Surface atomic concentration (at.%) of the recovered fibers obtained at the different gasification times, plus concentrations for pristine fibers.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9873",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",title:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The world is currently experiencing increased environmental contamination with solid waste, which is one of the greatest environmental threats today. Although solid waste is harmful, proper management and profitable recycling can make it beneficial to the environment. In this regard, estimation of the true quantities of solid wastes generated annually in developed and developing countries is important for evaluating suitable strategies for economic and sustainable procedures of waste management. This book presents an interesting review of the economics of solid waste management in various developing and developed countries. It examines several economic applications of solid waste, such as innovative methods to generate bioelectricity from organic waste using microbial fuel cells and using solid waste as an alternative fuel in cement kilns.",isbn:"978-1-83962-560-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-559-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-561-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87682",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"strategies-of-sustainable-solid-waste-management",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"59b5ceeeedaf7449a30629923569388c",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",publishedDate:"April 21st 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9873.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6321,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:37,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 12th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 1st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 20th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 19th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144691/images/system/144691.png",biography:"Hosam Saleh is a Professor of Radioactive Waste Management at the Radioisotope Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt. He was awarded an MSc and Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University. Saleh has more than 25 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environment-friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters and served as an editor of several books. He has been selected among the top 2% of scientists in the world according to the Stanford University report for 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"14",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"14",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"891",title:"Solid Waste",slug:"solid-waste"}],chapters:[{id:"74478",title:"Introductory Chapter: Solid Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95327",slug:"introductory-chapter-solid-waste",totalDownloads:335,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74478",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"},{id:"218811",title:"Prof.",name:"Amal I.",surname:"Hassan",slug:"amal-i.-hassan",fullName:"Amal I. Hassan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73477",title:"Reflections on the Influence of Family Demographics on Food Waste Generation among the City of Tshwane Households, Republic of South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93755",slug:"reflections-on-the-influence-of-family-demographics-on-food-waste-generation-among-the-city-of-tshwa",totalDownloads:312,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the influence of households’ demographics on food waste generation. A mixed method research approach consisting of meta-analysis, survey (structured interviews), and experimental were used to collect opinions and weigh the amount of waste generated in each household. Although not all demographic variables were investigated, the influence of: (1) family size, (2) household monthly income, (3) employment status, (4) educational level, and (5) age of respondents on food waste generation were analyzed. The results of the study confirmed that age and family size are positive factors that influence the amount of food waste generated in households of the City of Tshwane, as opposed to the level of education, employment status, and monthly income levels. It should be noted, however, that this study does not conclusively exclude the other factors as not having an influence in food waste generations. However, their influence in the current food waste generation quantities was not conclusive. Further studies with larger sample size are thus recommended.",signatures:"Machate Machate",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73477",authors:[{id:"326045",title:"Prof.",name:"Machate",surname:"Machate",slug:"machate-machate",fullName:"Machate Machate"}],corrections:null},{id:"74039",title:"Sustainable Pathway for Closing Solid Waste Data Gaps: Implications for Modernization Strategies and Resilient Cities in Developing Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94384",slug:"sustainable-pathway-for-closing-solid-waste-data-gaps-implications-for-modernization-strategies-and-",totalDownloads:374,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter addresses three peculiar challenges in the solid waste management system of developing countries, namely: the chronic lack of reliable data for planning purposes, the absence of participatory engagement strategies in data gathering for wider ownership and usage, and the lack of monitoring of the climate change burden of existing waste disposal practices. A team of researchers has collaborated with system managers and a responsible philanthropic organization to engage key stakeholders to address these gaps in a sustainable manner. The strategy deployed has been to work in a participatory and evidenced-based frame to solicit support, enhance capacities, empower each other to understand the problems and find for ourselves the practical routes by which solid waste data gaps can be closed in the greater Accra region of Ghana. Stakeholders have participated in a comprehensive waste audit and landfill emission monitoring exercise to develop a baseline, and have used local resources and ideas to recommend steps to sustain reliable data flows and the development of a climate action plan for purposes of modernization. The methodological processes and research outcomes suggest that structural collaboration between researchers and system stakeholders is necessary to break the vicious circle of chronic data gaps and substitute virtuous circles of reliable data for planning purposes.",signatures:"Kwaku Oduro-Appiah and Abraham Afful",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74039",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74039",authors:[{id:"324899",title:"Dr.",name:"Kwaku",surname:"Oduro-Appiah",slug:"kwaku-oduro-appiah",fullName:"Kwaku Oduro-Appiah"},{id:"330032",title:"Mr.",name:"Abraham",surname:"Afful",slug:"abraham-afful",fullName:"Abraham Afful"}],corrections:null},{id:"73972",title:"Guide for Organising a Community Clean-up Campaign",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94515",slug:"guide-for-organising-a-community-clean-up-campaign",totalDownloads:825,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"While it is the government’s and municipality’s mandate to ensure that its citizens stay in a clean and safe environment, it is of concern that waste management remains a big challenge in urban areas especially in developing countries. Increased economic development, rapid population growth and improvement of living standards are among the factors attributed to increased quantity and complexity of solid waste being generated. On the other hand, while people generate wastes, they continue to be looked at as passive recipients of municipality services. Ultimately, citizens fail to recognise their role in waste management and become unwilling to either pay for service delivery or participate in clean-up campaigns. Waste dumps are prime breeding sites for communicable disease vectors such as rodents, mosquitoes and houseflies, which can exacerbate the prevalence of water, food and waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid. This chapter thus describes the methodology of successfully conducting a community-led cleanup campaign. It is based on experience gained during implementation of an urban water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) project. Ward level clean-up campaigns were organised and conducted