Rock properties in simulation
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-681-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-680-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-682-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ddc0dea7e5b98335c187688d9c0c5b42",bookSignature:"Dr. Urvashi Sharma",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10298.jpg",keywords:"Internet of Things, Smart Biosensor and Hardware, Reliability, Patients Data, Context-Specific and Aware, Integrated and Connected, Funding Structures, Policy and Its Implications, Electronic Medical Records, Electronic Health Records, Design, Implementation and Evaluation",numberOfDownloads:60,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sharma obtained her Ph.D. from Brunel University London, U.K. Her work has contributed to understanding the role of a user and the context in relation to the successful application of e-health modalities in primary care settings in the U.K.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"105398",title:"Dr.",name:"Urvashi",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"urvashi-sharma",fullName:"Urvashi Sharma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105398/images/system/105398.jpg",biography:"Dr Urvashi Sharma started her research career as a biomedical engineer exploring barriers and facilitators to remote patient monitoring and use of electronic health records. Her work has contributed to understanding the role of a user and the context in relation to successful application of e-health modalities in primary care settings in the U.K. Through her work, she also explored whether employing randomised controlled trials to ascertain the effectiveness of technological interventions is viable. She is a proponent of patient and public engagement and involvement in healthcare decision making, and application of appropriate research methodologies that enable exploration of lived experiences and provide deeper insights on what really matters to the users/patients when it comes to their health.",institutionString:"King's College London",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"King's College London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"75223",title:"xCARE: A Development Platform for Supporting Smart and Pervasive Healthcare",slug:"xcare-a-development-platform-for-supporting-smart-and-pervasive-healthcare",totalDownloads:29,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74980",title:"E-Health Applications for Smart and Pervasive Healthcare in Greece. What Can We Expect?",slug:"e-health-applications-for-smart-and-pervasive-healthcare-in-greece-what-can-we-expect",totalDownloads:31,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"44788",title:"Secondary Fractures and Their Potential Impacts on Hydraulic Fractures Efficiency",doi:"10.5772/56360",slug:"secondary-fractures-and-their-potential-impacts-on-hydraulic-fractures-efficiency",body:'Hydraulic fracturing has been recognized as the most effective technique for economic recovery in tight oil and gas formations in North America [30], [36]. Hydraulically induced fractures increase well-reservoir contact area enormously; hence well productivity improves greatly after stimulation. During a typical hydraulic fracturing treatment, a mixture of proppant and viscous fluids is injected into the formation to create a fracture. The main mechanism responsible for fracturing the rock is the generation of tensile stresses ahead of pressurized fracture. The direction of the fracture will be perpendicular to the direction of minimum principal in-situ stress [23]. Well-testing analysis done at the early production life of these wells provide estimations for hydraulically induced fracture surface areas which are much larger than the fracture dimensions estimated in fracturing design or predicted areas constrained by the scattering domain of microseismic events. Presence of microcracks might be indicated by increased pore volume and compressibility, as well. This finding is speculated to be related to microcracking [42] i.e. a large population of microcracks could essentially explain this result. It is notable that microcracks are not necessarily micron size. We call them microcrack because they are much smaller than the major hydraulic fractures (millimetres in size). This hypothesis becomes more plausible by considering the fact that a large number of these tight sand and shale gas reservoirs [17] are naturally fractured. Presence of natural fractures and their fractal distribution is a widely observed fact in various tight sand and shale formations. The significance and role of these pre-existing natural fractures on the performance of fracturing treatments and post-frac production are not well-understood; consequently, most analysis is mainly descriptive rather than quantitative. In summary, there is no model to predict the likelihood of opening these fractures in different scales. For instance, few models have been introduced to predict interaction of hydraulic fractures with large size natural fractures [18], [31]. Here, large size natural fractures are fractures with the lengths and heights comparable with the size of hydraulic fractures. Laboratory experiments [10] have confirmed the influence of these large fractures in changing the direction of fracture propagation, and earlier shallow depth mineback experiments have shown similar outcomes [45]. However, there is no similar study about the role of microfractures. Almost all published models in the literature are limited to the cases in which natural fractures have the same height as that of hydraulic fractures. Considering the fact that power-law distribution of natural fractures implies population of small size fractures to be orders of magnitudes more than that of the large size fractures, it is not surprising that induced large fractures are intersecting thousands of these fractures. Due to their small sizes, small natural fractures cannot be propped by proppants; their aperture and therefore their hydraulic conductivity is a function of the inner-fracture fluid pressure. Due to their presence in large numbers, only partial reactivation of these natural microfractures may affect fluid flow pattern near the major fracture. These effects could be in the form of increasing the total effective wellbore-formation contact area and consequently improving hydrocarbon production, or oppositely, these microfractures could act as capillary traps for the fracturing fluid. The entrapped water, which is essentially part of the leakoff volume that will never produce, could hinder hydrocarbons flow from the formation into the major hydraulic fracture.
Low required energy for the re-opening of natural fractures makes them susceptible to re-opening if large enough tensile or shear stresses are somehow generated on the surface of major fractures. Then, depending on the distribution of natural fractures and the strength of their digenetic cements, their possible reactivation may influence hydrocarbon flow considerably. Despite the predominantly compressive stress regime around pressurized fractures under certain circumstances, it is possible to have tensile stresses. Two main mechanisms responsible for inducing tensile and/or shear forces on the surface of major fractures are thermal stresses and residual stresses due to the plastic deformation of the rock during hydraulic fracturing.
Figure 1 shows a typical response of the bottomhole pressure and temperature measurement during a fracturing treatment. Fluid and proppants have been pumped for a period of time, and the termination is marked by a red line and followed by an extended period of shut-in that lasts much longer than the pumping time [23]. Of particular interest here is that minimum temperature, minimum fracturing fluid pressure and maximum leakoff fluid pressure occurs almost simultaneously within a short period of time after shut-in. Minimum downhole temperature and maximum pore pressure due to leakoff could be essential factors in reducing rock effective stress. The red mark also indicates the onset of depressurization which also locally develops tensile stresses.
Bottomhole net pressure and temperature history during a typical fracturing treatment is shown above. The red line marks the most likely point for the initiation of secondary fractures as bottomhole temperature is at its lowest point (maximum thermal stress) and unloading started due to pumping termination.
Fracturing fluid is frequently pumped with the temperature very close to the surface temperature; hence its temperature at the bottomhole usually differs from the initial temperature of the reservoir, especially in the case of deep and hot formations. The temperature gradient between the fracturing fluid and formation is a function of formation temperature, injection rate, casing/tubing diameter, the distance from perforations to the surface, heat capacity of fluids, fracture width and treatment pressure [8]. For most cases, fracturing fluid does not have enough time to reach the formation temperature due to its high velocity in the tubing. Because of the fluid migration and heat transfer in the reservoir, such differential temperature induces thermal stresses. The tensile and shear stresses induced by this temperature difference could be large enough to initiate small cracks on the fracture surface or in the case where pre-existing natural fracture are present, these stresses may open them. Thermal cracking happens when induced stresses inside the rock due to cooling exceed the in-situ stress of the formation, this phenomenon is well-documented in waterfloodings of brittle hot rocks [39] and geothermal systems with cold water circulation [46]. Thermal cracking may lead to the formation of clusters of small cracks, or so-called secondary fractures, which are very similar to pavement cracks but on the surface of the main hydraulic fracture.
As mentioned earlier, when the induced stresses inside the rock overcome formation in-situ stresses, re-opening of natural fractures may also occur. However, the spacing and geometry of opened cracks, in addition to previously mentioned parameters, are also functions of natural fractures distribution. Although these thermal induced cracks and re-opened parts of the pre-existing natural fractures have small size in comparison to the main hydraulic fracture, they can tremendously increase the well-formation contact area. For the case of no capillary trapping, the fluid flux inside these secondary fractures is roughly proportional to the cube of the fracture width and to the inverse of spacing length. Based on thermoelasticity analysis for closely spaced fractures, the fracture width is proportional to fracture spacing. Therefore, the fluid flux inside the thermal induced fracture is a quadratic function of spacing length [5]. Moreover, Bazant et al. [5] showed that the ratio of crack depth-to-spacing in pavements (elastic half-space) is a sensitive function of temperature profile inside the crack. Heat transfer for hydraulic fracturing has been studied in the last couple of decades. For instance, Biot et al. [8] proposed a one-dimensional analytical solution for heat transfer in the plane strain geometry. The fundamental solution for a centre of dilation and a point source fluid injection was provided earlier by Cleary [13]. Clifton and Wang [14] utilized this fundamental solution for a pseudo-three dimensional hydraulic fracturing simulations. However, these models are mainly investigating local changes of in-situ stresses rather than the likelihood of initiating secondary fractures. Study on the effect of stress redistribution on fractures due to thermal gradient of rock mass and fracturing fluid received more attention for geothermal reservoirs due to the presence of large temperature differences [3], [5], [46]. Zhou et al. [46] adapted this problem in the context of initiation of secondary fractures from a hydraulic fracture in hot dry geothermal systems with brittle rocks. Dahi-Taleghani et al. [19] considered the effect of induced thermal stress during hydraulic fracturing on opening of cemented natural fractures. They used the concept of cohesive interfaces in the framework of three dimensional finite element methods to show how thermal conductivity of the rock mass could make the population of opened natural fractures clustered rather than uniform. Additionally, their model considered interaction between propagating fractures.
