self-guardianship is important regulate movement in and to dangerous places. Target suitability, according to Shwartz and Pitts [28] includes availability, vulnerability, intoxication, and friendship or relationship with men who use alcohol to extort sex. Jennifer’s intoxication reduced self-guardianship and paved way for rape. Studies have shown how being present at alcohol events impairs self-guardianship and increases target attractiveness and sexual assault [27]. According to Felson [18], men would deploy physical force only when other methods fail. This may explain why they lured her to their comfortable space.
\nUnderstanding how rape victimisation occurs may be helpful in checking its future occurrence by simply increasing guardianship and neutralising distractions which may displace the guardian from protecting the vulnerable attractive targets. The five cases we examined showed how the mastery of routines by the rapists contributed to successful victimisation of their targets. Home is also not safe where predators are lurking around. Spontaneous behaviour like buying fuel could remove guardianship from a treasured human being who becomes victimised in the absence of the guardianship. It is important that attention is paid to issue of guardianship, self or social guardianship which would be active and capable of dislodging sexual predators from actualising rape victimisation. Mounting capable guardianship may be one of the possible ways of reducing rape victimisation at individual, family, communal and societal levels.
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This chapter approach completely the hardware and software implementation topics of the on-board GPR system given first a comprehensive background of the software-defined radar technology and second presenting the main features of the Tx and Rx modules. 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Examples of such applications are object detection, environment representation, scene understanding, human/pedestrian detection, activity recognition, semantic place classification, object modeling, among others. Robotic perception, in the scope of this chapter, encompasses the ML algorithms and techniques that empower robots to learn from sensory data and, based on learned models, to react and take decisions accordingly. The recent developments in machine learning, namely deep-learning approaches, are evident and, consequently, robotic perception systems are evolving in a way that new applications and tasks are becoming a reality. Recent advances in human-robot interaction, complex robotic tasks, intelligent reasoning, and decision-making are, at some extent, the results of the notorious evolution and success of ML algorithms. This chapter will cover recent and emerging topics and use-cases related to intelligent perception systems in robotics.",book:{id:"7227",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1971,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent development of different control systems for UAVs has caught the attention of academic and industry, due to the wide range of their applications such as in surveillance, delivery, work assistant, and photography. In addition, arms, grippers, or tethers could be installed to UAVs so that they can assist in constructing, transporting, and carrying payloads. In this book chapter, the control laws of the attitude and position of a quadcopter UAV have been derived basically utilizing three methods including backstepping, sliding mode control, and feedback linearization incorporated with LQI optimal controller. The main contribution of this book chapter would be concluded in the strategy of deriving the control laws of the translational positions of a quadcopter UAV. The control laws for trajectory tracking using the proposed strategies have been validated by simulation using MATLAB®/Simulink and experimental results obtained from a quadcopter test bench. Simulation results show a comparison between the performances of each of the proposed techniques depending on the nonlinear model of the quadcopter system under investigation; the trajectory tracking has been achieved properly for different types of trajectories, i.e., spiral trajectory, in the presence of unknown disturbances. 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First, ultrasound scanning skills are encapsulated into a high-dimensional multi-modal model, which takes ultrasound images, probe pose, and contact force into account. The model’s parameters can be learned from clinical ultrasound data demonstrated by professional sonographers. Second, the target function of autonomous ultrasound examinations is proposed, which can be solved roughly by the sampling-based strategy. The sonographers’ ultrasound skills can be represented by approximating the limit of the target function. Finally, the robustness of the proposed framework is validated with the experiments on ground-true data from sonographers.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Miao Li and Xutian Deng"},{id:"82057",title:"An Episodic-Procedural Semantic Memory Model for Continuous Topological Sensorimotor Map Building",slug:"an-episodic-procedural-semantic-memory-model-for-continuous-topological-sensorimotor-map-building",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104818",abstract:"For humans to understand the world around them, learning and memory are two cognitive processes of the human brain that are deeply connected. Memory allows information to retain and forms an experiences reservoir. Computational models replicating those memory attributes can lead to the practical use of robots in everyday human living environments. However, constantly acquiring environmental information in real-world, dynamic environments has remained a challenge for many years. This article proposes an episodic-procedure semantic memory model to continuously generate topological sensorimotor maps for robot navigation. The proposed model consists of two memory networks: i) episodic-procedural memory network (EPMN) and ii) semantic memory network (SMN). The EPMN comprises an Incremental Recurrent Kernel Machines (I-RKM) that clusters incoming input vectors as nodes and learns the activation patterns of the nodes for spatiotemporal encoding. The SMN then takes neuronal activity trajectories from the EPMN and task-relevant signals to update the SMN and produce more compact representations of episodic experience. Thus, both memory networks prevent catastrophic forgetting by constantly generating nodes when the network meets new inputs or updating node weights when the incoming input is similar to previously learned knowledge. In addition, idle or outlier nodes will be removed to preserve memory space.