by community members and local leaders. Besides clearing illegal dumpsites, the activity was also used to raise awareness on the consequence of waste dumping. The experience showed that organising a clean-up campaign only requires careful timeous planning. Overall, it was concluded that not only does the activity serve the practical purpose of cleaning, but it also creates a greater sense of unity and friendship among community members. Additionally, the power of beautification in a clean-up campaign wold naturally motivate residents to believe that their problems could be solved, resulting in a shared responsibility for sustainable management of waste and commons at local level.",signatures:"Innocent Rangeti and Bloodless Dzwairo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73972",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73972",authors:[{id:"171647",title:"Mr.",name:"Innocent",surname:"Rangeti",slug:"innocent-rangeti",fullName:"Innocent Rangeti"},{id:"327929",title:"Dr.",name:"Bloodless",surname:"Dzwairo",slug:"bloodless-dzwairo",fullName:"Bloodless Dzwairo"}],corrections:null},{id:"74647",title:"Economics of Solid Waste Management: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95343",slug:"economics-of-solid-waste-management-a-review",totalDownloads:770,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Solid Waste Management is one of the importance environmental issues at many developing countries. There is a lack of studies on economic analysis of solid waste management in the many cities at the national and international level. Most of the Municipal Corporation or city management is the major responsibility for better waste management. However, the local governments has been allocated budget for solid waste management without analysing cost and benefit of solid waste. Although, waste management budget is focusing on collected waste but, uncollected waste has been creating a number of socio, economic and health issues. Therefore, this chapter has presents a details review on economics of solid waste management at the various developing and developed countries. The main policy implication of the paper is to emphasis on better understanding of economic importance of solid waste management to the local policy makers.",signatures:"Muniyandi Balasubramanian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74647",authors:[{id:"275432",title:"Dr.",name:"Muniyandi",surname:"Balasubramanian",slug:"muniyandi-balasubramanian",fullName:"Muniyandi Balasubramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"73967",title:"Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Morocco: Co-Incineration of RDF as an Alternative Fuel in Cement Kilns",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93936",slug:"sustainable-solid-waste-management-in-morocco-co-incineration-of-rdf-as-an-alternative-fuel-in-cemen",totalDownloads:332,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The management of municipal solid waste (MSW) is a major obstacle for the majority of municipalities in developing countries because of the impacts related to the landfilling of waste. Garbage is an energy-rich material. As a result, energy recovery is considered to be a sustainable waste management method. In Morocco, 7.4 million tons are produced annually; most of the waste is landfilled without any recovery despite the impacts related to this method of disposal. The objective of this chapter is to characterize combustible fractions (RDF) from household waste in Morocco and to study the economic and environmental benefits of their use as alternative fuels in cement kilns. The results of this research show that the combustible fractions contained in household waste in Morocco constitute a potential sustainable energy source with a high lower calorific value (4454 kcal/kg). The study of the advantages of co-incineration shows that the substitution of pet coke by 15% RDF reduces the pollution linked to gaseous emissions. In addition, the cement plant can make financial savings 389 USD/h by minimizing the use of fossil fuels.",signatures:"Aziz Hasib, Abdellah Ouigmane, Otmane Boudouch, Reda Elkacmi, Mustapha Bouzaid and Mohamed Berkani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73967",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73967",authors:[{id:"166445",title:"Prof.",name:"Aziz",surname:"Hasib",slug:"aziz-hasib",fullName:"Aziz Hasib"},{id:"237725",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",surname:"Elkacmi",slug:"reda-elkacmi",fullName:"Reda Elkacmi"},{id:"325462",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdellah",surname:"Ouigmane",slug:"abdellah-ouigmane",fullName:"Abdellah Ouigmane"},{id:"325463",title:"Prof.",name:"Otmane",surname:"Boudouch",slug:"otmane-boudouch",fullName:"Otmane Boudouch"},{id:"325528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustapha",surname:"Bouzaid",slug:"mustapha-bouzaid",fullName:"Mustapha Bouzaid"},{id:"325529",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Berkani",slug:"mohammed-berkani",fullName:"Mohammed Berkani"}],corrections:[{id:"74392",title:"Corrigendum to: Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Morocco: Co-Incineration of RDF as an Alternative Fuel in Cement Kilns",doi:null,slug:"corrigendum-to-sustainable-solid-waste-management-in-morocco-co-incineration-of-rdf-as-an-alternativ",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"74238",title:"Effectiveness of Anaerobic Technologies in the Treatment of Landfill Leachate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94741",slug:"effectiveness-of-anaerobic-technologies-in-the-treatment-of-landfill-leachate",totalDownloads:561,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Improper Solid Waste Management leads to the generation of landfill leachate at the landfills. To reduce the negative impacts of highly toxic and recalcitrant leachate on the environment, several techniques have been used. A lot of research is conducted to find suitable methods for the treatment of landfill leachate such as biological processes, chemical oxidation processes, coagulation, flocculation, chemical precipitation, and membrane procedures. The biological process is still being used widely for the treatment of leachate. The current system of leachate treatment consists of various unit processes which require larger area, energy and cost. In addition, the current aerobic treatment is not able to treat entirely the pollutants which require further treatment of the leachate. Anaerobic wastewater treatment has gained considerable attention among researchers and sanitary engineers primarily due to its economic advantages over conventional aerobic methods. The major advantages of anaerobic wastewater treatment in comparison to aerobic methods are: (a) the lack of aeration, which decreases costs and energy requirements; and (b) simple maintenance and control, which eliminates the need for skilled operators and manufacturers. Several anaerobic processes have been used for leachate treatment such as up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor, anaerobic filter, hybrid bed reactor, anaerobic sequencing batch reactor and Anaerobic baffled reactor. The following chapter provides an insight to the solid waste management at the landfills, generation of leachate and details of some of the highly efficient anaerobic treatment systems that are used for the overall treatment of landfill leachate.",signatures:"Imran Ahmad, Norhayati Abdullah, Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan, Ali Yuzir, Iwamoto Koji, Anas Al-Dailami and Thilagavathi Arumugham",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74238",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74238",authors:[{id:"237449",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreeshivadasan",surname:"Chelliapan",slug:"shreeshivadasan-chelliapan",fullName:"Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan"},{id:"324168",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Imran",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"imran-ahmad",fullName:"Imran Ahmad"},{id:"332462",title:"Dr.",name:"Norhayati",surname:"Abdullah",slug:"norhayati-abdullah",fullName:"Norhayati Abdullah"},{id:"338893",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Yuzur",slug:"ali-yuzur",fullName:"Ali Yuzur"},{id:"338894",title:"Dr.",name:"Iwamoto",surname:"Koji",slug:"iwamoto-koji",fullName:"Iwamoto Koji"},{id:"338895",title:"Dr.",name:"Anas",surname:"Al-Dailami",slug:"anas-al-dailami",fullName:"Anas Al-Dailami"},{id:"343758",title:"Dr.",name:"Thilagavathi",surname:"Arumugham",slug:"thilagavathi-arumugham",fullName:"Thilagavathi