Thermal stresses are not necessarily the only driving force behind formation of microfractures or opening of pre-exiting natural fractures. Plastic deformation induced during fracture pressurization results in tensile residual stress upon reduction of fracturing fluid pressure. Therefore, microcrack initiations can be enhanced upon unloading, as long as the pressurization at the pumping stage induces plastic deformation in rock. Cracking due to stress release resulted from unloading is a well-established mechanism in indentation experiments [16]. Choi et al. (2012) explains that plasticity is playing the main role in nucleation of microfractures during unloading. They showed the nucleation of microfractures from microscopic voids during unloading of hydraulic fracture. Plastic deformation induced during pressurization of main hydraulic fracture creates a tensile residual stresses during depressurization of hydraulic fracture. Therefore, these tensile residual stresses initiate the nucleation of microfractures; but compared to microcracks induced by thermal gradient, the effect of tensile residual stresses due to plasticity has not been studied so much. In this paper, the effect of plastic deformation on opening the natural fractures has been studied. In terms of methodology for modelling natural fracture reactivation, this paper is an extension of the work done by Dahi-Taleghani et al. [19] regarding the effect of plastic residual stresses.
As it mentioned before, thermal stresses and plasticity induced residual stresses may generate some microfractures or reactivate pre-existing natural fractures, but activation of these fractures does not necessarily lead to production enhancement due to the increase in contact area. If microfractures act as capillary traps, contact area and productivity index can be considerably influenced. Capillary trapping occurs when hydraulic pressure cannot overcome the capillary entrance pressure of microfracture to open it, and it’s a function of pore geometry, rock-fluid interaction and fluid flow inside the pores; therefore, considering capillary pressure effect and trapping mechanism is quite important to achieve a realistic prediction of fractured well productivity and the amount of producible leakoff fluid volume. Pore geometry and rock-fluid interaction control capillary trapping. Capillary trapping effect can become a quite interesting topic in hydraulic fractured reservoirs and naturally fractured reservoirs. To activate natural fractures, fracturing fluid pressure should go beyond the in-situ rock stresses; however, due to small aperture size of these fractures, if the hydraulic pressure cannot overcome the capillary entry threshold pressure of microfracture, formation fluid may not flow via the microfracture to reach the main fracture.
Due to the limited knowledge about the presence of natural fractures and their potential distribution in different formations, their contribution has been ignored or at least has not received enough attention. Only recent advances in characterization of natural fractures and verification of power-law distribution of fractures in different length scales [35], as well as the development of more sophisticated mechanistic models for fracture initiation and propagation such as cohesive crack models, made the investigation about the role of these natural fractures possible.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section, we talk about distribution of natural fractures, which is followed by sections about rock plasticity and a section regarding cohesive interface constitutive equations to model mechanical behaviour of pre-existing cemented natural fractures. At the end, numerical results of implementing this model for several examples will be presented to examine the significance of induced thermal stress in different situations.
Fracture is a mechanical discontinuity in the rock mass formed due to the presence of stress fields in earth’s crust (Figure 2). There are wide scale ranges for fractures from micrometre (microfractures) to kilometres (lineaments). Presence of fractures in earth’s crust can influence underground fluid flow and physical properties of rock like rock strength. Fractures can influence the velocity of elastic waves and rock elastic moduli [41]. Natural fractures are categorized into four groups [40] based on their genesis : (1) tensile fractures due to compressive stresses, (2) shear fractures due to compressive stresses, (3) tensile fractures due to unloading of compressive stresses, (3) natural hydraulic fractures. Despite indeterministic nature of the aforementioned mechanisms, a large number of outcrop studies have revealed pattern and identifiable organization in fracture orientation and spacing. Due to the limited access to the subsurface to map fractures and limited precision of seismic techniques, outcrops are the main source to speculate fracture’s geometry in the subsurface. There are different distribution models used to describe fracture size like fracture length, aperture and tangential or perpendicular displacement due to fracture. Scale-limited laws (lognormal, exponential, gamma and power law) are methods in literature to characterize fracture systems [9], but it should be mentioned that scaling exponents alone cannot act as good criterion to define the whole pattern of fracture networks. Moreover, Bonnet et al. [9] showed that there is a linear relationship between rupture area and frequency scale of tensile fractures in seismometers acting. Field studies have confirmed the existence of a critical threshold that cracks with aperture less than this threshold are fully filled with digenetic materials [34]. Although microfractures are filled with calcite or quartz cements, laboratory measurements have proved that these filled natural fractures may still act as weak surfaces, or in other words, potential paths for rock failure. For instance, lab measurements for Barnett shale samples have shown tensile strength of cemented cracks to be about 10 times less than the tensile strength of intact rocks [27]. There exist some integrated models in the literature that can be utilized for this purpose [33]. By combining the knowledge of natural fracture patterns, cement properties and current in-situ stresses, it is possible to build a model to make a realistic prediction about the distribution of natural fractures in the case of limited core and outcrop data.
Natural fractures present in a wide range of size and spacing. A pen is used as the scale in this outcrop picture. Depending on the magnitude of induced stresses and others conditions only a portion of these cracks may be reactivated. Effective contact area is determined based on the population of opened fractures (Photo courtesy of Brian Cardott. [25])
Proppants cannot move into microfractures opened during hydraulic fracturing due to their small aperture, which is less than a couple of microns. However, hydraulic pressure can open the microfractures if it goes beyond the local closure stress; therefore, activation of microfractures is function of confining pressure and pore pressure. As it mentioned earlier, contact area between rock-fluid can be considerably affected by the presence of microfractures in large quantities despite their small aperture and depth.
The mechanical behaviour of quartz or calcite is essentially identified as elastic and brittle, however, clay/organic dominated regions can undergo significant plastic strains. Hence, it is not surprising that excessive fluid pressure present during hydraulic fracturing treatments may induce plastic deformations. This issue has been the subject of several studies in the literature [37], [38], [44]. For instance, it has been shown that plasticity causes shorter and wider fractures. However, most of these plastic deformations are due to high stress near the tip of the hydraulic fracture. The excess pressure in the main fracture may be only 1 or 2 MPa higher than the minimum in-situ stress, and this amount of additional stress may not cause a considerable plasticity unless in very weak formations
These papers were mainly focused on plastic deformations induced at the tip of fractures due to stress concentration at the tip of fractures, while plastic deformation of the surrounding rocks and its possible effects was out of the scope of these papers. Irreversible strain characterizes the plasticity when stress reaches a certain point. After this yielding point, the material shows elastoplasticity, which means its behaviour is somewhat plastic and also elastic. Equations (1) to (3) show general elastoplastic behaviour in three-dimensional problems for a strain increment
For flow rule and yield criterion, we used Drucker-Prager criterion, which is a well-known model to describe plastic behaviour of rocks. The Drucker-Prager criterion is an adjusted version of the Von Mises criterion for granular materials like soils and soft rocks. The yield surface for the Drucker-Prager criterion is a circular cone with the form shown in equation (4) where α and k are constants related to internal friction and cohesion of material. The stress at any point can be represented by the vector (σ1, σ2, σ3). This vector can be shown by a corresponding stress point on the π-plane which is constituted of vector s (σ1- σm, σ2- σm, σ3- σm) and ρ (σm, σm, σm), where σm equals to (σ1+σ2+σ3)/3 (Figure 3a). The constants can be obtained from the plot of failure in
There is a considerable number of publications for modelling hydraulic fracturing treatments published since 1955, these solutions are varying from analytical and asymptotic solutions [21], [22], [32] to finite element or boundary element numerical schemes [11], [18], [31]. A comprehensive review of these models is given by Adachi et al. [1]. Griffith’s criterion is the common method to model fracture propagation in all of these techniques. Fracture propagation in Griffith’s criterion is a function of stress intensity factor and rock toughness. Griffith’s criterion presumes the presence of an initial fracture and predicts its propagation, hence it is an appropriate method to model major hydraulic fracture propagation, but it cannot predict fracture nucleation. Since, we are interested in predicting fracture initiation on the surface of intact rock or along the cemented natural fractures; we cannot limit our analysis to Griffith’s criterion. We use the cohesive interface technique to model reopening of cemented fractures. The cohesive interface model is a constitutive equation to model deformation of discontinuities, which can be easily applied to multiple cracks or incorporates their coalescence. Cohesive interfacial model could also be used to simulate fracture propagation with the advantage of removing stress singularity at the fracture tips [2]. Later laboratory experiments showed that nonlinear region added to cohesive crack models provides better prediction for fracture growth in granular cementious materials like rock and concrete [6]. The cohesive interfacial model considers a cohesive crack of zero width with traction transferring capacity, thus eliminates the stress singularity problem at the crack-tip. Additionally by nature, cohesive interface concept is the best fit for the problems with predefined fracture propagation paths like this problem; however, some sophisticated algorithms has been invented to adaptively add or remove cohesive elements in the computational model upon necessity [47]. In addition, cohesive interfacial models, despite their nonlinear nature, are easy to implement and we will see in the next section how we used this capability to model the initiation of microcracks during hydraulic fracturing.