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Wei Hong Chin, Naoyuki Kubota and Chu Kiong Loo"},{id:"81922",title:"Skill Acquisition for Resource-Constrained Mobile Robots through Continuous Exploration",slug:"skill-acquisition-for-resource-constrained-mobile-robots-through-continuous-exploration",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104996",abstract:"We present a cognitive mobile robot that acquires knowledge, and autonomously learns higher-level abstract capabilities based on play instincts, inspired by human behavior. To this end, we (i) model skills, (ii) model the robot’s sensor and actuator space based on elementary physical properties, and (iii) propose algorithms inspired by humans’ play instincts that allow the robot to autonomously learn the skills based on its sensor and actuator capabilities. We model general knowledge in the form of competencies (skills) of the mobile robot based on kinematic properties using physical quantities. Thus, by design, our approach has the potential to cover very generic application domains. To connect desired skills to the primitive capabilities of the robot’s sensors and actuators, it playfully explores the effects of its actions on its sensory input, thus autonomously learning relations and dependencies and eventually the desired skill. KnowRob is used for knowledge representation and reasoning, and the robot’s operation is based on ROS. In the experiments, we use a millirobot, sized 2 cm2, equipped with two wheels, motion, and distance sensors. We show that our cognitive mobile robot can successfully and autonomously learn elementary motion skills based on a playful exploration of its wheels and sensors.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Markus D. Kobelrausch and Axel Jantsch"},{id:"81693",title:"The Neo-Mechanistic Model of Human Cognitive Computation and Its Major Challenges",slug:"the-neo-mechanistic-model-of-human-cognitive-computation-and-its-major-challenges",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104995",abstract:"The neo-mechanistic theory of human cognition is currently one of the most accepted major theories in fields, such as cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience. This proposal offers an account of human cognitive computation, and it has been considered by its proponents as revolutionary and capable of integrating research concerning human cognition with new evidence provided by fields of biology and neuroscience. However, some complex cognitive capacities still present a challenge for explanations constructed by using this theoretical structure. In this chapter, I make a presentation of some of the central tenets of this framework and show in what dimensions it helps our understanding of human cognition concerning aspects of capacities, such as visual perception and memory consolidation. My central goal, however, is to show that to understand and explain some particular human cognitive capacities, such as self-consciousness and some conscious informal reasoning and decision making, the framework shows substantial limitations. I conclude the chapter by suggesting that to fully understand human cognition we will need much more than what the neo-mechanistic framework is actually able to provide.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Diego Azevedo Leite"},{id:"81719",title:"Service Robots in Healthcare Settings",slug:"service-robots-in-healthcare-settings",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104640",abstract:"Robots will play a part in all aspects of healthcare. The presence of service robots in healthcare demands special attention, whether it is in the automation of menial labour, prescription distribution, or offering comfort. In this chapter, we examine the several applications of healthcare-oriented robots in the acute, ambulatory and at-home settings. We discuss the role of robotics in reducing environmental dangers, as well as at the patient’s bedside and in the operating room, in the acute setting. We examine how robotics can protect and scale up healthcare services in the ambulatory setting. Finally, in the at-home scenario, we look at how robots can be employed for both rural/remote healthcare delivery and home-based care. In addition to assessing the current state of robotics at the interface of healthcare delivery, we describe critical problems for the future where such technology will be ubiquitous. Patients, health care workers, institutions, insurance companies, and governments will realize that service robots will deliver significant benefits in the future in terms of leverage and cost savings, while maintaining or improving access, equity, and high-quality health care.",book:{id:"10657",title:"Advances in Service Robots",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg"},signatures:"Rohit Singla and Christopher Nguan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biomedical Engineering",id:"7"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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