Arumugham"}],corrections:null},{id:"74004",title:"Hydrometallurgical Recovery of Gold from Mining Wastes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94597",slug:"hydrometallurgical-recovery-of-gold-from-mining-wastes",totalDownloads:698,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Gold is a highly required material for a wide range of personal and industrial applications. The high demand for gold, together with the shortage of natural resources and high pollution potential of wastes generated during mining and ore processing activities led to search for alternative sources of gold. A possible source is represented by mine wastes resulting from the processing of polymetallic or sulfidic ores. The reprocessing of wastes and old tailings with moderate to low content of gold offers not only a business opportunity, but also enhances the quality of the surrounding environment, changes the land use and offers a wide range of socio-economic benefits. Cyanidation, the most widespread Au leaching option, is progressively abandoned due to the high risk associated with its use and to the low public acceptance. Therefore, alternative methods such as thiocyanate, thiourea, thiosulphate and halide leaching gained more and more interest. This chapter presents the most important features of some Au leaching methods, emphasizing their advantages, limitations and potential applications.",signatures:"Emilia Neag, Eniko Kovacs, Zamfira Dinca, Anamaria Iulia Török, Cerasel Varaticeanu and Erika Andrea Levei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74004",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74004",authors:[{id:"324453",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika Andrea",surname:"Levei",slug:"erika-andrea-levei",fullName:"Erika Andrea Levei"},{id:"335075",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",surname:"Neag",slug:"emilia-neag",fullName:"Emilia Neag"},{id:"335077",title:"MSc.",name:"Eniko",surname:"Kovacs",slug:"eniko-kovacs",fullName:"Eniko Kovacs"},{id:"335078",title:"Dr.",name:"Zamfira",surname:"Dinca",slug:"zamfira-dinca",fullName:"Zamfira Dinca"},{id:"335080",title:"Dr.",name:"Anamaria Iulia",surname:"Török",slug:"anamaria-iulia-torok",fullName:"Anamaria Iulia Török"},{id:"335081",title:"BSc.",name:"Cerasel",surname:"Varaticeanu",slug:"cerasel-varaticeanu",fullName:"Cerasel Varaticeanu"}],corrections:null},{id:"74827",title:"Bioelectricity from Organic Solid Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95297",slug:"bioelectricity-from-organic-solid-waste",totalDownloads:434,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Resource recovery and recycling of organic waste is a great challenge in the world. The unmanaged organic waste causes a great damage to the environment and the public health both in the developing countries and industrial parts of the world. In this research, an innovative method was adopted to generate bioelectricity from the organic waste by using the Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC). Various types of organic wastes such as livestock waste, food waste, fruit waste were used as the substrates of the microbial fuel cell. All the experiments were carried out in the same sized one chamber microbial fuel cell and the similar electrode materials. It was observed that all the organic wastes can be used to generate bioelectricity through microbial fuel cell. The generated electricity can be used in several environmental monitoring sensors and can be used as an alternate power source in the developing countries. The by-products of the bioelectricity generation can be used as soil conditioner in the organic depleted soil and agricultural fields.",signatures:"M. Azizul Moqsud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74827",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74827",authors:[{id:"7199",title:"Dr.",name:"Md.Azizul",surname:"Moqsud",slug:"md.azizul-moqsud",fullName:"Md.Azizul Moqsud"}],corrections:null},{id:"73517",title:"Agricultural Solid Wastes: Causes, Effects, and Effective Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93601",slug:"agricultural-solid-wastes-causes-effects-and-effective-management",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The role of the agricultural sector in human development and economic development cannot be overemphasized. Awareness for increased agricultural production is on the increase, arising from the need to feed the ever-increasing human population. Interestingly, almost all agricultural activities generate wastes, which are generated in large quantities in many countries. However, these wastes may constitute a serious threat to human health through environmental pollution and handling them may result in huge economic loss. Unfortunately, in many developing countries where large quantities of these wastes are generated, they are not properly managed because little is known about their potential risks and benefits if properly managed. There are studies that address some of the challenges of agricultural solid wastes as well as suggestions on how they can be properly managed. In this chapter, we intend to explore the major sources of agricultural solid wastes, their potential risks, and how they can be properly managed.",signatures:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo and Olufemi Adebukola Adebiyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73517",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73517",authors:[{id:"276527",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaac Oluseun",surname:"Adejumo",slug:"isaac-oluseun-adejumo",fullName:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo"},{id:"328699",title:"Dr.",name:"O.A.",surname:"Adebiyi",slug:"o.a.-adebiyi",fullName:"O.A. Adebiyi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8580",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e3554c02569fe3ac8afa79cb02daae97",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Mostafa Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8580.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2383",title:"Polyester",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79fd9d6314f8e1abd60d7e21896ce878",slug:"polyester",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. 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The reproducibility and cost of the lifestyle interventions (e.g., exercise, sleep, nutritious diet, national child care, pollution limitations) on QALYs will also be documented. The ratio of (QALY/Cost) weighted by reproducibility and transferability should give a rank-ordered list of actions humans can take to increase the quality years of human consciousness. Differences in the optimized list of rank-ordered interventions to maximize the quality of life between nation-states with varying GDP and government types (i.e., the lack of transferability) will be discussed. These local maximums for QALY optimization will be discussed in light of possible avenues that allow countries to overcome national hurdles that allow them to reach greater QALY global maximums.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book welcomes topics related to the quality of life measurements (QALYs) both within a community and between disparate societies, as well as the transferability/durability of these QALY gains.
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His recent focus includes quality of life modifiers and bioethical versus religious standards.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",middleName:null,surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245319/images/system/245319.png",biography:"Sage Arbor is a computational biologist whose research includes fields ranging from drug design, systems biology, and epigenetic database creation to fitness app development. His work spans a broad biomedical spectrum from drug design to clinical trial analysis, including being a medical school professor and researcher, project management of developers/analysts of globally distributed labs, electronic medical record data mining (SQL and NoSQL), Python/pandas coding, data segmentation, 6σ improvement, pathway mapping, and computational drug design and synthesis. Having worked at multiple academic institutions (Duke, Marian University) and companies (e.g., Pfizer and Dupont), his research has been on both proprietary and open-access datasets for publication to the wider scientific community. 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In practice, most composites consist of a bulk material (plastic matrix), and a reinforcement (typically fibers, i.e. carbon fibers), added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the material.