Cohesive interface model is mainly a nonlinear constitutive equation between the traction and jump in displacement between two bodies. Cohesive interface starts to fail when the applied traction exceeds a critical value and followed by softening, and both are described by traction separation law [43]. Traction-separation law has the flexibility to tune the parameters to find potential function solutions for fracture propagation in different materials [24], [29]. Bilinear law is the simplest form of traction separation law composed of two piecewise linear sections for pre- and post-failure situations (Figure 4). Despite its simplicity as constitutive equation, it has proven capabilities to model fracture behaviour in cementious materials [6]. Quadratic stress law is good candidate for mixed mode condition. In this model, damage initiates the quadratic interaction function involving nominal stress ratios reaching the value of one (Equation 7), while tn and ts represents the real values of normal and tangential tractions along the interface, respectively.
a) The Drucker-Prager criterion, (b) Yield envelopes for Circumscribed Drucker-Prager and Inscribed Drucker-Prager criterion (after Colmenares and Zoback, 2002 [15])
Fracture energy release, cohesive strength, initial cohesive stiffness, critical separation gap at complete failure and critical separation at damage initiation are key parameters to specify irreversible fracturing based on bilinear cohesive law. To model the mixed mode fracture propagation, Benzeggagh-Kenane (BK) fracture criterion is used [7].
For an incompressible and Newtonian fluid, equation (9) represents the continuity equation where the first term shows fracture capacity based on its width change and the second term represents the cross-sectional flow rate of the fracture (no leak-off from fracture into the formation). The tangential flow along the gap between two cohesive walls base on momentum equation for Poiseuille’s flow pattern is represented in equation 10 where q, w, p and μ are local flow rate, local crack width, fluid pressure inside the fracture and fracturing fluid viscosity, respectively [4].
Analytical solutions for coupled thermo- poroelasticity and only restricted to simple geometries. Therefore, they are not pertinent for a system with numerous factures. Therefore, we used a commercial finite element package, ABAQUS, for modelling purposes.
Linear softening law along the cohesive interface.
Commercial finite element software, ABAQUS (Dassault Systèmes Simulia Corp.) [20], is chosen for implementing cohesive crack methods to model secondary fractures initiation and propagation. We begin with the simplest possible geometry for the hydraulic fracture, i.e. a planar fracture. Extension of utilized techniques to non-planar hydraulic fractures does not require introducing any new concept and should be straightforward. Due to the symmetry of the problem with respect to the fracture plane, we only need to simulate half of the geometry. Figure 5 shows the numerical grid with the blue zone showing fracture surface, and the surrounding red zone showing the intact rock. To model pre-existing cemented natural fractures, cohesive elements have been embedded as parallel planes perpendicular to the fracture surface (Z-direction) with 5 cm spacing for this example. Hence, fluid pressure during pumping stage will be introduced only to the fracture surface (blue zone), and the rest of the model will be under the effect of in-situ stress only. In case that any part of the natural fractures (cohesive elements) reaches failure threshold, following the opening of the crack, fracturing fluid is supposed to reach the opened part of the fracture and pressurized it, which is considered by removing failed cohesive elements and adding gap flow to our model to include fracturing fluid pressure and their cooling effect in natural fractures. Our preliminary models showed the significance of this effect on clustering of secondary fractures and their depth of penetration.
The model assumed homogeneous and isotropic properties for mechanical and hydraulic properties of the rock. Additionally, fracturing of the rock is assumed as an irreversible process. Furthermore, we considered development of major fracture parallel to maximum principal stresses, and natural fractures are assumed to be fully cemented with digenetic cements like quartz or calcite. We used Drucker-Prager model to describe plastic behaviour of rock. A summary of mechanical properties considered for the rock is provided in Table1.
To estimate the parameters of the bilinear cohesive law, no new experimental step is needed. The classic lab tests to measure tensile strength and critical energy release rate should be enough to derive bilinear cohesive law parameters. Among various fracture testing techniques available for homogeneous materials, those which facilitate the stable advance of a fracture are more preferred for interface toughness (Gc) measurements. Examples include the double cantilever crack specimen [26] and Brazilian disk. The tensile strength (σmax) may also be measured using common Brazilian beam tests. Based on the definition of crack energy release rate and bilinear softening, the maximum separation at failure can be determined:
Some parametric studies have been done on both cohesive parameters to observe their effects on the pattern of reactivated fractures; however, both parameters are basically a function of the composition of digenetic materials and environmental conditions at the time of their precipitation. Obviously, the values of tensile strength and energy release rate for fracture cements are much lower than the values for rock matrix. Strength of a cemented natural fracture is a function of cement type (composition) and its continuity [27]. Gale et al. [28] evaluated the rupture strength in Barnett shale at different depths for different lithofacies. Based on their published laboratory tests, we chose cohesive properties and other mechanical properties of rock. The values of 12 MPa and 3.2 Pa.m are considered for rupture strength and fracture toughness of cemented fractures, respectively. We assumed that net fracture fluid pressure, applied on blue zone in figure 5, is gradually increased to reach 2 MPa and then slowly bleed off to become equal to reservoir pressure. The induced tensile stress due to loading and unloading process during hydraulic fracturing can reactivate pre-existing fractures. Figures 6 and 7 show that the induced tensile stresses due to fluid pressure decline inside fracture can be as important as induced stresses in the loading process. Figure 6 shows reactivated fractures at different depth from the fracture surface at the peak of fracturing fluid pressure and before pressure decline due to leakoff; main mechanism for failure is shear associated with compressive stresses. However, the main mechanism for failure in Figure 7 is associated with residual tensile stresses induced in the unloading due to plasticity. Fractures in Figure 8 are reactivated due to not only plastic effect but also considering a temperature difference between the rock matrix and the hydraulic fracturing fluid.
Table 3 presents the effect of fracture cement strength, fracture toughness and cement resilience on the pattern of opened fractures i.e. failed cohesive elements. By increasing cement strength, the number of initiated cracks on the cohesive layer decreases (Figure 9 (a) and (b)); in addition, the decrease in cement toughness by nearly one-fifth makes considerable increase in the initiated cracks (Figure 9 (a) and (h)). The values for the failed cohesive elements in Table 3 show that flaws initiation has noticeable dependency on cohesive stiffness. Small decrease in the cohesive stiffness leads to considerable increase in the cohesive damage, indicating increase of contact area between rock-fluid. As it showed in Figures 6 and 7, loading-unloading residual stress may be considerably effective in reactivating pre-existing natural fractures; moreover, it may have a significant influence on fracture reactivation when assisted by induced thermal stresses due to temperature difference between hydraulic fracturing fluid and formation rock (Figure 9).
The three-dimensional finite element model used here, which is a one-half of the fracture, is shown. Fracture surface is meshed with a fine grids.
In Figures 8 and 9, initial temperature of 200°C for the rock is selected, and the expansion coefficient of rock matrix is assumed to be 1.5x10-5. The surface of hydraulic fracture is exposed to hydraulic fracturing fluid with temperature of 150°C. The temperature difference between hydraulic fracturing fluid and rock induced tensile stresses on the rock matrix. This tensile stress can be intensified by the induced tensile stresses due to elastic unloading of hydraulic fracture plastic deformation as shown in Figure 8. Figure 9 presents the pattern of reactivated natural fractures of Table 3 at the depth on-third of cohesive layer depth far away from the surface of hydraulic fracture.