While they offer fantastic durability, high specific stiffness, and strength-to-weight ratio, their properties are essentially controlled by those of their constituents, including fiber/matrix interfaces, their volume fraction, and spatial distribution. The remarkable characteristics of fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs) led to rapid increase of their use. In the aeronautical sector, the use of composites reaches up to 50% of the total weight of a modern commercial aircraft [1]. But, FRPs are not only used in the aeronautic/aerospace sector. Other industries where weight-efficient performance is a key factor, such as the automotive, naval, and wind energy sectors, are likewise increasing the use of composite materials (annual growth rate of 12–14% Figure 1).
Global demand of carbon fibers over the years [
Naturally, the increment in demand and use of composites results in more and more waste being generated throughout the life cycle of these materials; in fact, it is estimated that 30–40% of pristine carbon fibers are wasted during the manufacturing process, and significant amounts of off-cuts, rejects, and put-of-date prepregs are generated, causing a significant negative impact on the environment. The excess of carbon fibers that is generated per year equals about 20–25% of the total amount consumed during 2015 [2]. Evidently, the recycling of composite materials is a high priority.
The recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRPs) not only makes sense from environmental and economic perspectives but also could be a key in increasing the penetration of these lightweight but expensive materials in high-volume markets such as automotive and aeronautical industry.
The principal waste management options that have been adopted for composites are burying, landfilling, or incinerating. Several European Directives and regulations were implemented in order to make better use of landfills (EU 1999/31/EC) [4]; to reduce waste management (EU 2000/53/EC on End-of-Life vehicles) [5]; to prevent or limit the emission levels produced by incineration plants (Directive 2000/76/EC) [6]; as well as to prevent and remedy the environmental damage (2004/35/EC on Environmental Liability) [7]. To reduce the consumption of natural resources and landfill allocations, recycling composite elements for reusing in different applications is postulated as a promising solution. Because of their high initial cost and energy consumption during manufacture, fibers are the most attractive constituent for recycling. In addition to these economic incentives and compared to the production of virgin materials, recycling will also reduce air, water, pollutant emissions (90–95% of CO2 emissions), as well as energy demand. Therefore, recycling results in a substantial improvement on the environmental impact of composite materials.
The economic costs can be reduced by about 70% (from €30–58/kg to €15–23/kg for carbon fibers) and the energy requirement by nearly 98% (from 55 to 166 kWh/kg to 3–10 kWh/kg), since the majority of energy consumption occurs during production of virgin carbon fibers [8]. Substituting virgin carbon fibers with recycled ones would save enough electricity to power 175,000 homes in a year [9]. However, the amount of composites currently recycled is less than 5% due to their complex composition; the nature of the resin (i.e., thermoset resins have a cross-linked matrix that cannot be simply reprocessed by remelting or remolding); their combination with other materials; and the high variability among waste products [9]. Furthermore, the use of the recycled carbon fibers in industrial applications is currently very limited due to the low quality control of the fibers, i.e., the length, surface quality, and origin of the fibers are difficult to control. In addition, the hierarchical structure of composites is destroyed during recycling; and the resultant laminates composed of recycled fibers present disorientation. Then, these composites do not meet the standards of high-value structural applications.
There are three main general technical approaches to the recovery of the fibers in thermoset-matrix composites: mechanical, thermal, and chemical. The mechanical recycling consists of reducing the size of the scrap composite components by shredding, crushing or milling. Nevertheless, in industry, this technology has not been extensively exploited to treat carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRCs) due to the poor bonding between the recycled fibers and the new resin.
Thermal recycling of composites involves the separation of the matrix from the fibers by applying heat. There are two main types of thermal recycling methods: pyrolysis and fluidized-bed recycling process. In both, the resin is volatilized into lower weight molecules to produce mainly oil and gases, while fibers are recovered, usually with char on their surfaces. These thermal processes have been widely implemented in industry. Among them, pyrolysis is the most widespread technology. Both glass and carbon fiber-reinforced composites can be recycled through pyrolysis. Because of the much higher market value of carbon fibers, pyrolysis of carbon fiber-reinforced composites has higher economic attractiveness. The first continuous pyrolysis recycling line, commercially producing recycled carbon fibers, has been introduced by the company Recycled Carbon Fiber Ltd. (RCF) in 2008 [10]. One of the most famous cases of recycling composites is BMW: up to 95% of the BMW, i3 is recyclable [11]. In Spain, the company Thermal Recycling of Composites (TRC, SL) has technology for the thermochemical recycling of composite materials reinforced with both glass and carbon fibers, with a special recycling line for wind turbine blades [12]. ELG Carbon Fiber (ELG-CF), Coseley, UK, develops a pyrolysis process in which they treat around 24,000 tons per year of carbon fiber waste. The process yields a tough and abrasive cotton-wool-like fuzz of carbon fiber, which maintains 90–95% of its original mechanical properties [13].
The recycling of CFRP waste through pyrolysis poses the additional problem of managing the liquids that are produced in the process, as a consequence of the thermochemical degradation of the resins (usually epoxy) [14]. Therefore, other less expensive alternatives are being studied. In this regard, many researchers have investigated the decomposition of resin matrix and CFRP carbon fiber recovery using chemical treatment to break and degrade the resin. The solvent can be water (hydrolysis) or organic (solvolysis). Solvolysis offers a large number of possibilities, thanks to a wide range of solvents, temperatures, pressures, and catalysts. Depending on the amount of solvent and on the temperature, the fluid can be vapor, liquid, biphasic, or supercritical. The latest have gained much attention since 2000 because characteristics between liquid and gas phases can be achieved through combinations of temperature and pressure, allowing the enhancement of the diffusion effect [15]. The results of recent research on the use of supercritical or subcritical fluids including water and alcohol are very promising [16, 17, 18].
In this chapter, we propose a two-step carbon-fiber recycling process: pyrolysis followed by oxidation. An optimization of the method in terms of sustainability of the technique and the characteristics of the fibers will be carried by performing surface, microstructure, and mechanical testing of the recovered fibers. With respect to mechanical performance, fiber strength distribution and fracture toughness were the properties analyzed. In addition, the remanufacture of laminates by means resin film infusion using the recycled fibers is proposed. The mechanical performance of the resulting laminates will be evaluated and compared to that of pristine ones.
A common scrap material from the aeronautic sector was selected for recycling. The recycling steps and process optimization parameters are detailed below.
The composite material used as the basis for the optimization of the experimental parameters was a scrap (HexPly® F593, supplied by AIRBUS OPERATIONS S.L., Getafe, Spain) composed of a plain woven prepreg made of epoxy resin reinforced with Toray T300/3 k carbon fibers [19] (55–60% carbon fibers [by mass] and 40–45% resin; fiber area weight = 193 g/m2) [20]. The carbon fibers were made of PAN. This process is as follows. First, there is a pre-oxidation treatment under 200–300°C; second, a carbonization in high purity inert gas under 1000–1500°C takes place; third, there is a graphitization under 2500–3000°C; and finally, a sizing.
The process used to recover the fibers was pyrolysis. It is a thermochemical decomposition of the organic part of the composite materials at temperatures between 450°C and 700°C in the nearly absence of oxygen. It is widely performed in the industry due to its easy and cheap implementation.
The recycling process was done in a thermolysis installation (Figure 2). It consists of a heating system and a gas condensation device [21]. The muffle furnace (1) contains a 9.6 L steel reactor, sealed by a screw-on lid. The flue gases circulate across four condensers (3–6) connected to each other by six cooling pipes. Each condenser allows the collection of distilled oils as cool gases and has four collection holes for the withdrawal of the distilled liquids and a thermometer to measure their temperature. The noncondensable gases are led to a water-cooling tower (7), where the last fraction of the distilled liquids is collected. These gases pass through a set of three filters (8 and 9) to eliminate pollutant gases and solid particles. The gases can then be mixed with air and burned off or collected for analysis. When the thermolysis is complete (the rotameter (10) inside the tubing no longer detects any distillation gas), the reactors are cooled and the thermolytic solid residues removed, which are mainly composed of pieces of dimensions equal to those of the input material but completely black.
Installation used for the pyrolysis of the carbon fibers [
The complete process consists of two steps: a thermolysis or pyrolysis (heat rate of 20°C/min) and a gasification or oxidation (air flow of 5 L/min). In the first one, the separation fiber/resin takes place; on the second stage, there is the removal of the char deposited on the surface of the fibers. However, this second step, if not properly designed, is likely to reduce the mechanical properties of the fibers.
With the purpose of designing the experimental procedure toward achieving the best recyclability and keeping the original fiber properties as intact as possible, the pyrolysis and oxidation steps were studied and optimized.
The design of the pyrolysis temperature for the degradation of the resin was performed by conducting tests runs at 500, 600, and 700°C for 6 h. Values below 500°C did not effectively remove all the resin; and values higher than 700°C caused a high degradation of the recovered fibers. The temperature of the pyrolysis (P) stage was then set to 500°C, because for 550°C and above, the preliminary thermogravimetric analysis and surface element concentration tests showed the fibers to be damaged.
The optimum oxidation (O) step was determined by varying the oxidation times between 30 and 90 min. This was done with the following objectives: efficiently removing the char on the fiber surface, while maintaining fiber microstructure intact and retaining fiber mechanical properties as much as possible. Section 3 details the results of this optimization study.
To determine the optimum oxidation time, analyses of fiber surface quality, fiber composition and mechanical properties of the recovered fibers were performed, as described in this section.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to evaluate the presence of char on the surface of the recycled fibers and compare with pristine ones. The images of the morphology change of the virgin and the recycled carbon reveal that pristine fibers exhibit a rough and irregular surface, while the recycled fibers are free of resin char, with a much more regular and smooth surface (Figure 3(a)–(d)). Only a few traces of micron-sized resin residues can be seen in few regions on the fiber surface. It can be concluded that, independently the oxidation time, the surface of recycled fibers presented a low amount of residual char and was otherwise clean and showed no evidence of fiber damage. This means that the removal of char from the fiber surface was efficient, and that this process requires only short oxidation times, e.g., 30 min.
SEM images of the virgin (a) recovered carbon fibers after thermolysis at 500°C and gasification times of 30 min (b), 60 min (c), and 90 min (d).
The surface chemistry of virgin and recycled carbon fibers was examined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy by López et al. [20]. As shown in Table 1, the surface of all the examined fibers was composed of carbon (C), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). While the C content remains practically constant, the O content increases with gasification time and the N content decreases. The increase in the O/C ratio with gasification time is indicative of the degree of fiber oxidation, which can lead to undesirable alterations. The smaller ratio obtained, i.e., the less oxidized recovered fiber (compared to 0.082% of the virgin ones) indicates that the optimum gasification time is 30 min.
Fiber sample | C (at.%) | N (at.%) | O (at.%) | Si (at.%) | O/C (at.%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Virgin | 90.1 | 1.0 | 8.9 | — | 0.082 |
Recycled: P-500°C | 89.3 | 4.5 | 6.0 | 0.1 | 0.067 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min | 81.2 | 7.1 | 10.0 | 1.7 | 0.123 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min | 83.3 | 4.6 | 11.7 | 0.4 | 0.140 |
Surface atomic concentration (at.%) of the recovered fibers obtained at the different gasification times, plus concentrations for pristine fibers.
Virgin: virgin TORAY T300/3 k fibers; values provided by manufacturer TORAY JAPAN [22].
Moreover, according to the thermolytically derived solid residue, 500°C is the condition in which the best atomic surface composition was obtained, due to the smallest quantity of C═O and COOH groups, which suggests the formation of oxygenated compounds on the surface of the solid residue, potentially caused by secondary repolymerization reactions in the gaseous phase.
Raman spectra of the surface and transversal section of the carbon fibers (Figure 4) were obtained at room temperature to detect the changes in crystallite structure of the recycled carbon fibers at a penetration depth of the order of 60 nm. Independently of the zone evaluated, all first-order Raman spectra for the recycled carbon fibers exhibited two broad peaks at about 1350 and 1580 cm−1 corresponding to the D and G bands, respectively.