Young’s modulus | \n\t\t\t26 GPa | \n\t\t
Rock density | \n\t\t\t2100 Kg/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Rock friction angle | \n\t\t\t30° | \n\t\t
Rock dilation angle | \n\t\t\t20° | \n\t\t
Poisson’s ratio | \n\t\t\t0.27 | \n\t\t
Rock yield stress | \n\t\t\t30MPa | \n\t\t
Rock properties in simulation
\n\t\t\t\tCase\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTensile strength (MPa)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCement toughness (Pa.m)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tHydraulic pressure (MPa)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCohesive stiffness (GPa)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t6.4 | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t6.4 | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t0.64 | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t32 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t6.4 | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t6.4 | \n\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t3.4 | \n\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t6.4 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t
Cohesive parameters
\n\t\t\t\tCase\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTotal cohesive elements\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFailed cohesive elements after loading\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFailed cohesive elements after unloading\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFailed cohesive elements by Thermoplasticity\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tStudied parameter\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t14700 | \n\t\t\t3406 | \n\t\t\t4692 | \n\t\t\t5511 | \n\t\t\tReference case | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t14700 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t7923 | \n\t\t\tTensile strength | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t14700 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\tCohesive Stiffness | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t14700 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\tCement toughness | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t14700 | \n\t\t\t415 | \n\t\t\t1247 | \n\t\t\t1683 | \n\t\t\tTensile strength | \n\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t14700 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\tCohesive Stiffness | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t14700 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t74 | \n\t\t\t154 | \n\t\t\tCohesive Stiffness | \n\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t14700 | \n\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t484 | \n\t\t\t2440 | \n\t\t\tCement toughness | \n\t\t
Failed cohesive elements
Reactivated fractures after loading for case 5 of Table 2 at different depths
Reactivated fractures after unloading for case 5 of Table 2 at different depths
Reactivated fractures by thermo-plasticity for case 5 of Table 2 at different depths
Reactivated fractures by thermoplasticity for different cases of Table 2 at one-third depth from the surface of hydraulic fracture
Induced tensile stresses are expected to occur in rocks with significant plastic behaviour during loading and unloading of hydraulic fractures. These induced stresses can open pre-existing natural fractures in the formation and even open the cemented natural fractures. These activated fractures can provide more rock-fluid contact area. The size of these natural fractures is much less than the main hydraulic fracture but presence of these fractures in considerable numbers can significantly increase the contact area between the wellbore and formation. The path of initiation and propagation of these fractures can be induced by natural fractures. To study their effect, a three-dimensional finite element model with cohesive interfaces embedded in the rock. The effect of energy release rate and cohesive tensile strength investigated and it was shown that the decrease of these parameters can activate more natural fractures but not in a uniform pattern. Moreover, the simulation showed that the effect of plasticity can be more considerable when it would be helped by thermal stress induced by temperature difference between rock matrix and fracturing fluid.
In very recent educational literature, Covid 19 is most frequently represented as a ‘game changer’ [1]; seriously disruptive of schooling as we have come to know and recognise it, while hastening clarion calls for reform of the status quo [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Notwithstanding the import of the word ‘pandemic’, throughout the twentieth century, there have been repeated cries of ‘crisis’ in education, ‘A Nation At Risk’ [7] comes to mind, pre-dated by the ‘Sputnik’ (1957) shock (see [8]), perhaps foreshadowing more contemporary pre-occupations with STEM, and more recent systemic tremors in the form of ‘PISA shock’ [9] as it impacted in Germany, and elsewhere. Perhaps, more than many other research ‘Powerful Reforms and Shallow Roots’ [10] captures the manner in which repeated efforts at systemic reform have failed to ignite the radical change that was envisaged [11]. Rather, such efforts, frequently flounder on the rocks of school realities, while repeatedly re-learning that attempting ‘teacher proof’ curricula as a means of bypassing teacher competence and capacities, thus providing a short cut to ‘school improvement’ seeks to downplay or ignore the recurring lesson that ‘teachers matter’ [12], and are most likely to be central to educational processes into the future. There are compelling reasons for this that provide solid ground on which to build the argument presented in this chapter.
\nFirst, the pandemic (still with us) has very definitely reinforced the message that ‘home schooling’ when combined with ‘working from home’ is not a sustainable ‘bargain’ between the public and the state; schooling in various forms will need to be sustained into the future. Thus, while flexible working from home arrangements are likely to continue after various vaccines ride to the rescue, respect for teachers, and what schooling in general manages to achieve, has been enhanced in the eyes of parents and public, and maybe even policy-makers. Second, while versions of ‘lockdown’ necessitated that schools go online, with varying degrees of success, in general, teachers have had to get to grips with technologies to an unprecedented extent, extended by higher education institutions that provide professional support to the profession online, thus ‘alien’ technologies have become familiar to many; a benefit that provides experience on calibrating the use and effectiveness of various platforms for student engagement, teaching, learning and leading—spawning ongoing reflection and debate. Yet, these actual and potential benefits have made all concerned yearn for face-to-face interactions, formal and informal, as the lifeblood of communication, community, and holistic education. Third, these recent experiences have increased awareness of inequalities due to concern regarding access to: hardware, software, as well as quiet spaces for work and learning, providing further evidence of the necessity for schools as ‘safe havens’ of challenge, respect and caring. Fourth, such considerations have accentuated the necessity to revisit schooling as a ‘public good’ [13], something to which Governments need to be committed, providing sustained and adequate resources and in the process, preventing those who see the potential of technologies for profit and the privatisation of teaching and learning, thus exacerbating rather than diminishing inequalities that, in recent years, have been shown repeatedly to have increased [14]. While we readily recognise that, at a time of rapid change, predicting the future has never been more precarious, it is essential to salvage from past and present ‘bricolage’ [15] as the building blocks of possible futures. Thus, we ask: What pedagogical repertoires provide the most likely prospect of achieving and sustaining educational development goals?
\nTwo eminent economists recently stated that “a healthy society is a vast web of cooperative activity sustained by mutual kindness and obligations” [16]. After decades of neoliberalism, some strains more virulent than others, there has been a considerable rise in ‘possessive individualism’ and ‘market fundamentalism’ [16] that privilege human competitiveness at the expense of our capacity to collaborate constructively. Such dispositions cultivate a mindset: “the more we view ourselves as self-made and self-sufficient the less likely we are to care for the fate of those less fortunate than ourselves” [17]. From an educational perspective this thinking promotes “learning as acquisitiveness, an individual pursuit, essentially that market mechanisms are the primary instruments for achieving the public good” [17]. The consequences are massive erosion of trust, decline in solidarity and a general retreat from public or common good, and these conditions make their way directly and indirectly into public schooling. Such pressures give rise to two languages and attendant logics—that of accountability and professional responsibility, as indicated in Table 1 below.
\nResponsibility | \nAccountability | \n
---|---|
based in professional mandate situated judgement trust moral rationale internal evaluation negotiated standards implicit language framed by professions relative autonomy and personally inescapable proactive | \ndefined by current governance standardised by contract control economic/legal rationale external auditing predetermined indicators transparent language framed by political goals compliance with employers’/ politicians’ decisions reactive | \n
The types of logic and implications of professional responsibility and accountability [18].
This categorisation recognises that accountability language and logic espouses the market assumptions and norms, whereas the language and logic of responsibility include degrees of relative autonomy and professional judgement. As part of our value stance in dealing with the tensions created by these competing and contradictory logics we recognise that it is possible to be accountable while not behaving in a professionally responsible manner; there is a moral dimension to the latter that, for an individual and a member of a profession, is inescapable. Additionally, while asserting that public good should prevail over private gain, from a professional responsibility perspective, it is necessary to recognise that “decision-by-rulebook intentionally eliminates judgement based on tacit knowledge”, something that is part of the lifeblood of the teacher-learner encounter [16]. We are obliged to be accountable, this is inescapable, while behaving in a professionally responsible manner is a choice, an inescapable responsibility as professionals. Sustainable futures, even pedagogical futures, depend upon it. Sustainable development necessitates doing things differently to avoid the inadequacies of previous initiatives, while remaining open to the possibilities of what sustainable futures may look like. Moreover, education for sustainable development (ESD) is an approach to education that requires changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to enable a more just and sustainable society for all [19].
\nNational educational policies are part of a wider international framework which requires states to respond to the challenges of the 21st century. Obligations arise from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that was established in 1994 and the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 193 United Nations (UN) member states in 2015 [20]. Education for sustainable development is also supported by international policy initiatives such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) Global Competence Framework [21] and the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation’s (UNESCO) publications on Global Citizenship Education [22] and Education for Sustainable Development [23]. Such initiatives have been heavily critiqued from an educational perspective as lacking the transformative intent required to challenge the economic growth models which continue to drive climate change [24]. Nevertheless, in some contexts they have triggered educational reform efforts at national levels [25]. OECD reports on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) have also become increasingly influential in education on a global scale [9].
\nFor the purposes of this chapter, we draw on qualitative research that involved a content analysis of the education policies of the OECD and UNESCO since 2014, the year that marked a decade of education for sustainable development [19], while also drawing on international literature and other related empirical work of the authors [13, 26]. This provided a backdrop to the evidence-based recommendations on the future of education by such think tanks as the World Economic Forum [27], the World Bank [28] and the Economists Intelligence Unit, [29]. While the aforementioned are all economic agencies, pre-occupied with preparation for the world of work, rather than providing a ‘good’ education they are influencing education policy on a global scale by publishing recommendations on pedagogical approaches required for 21st century schooling. Themes discussed below have emerged from a meta-analysis of documents selected from searches undertaken using various combinations of key words such as: trends facing education, education for sustainable development, 21st century skills, digital technology in education and 21st century teacher competencies. The most prominent of these documents are summarised in Table 2 and are included in the reference list. A systematic examination of these policy documents revealed a number of recurring considerations as pivotal triggers for change in education and the expectations regarding teachers’ capacity and competencies within this reform agenda.