Raman spectra for the recycled carbon fibers.
The G band is associated with a single crystal of graphite, whereas the D peak is from the structural imperfections created by the attachment of hydroxyl and epoxide groups on the carbon basal plane. The ratio of the intensity of the D and G bands (
where
Fiber sample | D band position (cm−1) | G band position (cm−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
P-500°C/O-30 min | 1357 | 1588 | 0.93 | 21 |
P-500°C/O-60 min | 1364 | 1582 | 0.98 | 20 |
P-500°C/O-90 min | 1364 | 1580 | 0.98 | 20 |
Microstructure parameters of the recycled T300 carbon fibers at different gasification times using Raman spectrometer.
The variation of
To achieve an objective determination of the optimum oxidation time based on mechanical properties, evaluations of the tensile strength and of the fracture toughness of the recovered fibers were performed.
The tensile properties of the carbon fibers were determined through tensile tests at a gage length of 20 mm in the fiber tensile tester at room temperature. Each single fiber was directly connected to the mechanical grips and then submitted to uniaxial straining up to failure under stroke control at 1 mm min−1. Then, the natural frequencies were extracted to determine the linear density (using the frequency method according to the ASTM D1577 standard [25]), and subsequently, the cross-section area was calculated with the known fiber density, in order to finally determine the average fiber diameter at 20 mm gage length [26].
During the test, the force-strain curve was recorded. These curves indicate linear and elastic behavior up to failure (Figure 5). The maximum load attained was used to calculate the strength of each individual fiber, and the elastic modulus in the fiber direction was determined from the slope of the stress-strain curve.
Strain vs. strain relationship for a pristine and recovered carbon fiber at different oxidation times.
The large reductions in tensile strength with increases of the gasification time are attributed to the large number of micropits on the fiber surfaces generated due to the severity of the oxidation. The higher void content also contributes to strength degradation. Overall, the oxidative effect results in a higher amount of surface defects, which leads to a reduction in the tensile strength and lateral crystallite size, as demonstrated above.
The average fiber diameter (D), elastic moduli (E), and tensile strength (
Fiber sample | Diameter | Elastic modulus | Tensile strength |
---|---|---|---|
Virgin | 7.5 ± 0.2 | 197 ± 18 | 3.4 ± 0.4 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min | 7.2 ± 0.1 (−4%) | 200 ± 4 (+2%) | 3.0 ± 0.3 (−10%) |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min | 7.1 ± 0.2 (−5%) | 189 ± 9 (−4%) | 2.7 ± 0.3 (−20%) |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-90 min | 6.6 ± 0.6 (−12%) | 178 ± 5 (−10%) | 2.4 ± 0.4 (−30%) |
Average diameter and mechanical properties of the fibers analyzed as function of the oxidation time.
In spite of the remarkable specific properties mentioned above, fracture of fiber-reinforced composite materials tends to occur in a brittle way due to their low capacity for plastic deformation and relatively low fracture toughness. In combination with the fiber/matrix interface, fiber fracture plays a role on the ultimate failure stress and energy dissipation mechanisms in brittle unidirectional composites. However, this property is less widely reported owing to the experimental difficulties associated with evaluation fracture in small-diameter fibers.
The methodology used consists on the introduction of artificial notches in the fibers by removing material using a focused ion beam (FIB) (Figure 6) [26, 27, 28]. A fine tungsten pin covered with liquid gallium (Ga) is used as an ion source from which Ga atoms are extracted and ionized via high voltage. This methodology allows precise monitoring of the notch geometry in terms of length, depth, and tip radius.
Fiber-milling system by focused ion beam (FIB).
Straight and sharp notches perpendicular to the fiber axis were introduced, as shown in Figure 7. The fiber diameter and the notch length of each test specimen were measured with a SEM associated to the FIB apparatus. Once the notch was milled into the fiber, the fibers were submitted to uniaxial loading up to failure in similar form as for the plain tensile strength tests described previously.
SEM micrographs the milling procedure; (a) original fiber; (b) gallium ions focusing and (c) notched fiber.
The fracture process started from the crack tip induced by FIB milling, and the response was also linear and elastic up to failure. The residual strength of the notched fiber was determined from the failure load and the corresponding area of the cross section of the fiber. The mode-I apparent fracture toughness, KIC, was evaluated from the residual strength based on Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) postulates. It is assumed that neither the small crack tip radius (≈50 nm) nor the possible material modification induced during the milling will excessively affect the fracture behavior of the fiber, and thus, the result can be considered a good approximation of the real material property. Hence, the failure of the fiber is dictated by
where
The critical energy release rate, or fracture energy,
where
where σ0 is the average tensile strength of the Weibull statistics given by
The function
The average fracture toughness and fracture energies obtained for virgin and recycled fibers, at different oxidation times, are given in Table 4. The small value of the plastic radius compared to the fiber diameter demonstrates the validity and applicability of LEFM postulates. Very large reductions in fracture toughness and fracture energy (in the order of 50% for
Fiber sample | a0/D | Apparent fracture toughness | Apparent fracture energy | Irwin plastic radius |
---|---|---|---|---|
Virgin | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 2.4 ± 0.5 | 24 ± 8 | 0.19 ± 0.01 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min | 0.10 ± 0.03 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 8 ± 3 | 0.15 ± 0.06 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min | 0.15 ± 0.02 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 7 ± 4 | 0.20 ± 0.03 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-90 min | 0.12 ± 0.02 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 4 ± 1 | 0.15 ± 0.03 |
Geometry and mechanical properties of the pristine and the recovered fibers for different gasification times.
Given the results achieved in terms of tensile strength and fracture toughness, it can be concluded that the optimal recycling process conditions consist on a thermolysis step at 500°C, for 6 h followed by gasification step for another 30 min. These conditions result in retentions of 100% of fiber elastic modulus and 90% of fiber tensile strength, although the brittleness of the fibers is seriously increased.
Remanufacturing of unidirectional composites was pursued with the optimal fibers resulting from the optimization of the recycling process (thermolysis at 500°C for 6 h and oxidation at 500°C for 30 min). This section describes the adopted fabrication route and the preliminary evaluation of the mechanical performance of the resulting laminates.