\nYear | \nOrganisation | \nTitle | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|
2014 | \nUNESCO | \nShaping the Future We Want - UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development | \n[19] | \n
2015 | \nUnited Nations | \nTransforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development | \n[20] | \n
2015 | \nUNESCO | \nGlobal Citizenship Education | \n[22] | \n
2015 | \nOECD | \nStudents, computers and learning: Making the connection | \n[30] | \n
2015 | \nOECD | \nEducation policy outlook 2015: making reforms happen | \n[31] | \n
2017 | \nOECD | \nEducation for Sustainable Development | \n[23] | \n
2018 | \nOECD | \nGlobal Competency for an Inclusive World | \n[21] | \n
2018 | \nOECD | \nEducation 2030: The future of education and skills | \n[32] | \n
2018 | \nUNESCO | \nICT Competency Framework for Teachers V03 | \n[33] | \n
2019 | \nOECD | \nTrends Shaping Education | \n[34] | \n
2019 | \nUNESCO | \nEducation for Sustainable Development. A roadmap | \n[35] | \n
2019 | \nOECD | \nTALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners | \n[36] | \n
2019 | \nWorld Bank | \nWorld Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work | \n[28] | \n
2019 | \nThe Economist Intelligence Unit | \nWorldwide Educating for the Future Index 2019: From policy to practice | \n[29] | \n
2020 | \nOECD | \nPISA 2018 Results (Volume VI): Are Students Ready to Thrive in an Interconnected World? | \n[37] | \n
2020 | \nWorld Economic Forum | \nThe Future of Jobs Report | \n[27] | \n
Chronology of salient policies analysed as part of this study.
Using inductive analysis, three main pedagogical themes emerged from the research, teachers’ capacity for: a) adaptive expertise and collaborative practice; b) technology enhanced learning and c) the fostering of 21st century skills, while these are considered through the lens of accountability-professional responsibility and sustainable development. Analysis here gains in significance by providing in-depth scrutiny of policy content, not for the purposes of generalisation, but rather to influence future deliberations on policy and practice as a contribution to shaping possible futures, in an open-ended rather than a prescriptive manner, leaving room for other voices as to how such policy items may be tailored to particular needs, while seeking to build and expand pedagogical repertoires through practical know how, thus sustaining development.
\nThere are many ‘trends’ shaping education including: increasing global population climate change, pressure on living space for humans, increased risks of pandemics, income inequality, globalisation, and increased pervasiveness of technology in our lives all of which demand a systemic and rapid response from education systems all around the world [34]. UNESCO is entrusted to lead and coordinate the Education 2030 Agenda [35], which is part of a global movement to eradicate poverty through 17 Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. Education, essential to achieve all of these goals, has its own dedicated Goal 4, which aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. The OECD’s Education 2030 aims to help education systems determine the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values students need to thrive in and shape their future and “contributes to the UN 2030 Global Goals for Sustainable Development (SDGs), aiming to ensure the sustainability of people, profit, planet and peace, through partnership” [32]. The OECD [34] assert that in a complex and rapidly changing world, the discernible role of education in supporting the SDGs might necessitate the restructuring of formal and informal learning environments, and reimagining education content and delivery. Moreover, as knowledge of human development and learning is expanding exponentially the potential to shape more effective educational practices as suggested by Darling Hammond et al. [38] has also increased (see Table 3. below).
\nI. Supportive Environment | \n||
---|---|---|
Structures of Effective Caring | \nClassroom Learning Communities | \nConnections among staff and families | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
II. Productive Instructional Strategies | \n||
Student-centred Instruction | \nConceptual Understanding and Motivation | \nLearning how to learn | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
III. Social and Emotional Development | \n||
Integration of Social Emotional Skills | \nDevelopment of Habits and Mindsets | \nEducative and Restorative Behavioural Supports | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
IV. System of Supports | \n||
Multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS) | \nCoordinated access to integrated services | \nExtended learning opportunities | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
Practices aligned with the science of learning and development. Adapted from [38].
Making the most of these advances, however, requires assimilating insights across multiple fields and connecting them to knowledge of successful approaches that are emerging in education [38]. Enabling teachers to acquire ‘adaptive expertise’ or ‘adaptive competence” required to apply meaningfully learned knowledge and skills flexibly and creatively across different contexts in a globalised society [39] is important and will require teachers to work with other stakeholders. This is not a new concept however, and there is a considerable literature that recognises the importance of ‘improvisation’ as an integral dimension of the teaching-learning encounter [40]. More than a century ago, Dewey [41, 42] not only re-conceived the way that learning should happen, but also the role that the teacher should play in the process of learning [43, 44]. For Dewey, it is not enough for the classroom teacher to be a lifelong learner of the techniques and subject-matter of education; they must aspire to share what they know with others in their learning community [45]. Freire [46], like Dewey, believed that each student should play an active role in their own learning, instead of being the passive recipients of knowledge. Consequently, both authors are in agreement that the ideal teacher would be open-minded and confident—confident in their competence while also open-minded to sharing and learning from his or her students [47]. A recent study by Farrell and Marshall [26] in the context of initial teacher education (ITE) found that some student teachers’ use of digital pedagogy toppled the typical co-operating teacher/student teacher hierarchy, placing the student teacher as mentor to the co-operating teacher. This was particularly true of the recent move to remote learning as a result of Covid 19. The pandemic is also a powerful reminder that education plays a significant role in facilitating not just academic learning, but also in supporting physical, social and emotional well-being. The key, in these instances, is a willingness to collaborate for mutual gain, thus building pedagogical capacity, as well as enhancing pedagogical repertoires through adapting technologies.
\nBalancing traditional forms of education and learning with wider social and personal development means new roles for all involved in education while seeking simultaneously to provide a holistic education, frequently against the grain of external policies more pre-occupied with preparation for the world of work. Such challenges necessitate melding the old with new, a multi-disciplinary approach to education and requiring “Democratic Pedagogical Partnership” whereby “formal but flexible arrangement between teacher educators and stakeholders who engage in ‘collaborative professionalism’ improve learning for all students in a variety of contexts through effective pedagogy and practice” [48]. One of the four Common European Principles for Teacher Competences and Qualifications [49] is that teaching is a ‘profession based on partnership: institutions providing teacher education should organise their work collaboratively in partnership with schools, local work environments, work-based training providers and other stakeholders” In further recognition of the role of partnerships in education, the Council of the European Union [50] observes that:
\nTeacher education programmes should draw on teachers’ own experience and seek to foster cross disciplinary and collaborative approaches, so that education institutions and teachers regard it as part of their task to work in cooperation with relevant stakeholders such as colleagues, parents and employers.
\nIn support of this, the OECD [31] advocates that partnerships are central to the fostering of innovative teaching and learning-communities in which there is a bridge between theory and practice and between practitioners and those engaged in academic research. Making this rhetoric a reality will be a challenge even in the most advanced economies. Culture and context matter along with access to the continuing professional development of teachers [36]. Therefore, if governments are to harness the potential of education to have a positive impact on sustainable development, they need to invest in cultivating the most accomplished aspects of pedagogy that exists and can be enhanced by the transformative digital technology increasingly at our disposal. It will be difficult to achieve, and, in the first instance, it will be necessary for the research and policy communities, even in the most advanced economies, to address why pedagogical reform failure, reform fatigue or overload, are getting in the way of more sustainable transformations, more rooted in teacher-learner engagement, and the efforts necessary to overcome such challenges.
\nAs indicated above, the Covid 19 pandemic has lent renewed urgency to being adaptive, while also extending pedagogical repertoires to embrace the potential offered by various technologies. More generally, the rapid pace of change and challenges facing the 21st century provides opportunities “and a window for action, as evidenced by the power of digitalisation to transform, connect and empower” [34]. Digital technology is playing a pivotal role in the development of modern economies and societies. This has profound implications for education, both because digital technology can enable new forms of learning and because it has become important for young people to master digital technology in preparation for adult life [37]. While schools are key sites for the building of adaptive competences [51], including the competences to embed digital technology in teaching, learning and assessment [33], a recent OECD report [30] notes that “the reality in our schools lags considerably behind the promise of technology.” While there is an expectation that teachers are proficient in the use of digital technology, in teaching, learning and assessment, the reality is that this is not always the case [52]. Provision of continuing professional development for teacher educators [53] is fundamental to developing digital competence, as is collaboration with leading experts including those from industry [54].
\nIn order to develop a coherent professional learning plan for teachers, it is import to establish an agreed framework for digital competences that teachers need in order to harness the potential of digital technology in teaching, learning and assessment. However, given the pace of development of evolving technologies, this too is a tall order. McGarr and McDonagh [55] synthesised digital learning frameworks from around the world into a four-part model encompassing Technical skills, Pedagogical skills, Cyber-ethics and Attitudes (PEAT) (see Figure 1 below).
\nSynthesised model of teachers’ digital competence – The PEAT model [56].
Their model encapsulates the necessary technical, pedagogical and ethical competencies that are required for teacher education in the 21st century. According to Brox [57] there is currently a narrow utilitarian adoption of technology by teachers and she argues that “teacher education should encourage a deeper understanding of technology, in which both human and technological agency are explored and problematized”. Tsvetkova and Kiryukhin [58] assert that there is.
\n…a triad of digital competencies that create a stable structure for their development including: Vital (custom) digital competencies that enable teachers to keep up with the world of digital devices and services; profile and professional competencies that will determine the adaptability and success in the conditions of digitalization of professions and social digital competence of citizens that will help to preserve our delicate world on the principles of humanism and creative development of our children, to avoid atomisation of digital society.
\nDigital enhanced learning is an ambitious agenda and in the absence of time, resources and continuing professional development teachers are in danger of becoming scapegoats for lack of progress in this regard. Additionally, by focusing on a more technicist approach to skills, there is an underlying assumption that these are easily grafted on to teachers’ existing pedagogical repertoires, when there are more fundamental epistemic and identity considerations in play that take time to ferment as part of transforming not only the knowledge base of teaching that is crucial also forging 21st century teacher identities.
\nAnother aspect of this challenge is equality of access to adequate infrastructure to support digital enhanced pedagogy. There is a case to be made for broadband to be made a public good if all education stakeholders are to have parity of access to digital enhanced learning opportunities. A further concern is the influence of the corporate sector that is currently filling the gap in continuing professional development by providing free online courses to teachers who wish to increase their level of competence in the area. However, creative and constructive engagement with the best forms of adaptive pedagogy, in whatever shape or form, has the potential to provide a sense of optimism for building a better future. Enthusiasm for promoting technologies for the benefit of already wealthy technology entrepreneurs is no substitute for sustained engagement that recognises the complexities of teaching and learning.
\n\nThe Worldwide Educating for the Future Index [29] offers evidence of a consensus that education systems urgently need to prepare students for the challenges that await them in work and society. For several decades, there has been an expressed urgency on the part of policy-makers to shape the future, but with modest success, as evidenced by what McLaughlin refers to as ‘misery research’ [59, 60]. Throughout the period of these calls to transform the experience of schooling, what has emerged, and research has consolidated, is a broad agreement on the vital role that critical thinking, creativity, communication, entrepreneurship and other future-oriented skills, including digital capabilities, have potential to play in helping students meet those challenges [27, 28]. This so-called list of 21st century skills [61] emerged from a splurge of initiatives and frameworks driven by corporate and government partnerships over the past decade [62] such as Partnership 21 (P21) and Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATC21S). More recently the OECD [21] introduced the notion of Global Competencies for an Inclusive World where “Globally competent individuals can examine local, global and intercultural issues, understand and appreciate different perspectives and world views, interact successfully and respectfully with others, and take responsible action toward sustainability and collective well-being”. While such policy rhetorics may be aspirationally laudable, there is a sense also that saving the planet, a major challenge in itself, is being grated onto existing reform initiatives and challenges to systems of schooling. It is not that schools do not have a potentially significant part to play in reversing the worst features of climate change, but that cultivating the voices of students and harnessing their agency for transformation can only be effective in tandem with political leadership, will and adequate allocation of resources. Too often in the past, too much is left to systems of schooling, and too great a burden placed on teachers alone to bring about desired reforms. Thus in the absence of adequate professional support, holding the profession accountable for such a significant agenda, becomes an unjust burden rather than a professional challenge, worthy of a responsible response.
\nThe rhetoric of 21st century skills orients toward the world of work at a time when we also need an emphasis on the promotion of education to foster broader objectives such preparing young people for “a rapidly changing, uncertain, risky and possibly dangerous future” [63]. Moreover, a predominantly economic focus on education has inherent contradictions [64] regarding teachers’ vital role in promoting the necessary “transformative shifts in how we think and act” [65] that are required for the changes in human behaviour essential for sustainable living. The capacity for transformative models of education to take root is dependent on a range of factors including preparedness of schools and teachers to embrace such approaches [66].
\nEducation systems around the world are responding to the changing economic, environment, social and political global landscape by reviewing their curricula to include key skills and competencies. Thijs and van den Akker’s [67] description of curricular strata, where the supra level begins with transnational discourses about education, leading to the macro level of national level policy intentions and on to the meso level of policy guidance and facilitation to the micro level of school-level curricular practices and finally to the nano level of classroom interactions, demonstrates the complexities of implementing changes in the education sphere. While such a tiered approach to policy framing may well be necessary and appropriate, such a trickle down approach to trans-formation needs to give considerably more recognition to ‘continuous adaptation’ [68], thus also, considerably more dependent on micro capacities to extend the knowledge base of teaching, from a content and pedagogical perspective.
\nLehtonen et al. [69] concur that the educational space is both complex and contested, presenting educators with the challenge of addressing difficult knowledge in a politicised and, at times, divisive context. The ability of teachers to critically form their responses to challenging and intricate situations, activating prior experience to move between repertoires for action in the light of reflection on alternative futures will be very varied across different contexts [70]. At the core of this dilemma is the concept of professional agency, whereby practitioners have the capacity to act in particular circumstances making sense of policies and of the multiple nuanced factors that influence the process by which these policies are realised. Agency and professional responsibility are not fixed capacities but rather an achievement resulting from the interplay of individual efforts and capabilities within contextual and structural factors in concrete situations [71], while responsibility implicitly contains a moral dimension. Thus, cultivating professional agency and responsibility in the teaching profession is central to understanding how educational policies are translated into contextually relevant teaching practices [72]. Important and all as teacher agency and professional responsibility may be, the days of ‘heroic’ performance are long since passed, thus there needs to be a significantly stronger sense of collective agency, collaborative professionalism, that takes professional responsibility seriously, while this too entails calling out systemic failures and inadequacies in terms of necessary and sustained support for teacher learning, and ongoing tailored 21st century ‘formation’ [73].
\nAnother important factor in building sustainable teacher capacity is teacher professional identity and how it is inextricably linked to their chosen disciplines. The attempts by policy makers around the globe to progress the skills and competency agenda has been thwarted in some respects due to the lack of connection to subject discipline and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) [74]. Skills cannot be learned in a content free zone. If teachers are to build their pedagogical repertoire for 21st century education they need to be supported and encouraged to broaden their horizons sufficiently to merge skill development and PCK in their practice [75]. However, if the rate of educational change persists without adequate resourcing and support, there is a serious danger of teacher burnout and attrition from the profession. We must learn from the sins of the past where rapid and radical reform did not achieve their intended outcomes [59]. There needs to be a systemic recognition by policy makers that we do not have to invent the future out of nothing, as well as increasing power asymmetries due to the expansion in influence of international agencies with their own agendas. Furthermore, teachers who are at the coal face of reform need to challenge the rhetoric surrounding the novelty of 21st century skills and competences. Seminal thinkers like Dewey and Freire have espoused the educational virtues of democratic and citizenship education, critical thinking and collaboration for decades. There is no denying that teacher capacity and competency to foster these skills are important agenda items. If we are to succeed in building this capacity and embedding these skills across the continuum of education, we need to approach it differently than heretofore in an incremental and non-threatening way that is achievable and sustainable. Slowing the process of change sufficiently to enable capacity to be enhanced incrementally is necessary; capacity building can only occur from where teachers’ expertise is rather than where it ought to be. There needs to be recognition also that the intellectual capacities of teachers vary considerably also from one jurisdiction to another, while this is already reflected in PISA results—particularly in Finland and Signapore [76]. While public partnerships have considerable potential to enhance teacher capacities, vigilance too is necessary in order to maintain schooling as a public good, a state responsibility that eschews profit in favour of society. Maintaining education as a public good to avoid the for profit sector dominating the agenda is essential. Moreover, making structural changes to the school year is also essential for educational reform to be more than a mere aspiration. Elongating the school year to facilitate sustained teacher learning at the site of the practice [77] and during the working day is a possible solution that, though a challenge to the profession will be necessary to consider.
\nAssessment is probably one of the most important aspects of the education process and has often been described as “the tail that wags the curriculum dog” [78]. Any attempts to embed key skills and competencies across the continuum of education must include a more holistic approach to assessment. This is easier said than done. Approaches to the assessment of skills and competencies will require more teacher and school-based assessment and less dependence on high stakes terminal exams. However, the controversy surrounding the examination process in many developed countries during COVID-19 crisis demonstrates the complex nature of assessment and the tension between transparency and fairness on the one hand and teacher autonomy and professional judgement on the other.