A tow-spreading technique was used to compact the nearly unidirectional fiber tows in order to obtain a high fiber volume fraction in plies of thin thickness. The fibers passed through a spreading machine, which is equipped with an air duct and rolls (Figure 8). The air pressure can be regulated and flows between two guide rolls, making the tows sag downward toward the air direction. This creates a momentary free tension stage that allows the tow to be spread.
Tow-spreading equipment.
Afterward, the resin film infusion technique (RFI) was used for manufacturing new laminates. In this way, the recycled fiber tows were laid down next to each other to complete a thin fiber bed layer. The fiber layers were interleaved with layers of semi-solid epoxy resin film Letoxit® LFX 060 [30] for subsequent consolidation. The fibers/resin consolidation is characterized by three major steps: intimate contact, adhesion, and fiber impregnation. The configurations carried out were [2x rCF layer/2x LFX 060 film/ …], with three LFX 060 film epoxy sheets placed on the top and bottom layer (the number of repetitions depends on the desired thickness). The final kit was introduced in a close-mold and cured in a hot-plate press, applying pressure (0.7 MPa) and heat (125°C for 25 min) simultaneously. The steps followed to make a laminate are depicted in Figure 9. It was then confirmed that the degree of resin curing was optimal by means of Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) tests.
Staking sequence: (a) recycled carbon fiber layer; (b) LFX 060 film; (c) laminate after 2 h in the thermal plate; and (d) laminate in the close-molding.
The quality of the composites recycled according to the methodology described above was evaluated by means of ultrasonic C-scan laminates. It was confirmed that the laminates were free of major porous, voids, or delaminations.
Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) were carried to evaluate the composition of the laminates. It was determined that the nominal fiber volume fraction, Vf, was approximately 50%, a value not far from the typical Vf ≈ 60–65% of high-performance unidirectional composites.
As means of rapidly assessing the mechanical performance of the remanufactured laminates, their interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) was evaluated by means of Short Beam Shear tests. This consists on flexural testing method using a very short beam relative to its thickness in order to promote interlaminar shear failure [31]. According to the test standard ASTM D2344 [32], all specimens (27 × 9 × 4.5 mm3) were loaded in a three-point bending configuration. The interlaminar shear strength was calculated using the equation:
where
This chapter dealt with the study of recycling technologies, of properties of the recovered fibers, and of the composites formed from these fibers. Regarding the recycling methodology, a thermolysis process at 500°C, for 6 h, followed by an oxidation/gasification step in air atmosphere at the same temperature, for 30 min, has been found to constitute the optimum recycling process. The combination of pyrolysis and gasification provides high process reliability, repeatability, product quality, and cost reduction. Moreover, remanufacture of composites was successfully achieved. As a whole, this constitutes a complete process of recycling carbon fibers that significantly reduces the environmental footprint and improves the life cycle of lightweight CFRP structures.
Regarding the properties of the recovered fibers, an oxidation time of 30 min leads to a full retention of elastic modulus and a 90% retention of tensile strength, relatively to pristine fibers. Longer gasification times lead to more significant decreases in these properties and undesirable alterations in the atomic composition of the surface of the fiber (increase of the O/C ratio). Moreover, the fracture toughness of the recycled fibers was found to decrease significantly, independently of the oxidation time. These results still have to be investigated but are judged not to impact the properties of the remanufacture composites.
With respect to the composites remanufacturing process, tow-spreading of the unidirectionally aligned recycled fibers followed by means of resin film infusion is postulated to be an appropriate method in terms of resulting ply thickness, disposition of the fiber, fiber/resin ratio, and porosity control. It provides a potential solution to prepreg production scraps with enhanced quality assurance, resulting in the reduction of toxic emissions. The resulted laminates presented similar fiber content and interlaminar shear properties as compared to the brand new composites.
The authors are grateful to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for support via the projects HYDTCOMP (MAT2015-69491) and R3FIBER (CTM2013-48887). A.F. gratefully acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports for financial funding through the FPU Fellowship. C.S.L. acknowledges the support of the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness through the Ramón y Cajal fellowship (grant RYC-2013-14271). The help of Miguel Herráez and Dr. Miguel Castillo in the experimental work is also acknowledged.
Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a congenital malformation of diaphragm, which leads to a defect in separation between the thoracic and abdominal cavities [1, 2]. It appears to be due to an error in the development of the pleuro-peritoneal canals and therefore develops around 6 weeks of gestation [1]. Its incidence is 1:3000 live births. Progress in the management of these patients has significantly increased survival rates (up to 90% [3]), but disease-related morbidity remains very high: the main problem is the compression exerted by the herniated viscera on the developing lungs, development, which causes pulmonary hypoplasia and hypertension [4].
CDH can be classified, depending on the location of the defect, into postero-lateral, or Bochdalek’s hernia (70–75%), anterior or Morgagni’s hernia (23–28%) and central or hiatal hernia (2–7%) [4]. Morgagni’s hernia is often discovered incidentally in older children, as it rarely causes such a mass effect on the thoracic level as to compromise the development of the lungs. Bochdalek’s hernia is the form that is classically referred to when talking about this pathology and to which we will refer accordingly in the next paragraphs (26). Most often it is located on the left side (85%), but it can also be right (13%) or bilateral (2%) [4].
The pathogenesis of CDH is complex and currently still little known. Some studies have shown that pulmonary hypoplasia in these patients arises before the development of the diaphragm itself. This discovery opened the door to the so-called “double hit theory” which sees pulmonary hypoplasia as the result of two insults: the first, affecting both lungs, would be due to genetic and environmental factors (for example alcohol, smoking, obesity, low intake of retinoids during pregnancy); the second, which would affect only the lung ipsilateral to the defect, would consist of the compressive effect of the herniated viscera and their interference with normal fetal respiratory movements. Multiple studies have demonstrated the importance of the genetic component in the pathogenesis of ECD: they often fall within syndromic pictures, and about 40% of cases are associated with other congenital anomalies, especially cardiovascular (11–15% of ECD) [4].
Given the potential severity of the disease, prenatal counseling represents a fundamental phase of the diagnostic-therapeutic process of CDH: parents must be adequately informed about all the steps to be taken and the risks in terms of mortality and morbidity.