\nIt is abundantly evident from the brief analysis and foray into aspects of building teacher capacity that the agenda is ambitious. As indicated in the introduction, even in the most developed economies, past experience indicates that this is an enormous challenge. When viewed from the perspective of cultures and contexts that continue to struggle with ‘basic’ education, the challenges appear as Sisyphean, and serves to disenfranchise, and demoralise rather than enhance teachers sense of agency and responsibility, and the quality of teaching and learning. Such a considerable educational change agenda is open to the accusation of policy elites talking among themselves. Unless and until the voices of teachers, learners, their parents and communities become part of that reform conversation in a meaningful and sustained manner, hope will drain away. There is no Valhalla, no ‘promised land’ to which teachers and their learners may easily migrate. Rather, they have to build and pave the way to that future. Without the support and resources necessary to match the ambition, professional agency, and professional responsibility are likely to decline rather than enjoy enhancement, and pedagogical repertoires more likely to become retrenched as Governments exert pressures to improve performance, resulting in impoverishment of teaching and learning, expanding disparities in learning outcomes, sustainability agendas shredded, to the detriment of the attractiveness of the teaching profession in many context where it is critically necessary. Policy-makers too have a responsibility to do more than merely enunciate lofty ambitions. These need to be matched by transformation strategies that are tailored to evident needs with resources that are equal to the challenge if even partial sustainability is to be achieved, the teaching profession enhanced, and the quality of teaching and learning improved. For too long, educational ‘change agents’ have been content to settle for less. While the influence of international agencies, their policy rhetorics, have grown more numerous, and demanding, no matter how laudable their advocacy, this does little for the capacities of teachers per se. Unless more effective means of bridging the worlds of policy makers and practitioners are crafted, sustainable reforms will continue to remain aspirations, more likely to frustrate teacher morale and self-efficacy rather than enhance their sense of responsibility and capacities to transform the teaching learning process.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\\n\\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\\n\\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\\n\\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\\n\\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15791}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"title"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10818",title:"21st Century Approaches to Management and Accounting Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dd81bc60e806fddc63d1ae22da1c779a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sebahattin Demirkan and Dr. Irem Demirkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10818.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"336397",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebahattin",surname:"Demirkan",slug:"sebahattin-demirkan",fullName:"Sebahattin Demirkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10771",title:"Advancements Towards Sustainability of HVAC & R Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0718b748e10605d793d244c62797acf4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ahmed Niameh Mehdy Alhusseny, Dr. Qahtan Al-Aabidy and Dr. Adel Gharib Nasser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10771.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"208783",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Alhusseny",slug:"ahmed-alhusseny",fullName:"Ahmed Alhusseny"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10773",title:"Advances in Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Modelling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"22eb4fe235e1d5d074c3ad7643f8a567",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Zak Abdallah and Dr. Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10773.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10370",title:"Advances in Fundamental and Applied Research on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f16232a481c08a05cc191ac64cf2c69e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brian FG Katz and Dr. Piotr Majdak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10370.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278731",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian FG",surname:"Katz",slug:"brian-fg-katz",fullName:"Brian FG Katz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11000",title:"Advances in Mass Transfer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9cdf245988fe529bcab93c3b1286ba4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Badie I. Morsi and Dr. Omar M. Basha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11000.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174420",title:"Prof.",name:"Badie I.",surname:"Morsi",slug:"badie-i.-morsi",fullName:"Badie I. Morsi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10701",title:"Alkenes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f6dd394ef1ca2d6472220de6a79a0d9a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Reza Davarnejad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10701.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"88069",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",surname:"Davarnejad",slug:"reza-davarnejad",fullName:"Reza Davarnejad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10764",title:"Antenna Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2fbf1c7a5d92723f08198fc9b526a8ad",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Hussain Al-Rizzo and Dr. Said Abushamleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10764.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"153384",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain",surname:"Al-Rizzo",slug:"hussain-al-rizzo",fullName:"Hussain Al-Rizzo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10814",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2db4d2a6638d2c66f7a5741d0f8fe4ae",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Fabio Gabrielli and Dr. Floriana Irtelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10814.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"259407",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Gabrielli",slug:"fabio-gabrielli",fullName:"Fabio Gabrielli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10711",title:"Arthroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"afa83f11ba2442e7612f5b8c6aa3c659",slug:null,bookSignature:"M.D. Carlos Suarez-Ahedo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10711.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235976",title:"M.D.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Suarez-Ahedo",slug:"carlos-suarez-ahedo",fullName:"Carlos Suarez-Ahedo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Dr. Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Dr. Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c96b42d4539957c58dfc2eb8fd9ffc21",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10878",title:"Bioethical Issues in Healthcare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6f32d3f2227df637fffd969a0cb5ed7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Peter A. Clark",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"58889",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter A.",surname:"Clark",slug:"peter-a.-clark",fullName:"Peter A. Clark"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:114},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5240},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"32",title:"Aquaculture",slug:"aquaculture",parent:{title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:8,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:274,numberOfWosCitations:808,numberOfCrossrefCitations:278,numberOfDimensionsCitations:755,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"aquaculture",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8928",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfeadf50d4d57ea0b440f005d420752",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",bookSignature:"Qian Lu and Mohammad Serajuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8928.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"304473",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"qian-lu",fullName:"Qian Lu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7229",title:"Aquaculture",subtitle:"Plants and Invertebrates",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cedbde363e45e8dc69fd5017482a6c",slug:"aquaculture-plants-and-invertebrates",bookSignature:"Genaro Diarte-Plata and Ruth Escamilla-Montes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7229.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198991",title:"Dr.",name:"Genaro",middleName:null,surname:"Diarte-Plata",slug:"genaro-diarte-plata",fullName:"Genaro Diarte-Plata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5792",title:"Sea Urchin",subtitle:"From Environment to Aquaculture and Biomedicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03e5af4d15dfb028a11e298e47948799",slug:"sea-urchin-from-environment-to-aquaculture-and-biomedicine",bookSignature:"Maria Agnello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5792.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175306",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Agnello",slug:"maria-agnello",fullName:"Maria Agnello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2052",title:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9bbb1af278ed9e5df351641aaf598f0",slug:"health-and-environment-in-aquaculture",bookSignature:"Edmir Daniel Carvalho, Gianmarco Silva David and Reinaldo J. Silva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2052.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80438",title:"Dr.",name:"Edmir",middleName:"Daniel",surname:"Carvalho",slug:"edmir-carvalho",fullName:"Edmir Carvalho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1689",title:"Marine Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1fcdb7a6dd3ef54b6669111c7b6355ea",slug:"marine-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Antonio Cruzado",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1689.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"122197",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruzado",slug:"antonio-cruzado",fullName:"Antonio Cruzado"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1009",title:"Aquaculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed29c6b4a288a1549dc724e247930545",slug:"aquaculture",bookSignature:"Zainal Abidin Muchlisin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1009.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92673",title:"Dr.",name:"Zainal",middleName:"Abidin",surname:"Muchlisin",slug:"zainal-muchlisin",fullName:"Zainal Muchlisin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2053",title:"Aquaculture and the Environment",subtitle:"A Shared Destiny",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896dc149c63ab74b6f76141f3ed6535d",slug:"aquaculture-and-the-environment-a-shared-destiny",bookSignature:"Barbara Sladonja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2053.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88464",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Sladonja",slug:"barbara-sladonja",fullName:"Barbara Sladonja"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"612",title:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"531750867c1b8db770f8557eaf1e21bc",slug:"recent-advances-in-fish-farms",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral and Zafer Doğu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/612.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:8,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"35141",doi:"10.5772/28157",title:"Antibiotics in Aquaculture – Use, Abuse and Alternatives",slug:"antibiotics-in-aquaculture-use-abuse-and-alternatives",totalDownloads:18426,totalCrossrefCites:86,totalDimensionsCites:172,book:{slug:"health-and-environment-in-aquaculture",title:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture"},signatures:"Jaime Romero, Carmen Gloria Feijoo and Paola Navarrete",authors:[{id:"72898",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",slug:"jaime-romero",fullName:"Jaime Romero"},{id:"79684",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola",middleName:null,surname:"Navarrete",slug:"paola-navarrete",fullName:"Paola Navarrete"},{id:"83411",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Feijoo",slug:"carmen-feijoo",fullName:"Carmen Feijoo"}]},{id:"27104",doi:"10.5772/30576",title:"Nutritional Value and Uses of Microalgae in Aquaculture",slug:"nutritional-value-and-uses-of-microalgae-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:6481,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:64,book:{slug:"aquaculture",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture"},signatures:"A. Catarina Guedes and F. Xavier Malcata",authors:[{id:"83136",title:"Prof.",name:"F. Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Malcata",slug:"f.-xavier-malcata",fullName:"F. Xavier Malcata"}]},{id:"30642",doi:"10.5772/34423",title:"Meiofauna as a Tool for Marine Ecosystem Biomonitoring",slug:"meiofauna-as-a-tool-for-marine-ecosystem-monitoring",totalDownloads:3405,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:62,book:{slug:"marine-ecosystems",title:"Marine Ecosystems",fullTitle:"Marine Ecosystems"},signatures:"Maria Balsamo, Federica Semprucci, Fabrizio Frontalini and Rodolfo Coccioni",authors:[{id:"100075",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Balsamo",slug:"maria-balsamo",fullName:"Maria Balsamo"},{id:"104309",title:"Dr.",name:"Federica",middleName:null,surname:"Semprucci",slug:"federica-semprucci",fullName:"Federica Semprucci"},{id:"104311",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrizio",middleName:null,surname:"Frontalini",slug:"fabrizio-frontalini",fullName:"Fabrizio Frontalini"},{id:"104313",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Coccioni",slug:"rodolfo-coccioni",fullName:"Rodolfo Coccioni"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35150",title:"Aquacultural Safety and Health",slug:"aquacultural-safety-and-health",totalDownloads:2173,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"health-and-environment-in-aquaculture",title:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture"},signatures:"Melvin L. Myers and Robert M. Durborow",authors:[{id:"77095",title:"Prof.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Myers",slug:"melvin-myers",fullName:"Melvin Myers"},{id:"122861",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Durborow",slug:"robert-durborow",fullName:"Robert Durborow"}]},{id:"27108",title:"Genomics and Genome Sequencing: Benefits for Finfish Aquaculture",slug:"genomics-and-genome-sequencing-benefits-for-finfish-aquaculture",totalDownloads:2899,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"aquaculture",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture"},signatures:"Nicole L. Quinn, Alejandro P. Gutierrez, Ben F. Koop and William S. Davidson",authors:[{id:"81919",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:"S",surname:"Davidson",slug:"william-davidson",fullName:"William Davidson"},{id:"83990",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",middleName:"Lisa",surname:"Quinn",slug:"nicole-quinn",fullName:"Nicole Quinn"},{id:"84002",title:"Dr.",name:"Ben",middleName:null,surname:"Koop",slug:"ben-koop",fullName:"Ben Koop"},{id:"123877",title:"BSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez",slug:"alejandro-gutierrez",fullName:"Alejandro Gutierrez"}]},{id:"35143",title:"Probiotics in Aquaculture - Benefits to the Health, Technological Applications and Safety",slug:"probiotics-in-aquaculture-benefits-to-the-health-technological-applications-and-safety",totalDownloads:4613,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"health-and-environment-in-aquaculture",title:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture"},signatures:"Xuxia Zhou and Yanbo Wang",authors:[{id:"76319",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanbo",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yanbo-wang",fullName:"Yanbo Wang"},{id:"122461",title:"Dr.",name:"Xuxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"xuxia-zhou",fullName:"Xuxia Zhou"}]},{id:"68966",title:"Novel Biofloc Technology (BFT) for Ammonia Assimilation and Reuse in Aquaculture In Situ",slug:"novel-biofloc-technology-bft-for-ammonia-assimilation-and-reuse-in-aquaculture-in-situ",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Hai-Hong Huang",authors:[{id:"305215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"hai-hong-huang",fullName:"Hai-Hong Huang"}]},{id:"25457",title:"Mangrove Revegetation Potentials of Brackish-Water Pond Areas in the Philippines",slug:"mangrove-revegetation-potentials-of-brackish-water-pond-areas-in-the-philippines",totalDownloads:3879,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"aquaculture-and-the-environment-a-shared-destiny",title:"Aquaculture and the Environment",fullTitle:"Aquaculture and the Environment - A Shared Destiny"},signatures:"Maricar S. Samson and Rene N. Rollon",authors:[{id:"73153",title:"Dr.",name:"Maricar",middleName:"Sacdalan",surname:"Samson",slug:"maricar-samson",fullName:"Maricar Samson"},{id:"73155",title:"Prof.",name:"Rene",middleName:"N",surname:"Rollon",slug:"rene-rollon",fullName:"Rene Rollon"}]},{id:"27117",title:"Culture of Harpacticoid Copepods: Understanding the Reproduction and Effect of Environmental Factors",slug:"copepods-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:5192,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"aquaculture",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture"},signatures:"Kassim Zaleha and Ibrahim Busra",authors:[{id:"73665",title:"Prof.",name:"Kassim",middleName:null,surname:"Zaleha",slug:"kassim-zaleha",fullName:"Kassim Zaleha"}]},{id:"35141",title:"Antibiotics in Aquaculture – Use, Abuse and Alternatives",slug:"antibiotics-in-aquaculture-use-abuse-and-alternatives",totalDownloads:18428,totalCrossrefCites:86,totalDimensionsCites:176,book:{slug:"health-and-environment-in-aquaculture",title:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture"},signatures:"Jaime Romero, Carmen Gloria Feijoo and Paola Navarrete",authors:[{id:"72898",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",slug:"jaime-romero",fullName:"Jaime Romero"},{id:"79684",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola",middleName:null,surname:"Navarrete",slug:"paola-navarrete",fullName:"Paola Navarrete"},{id:"83411",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Feijoo",slug:"carmen-feijoo",fullName:"Carmen Feijoo"}]},{id:"27103",title:"Replacement of Fishmeal with Plant Protein Ingredients in Diets to Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) – Effects on Weight Gain and Accretion",slug:"replacement-of-fishmeal-with-plant-protein-ingredients-in-diets-to-atlantic-salmon-salmo-salar-effec",totalDownloads:6233,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"aquaculture",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture"},signatures:"Marit Espe, Adel El-Mowafi and Kari Ruohonen",authors:[{id:"80163",title:"Dr.",name:"Marit",middleName:null,surname:"Espe",slug:"marit-espe",fullName:"Marit Espe"},{id:"94977",title:"Dr.",name:"Kari",middleName:null,surname:"Ruohonen",slug:"kari-ruohonen",fullName:"Kari Ruohonen"},{id:"94978",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",middleName:null,surname:"El-Mowafi",slug:"adel-el-mowafi",fullName:"Adel El-Mowafi"}]},{id:"35145",title:"Use of Microarray Technology to Improve DNA Vaccines in Fish Aquaculture - The Rhabdoviral Model",slug:"use-of-microarray-technology-to-improve-dna-vaccines-in-fish-aquaculture-the-rhabdoviral-model",totalDownloads:2648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"health-and-environment-in-aquaculture",title:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture"},signatures:"P. Encinas, E. Gomez-Casado, A. Estepa and J.M. Coll",authors:[{id:"74573",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Coll",slug:"julio-coll",fullName:"Julio Coll"},{id:"79531",title:"Dr.",name:"Estepa Perez",middleName:null,surname:"Maria Amparo",slug:"estepa-perez-maria-amparo",fullName:"Estepa Perez Maria Amparo"},{id:"149247",title:"MSc.",name:"Paloma",middleName:null,surname:"Encinas",slug:"paloma-encinas",fullName:"Paloma Encinas"},{id:"149248",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Casado",slug:"eduardo-gomez-casado",fullName:"Eduardo Gomez-Casado"}]},{id:"35149",title:"Ecological Features of Large Neotropical Reservoirs and Its Relation to Health of Cage Reared Fish",slug:"ecological-features-of-large-neotropical-reservoirs-and-its-relation-to-health-of-cage-reared-fish",totalDownloads:2457,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"health-and-environment-in-aquaculture",title:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Health and Environment in Aquaculture"},signatures:"Edmir Daniel Carvalho, Reinaldo José da Silva, Igor Paiva Ramos, Jaciara Vanessa Krüger Paes, Augusto Seawright Zanatta, Heleno Brandão, Érica de Oliveira Penha Zica, André Batista Nobile, Aline Angelina Acosta and Gianmarco Silva David",authors:[{id:"80438",title:"Dr.",name:"Edmir",middleName:"Daniel",surname:"Carvalho",slug:"edmir-carvalho",fullName:"Edmir Carvalho"},{id:"124351",title:"Dr.",name:"Reinaldo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"reinaldo-j.-silva",fullName:"Reinaldo J. Silva"},{id:"124352",title:"MSc.",name:"Igor P.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos",slug:"igor-p.-ramos",fullName:"Igor P. Ramos"},{id:"124353",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaciara Vanessa Krüger",middleName:null,surname:"Paes",slug:"jaciara-vanessa-kruger-paes",fullName:"Jaciara Vanessa Krüger Paes"},{id:"124354",title:"Dr.",name:"Augusto S.",middleName:null,surname:"Zanatta",slug:"augusto-s.-zanatta",fullName:"Augusto S. Zanatta"},{id:"124355",title:"Dr.",name:"Heleno",middleName:null,surname:"Brandão",slug:"heleno-brandao",fullName:"Heleno Brandão"},{id:"124356",title:"Dr.",name:"Erica O.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Zica",slug:"erica-o.p.-zica",fullName:"Erica O.P. Zica"},{id:"124357",title:"MSc.",name:"André B.",middleName:null,surname:"Nobile",slug:"andre-b.-nobile",fullName:"André B. Nobile"},{id:"124358",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianmarco S.",middleName:null,surname:"David",slug:"gianmarco-s.-david",fullName:"Gianmarco S. David"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"aquaculture",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/109518/dimiter-prodanov",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"109518",slug:"dimiter-prodanov"},fullPath:"/profiles/109518/dimiter-prodanov",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()