Ultrasound currently represents the gold standard in CDH diagnosis, although it has been calculated that less than two-thirds of CDHs are detected on prenatal screening ultrasound scans. The mean gestational age at diagnosis is 24–25 weeks, more advanced in cases of isolated defects than in CDHs associated with other anomalies. The typical ultrasound sign is the presence of abdominal organs (intestinal loops, stomach, liver) in the chest. Indirect signs of CDH can be changes in the heart axis, polyhydramnios, mediastinal shift. The differential diagnosis includes all congenital pulmonary malformations, bronchial atresia, intestinal duplications and mediastinal masses [5, 6]. The execution of genetic tests and second-level imaging tests is essential for defining the prenatal management strategy, whether it is inclined towards termination of pregnancy, or whether it is oriented towards fetal therapies. One of the main prognostic factors is represented by the lung to head ratio (LHR), which by measuring the length of the lung contralateral to the hernia normalized for the head circumference, provides an indirect estimate of pulmonary hypoplasia. More specifically, since the LHR changes with advancing gestational age, we prefer to use the ratio between observed LHR and expected LHR (observed/expected LHR or o/and LHR).
One or/and LHR <25% is indicative of severe hypoplasia, while one/and LHR of 25–35% or an LHR of 35–45% with herniated liver are indicative of moderate hypoplasia. In fact, another prognostic factor is represented by the position of the liver: since the liver and the fetal lung are poorly distinguishable ultrasonographically, there may be an indication to perform a fetal magnetic resonance [3, 4, 5, 6]. It allows to evaluate not only the presence or absence of liver in the thoracic cavity, but also to quantify the observed/expected total fetal lung volume (or/and TFLV), which was a better predictor in terms of postnatal survival. As an alternative to magnetic resonance evaluation of the or/and TFLV, some authors have demonstrated a close relationship between the liver herniation, the position of the stomach (which being anechoic is much more easily identifiable) and the postnatal outcome. Finally, given the high frequency with which EDC is associated with cardiovascular anomalies, there is an indication to perform fetal echocardiography [7, 8].
The prenatal management of fetuses affected by CDH essentially provides for an ultrasound monitoring of the ultrasound parameters described above, associated in doubtful cases with second level examinations such as resonance. In recent years, however, fetal therapy has become increasingly popular on the international scene, indicated in cases where negative prognostic factors are detected in screening investigations (liver herniation, LHR <1.0). The purpose of these interventions is essentially to stop the mechanisms that induce the onset of complications such as pulmonary hypoplasia and pulmonary hypertension as early as possible. The technique currently most used is fetal tracheal occlusion (FETO): it is based on the principle that the occlusion of the trachea prevents the leakage of fluids, increasing the pressure in the airways and promoting lung growth. However, animal models have shown that tracheal occlusion reduces the maturation of type II pneumocytes, inducing a surfactant deficiency: for this reason the so-called “plug-unplug” sequence was devised, in which the patency of the trachea is first interrupted by the introduction of a balloon (or plug) and then re-established before delivery to allow lung maturation. This procedure can be performed percutaneously under ultrasound guidance or fetoscopy, typically between 27 and 32 weeks of gestational age, with the plug removed at 34 weeks. This procedure appears to be associated with increased survival in children with moderate and severe CDH, although further risk-benefit studies are certainly needed.
In children with CDH, the only medical treatment for which there is evidence of efficacy is corticosteroid therapy: maternal administration of one or two doses of corticosteroids at 34–36 weeks of gestation appears to be correlated with a reduction in respiratory morbidity at birth. Promising studies are also underway on the prenatal use of retinoids and phosphodiesterase inhibitors (Sildenafil) and on the use of stem cells from amniotic fluid in combination with FETO [4].
The optimal timing and modality of delivery for children with CDH are still under discussion today. There seem to be no indications for induced delivery before 38 weeks of gestation, as well as there do not seem to be any advantages in performing a cesarean section. On the other hand, a unanimous consensus was found on the importance of planning the birth in a third-level center, where a multidisciplinary group (gynecologists, neonatologists, surgeons and pediatric anesthetists) is available, capable of managing the disease [4].
At birth, the main objective must be to ensure adequate ventilatory support (without triggering a vasospasm or further lung damage) and induce not too deep sedation (which would further compromise respiratory function). In case of respiratory distress, endotracheal intubation is carried out directly: in fact, ventilation with a facial mask must be avoided, as it would lead to distension of the stomach and intestinal loops, worsening the respiratory dynamics.
For the same principle, the positioning of a nasogastric tube is indicated at the same time, in order to decompress the stomach as much as possible. It is considered acceptable to maintain reduced saturation levels and a certain degree of hypercapnia, as long as the pH is kept above 7.2: in the presence of acidosis, in fact, vascular resistance would increase and consequently the risk of pulmonary hypertension. Another major problem in these patients is hemodynamic instability: to assess the need for inotropic support, these patients must be continuously monitored from a pressure point of view and postnatal echocardiography (within 48 h of life) must be performed if necessary repeated at 2–3 weeks. The indication for the ECMO, as a bridge to surgery in the most compromised patients, is still much debated. One of the biggest challenges remains the management of pulmonary hypertension: currently the most widely used treatment is inhaled nitric oxide, although encouraging new studies are underway on the use of Sildenafil [2, 4, 5].
Surgical treatment of CDH should be planned in election, after the achievement of hemodynamic stability. The only case in which it is acceptable to perform an emergency operation is when there are signs of ischemia of the herniated intestinal loops. As for the surgical technique, this can be performed openly (in thoracotomy or laparotomy) or by minimally invasive techniques. The intervention consists in the repositioning of the herniated organs within the abdomen and consequently in the closure of the defect, which can be primary or with a patch depending on the size of the defect. Minimally invasive techniques and the use of a patch were associated with a higher relapse rate [3, 4].
In light of the increased survival of newborns with CDH, long-term outcomes, especially in terms of quality of life, have assumed increasing importance over time. The most compromised organs are certainly the lungs: in addition to the well-known pulmonary hypertension, these children experience alterations both in a restrictive sense (due to pulmonary hypoplasia) and in an obstructive sense (similar to bronchodysplasia of the premature infant) [8]. Pulmonary function seems to gradually restore during childhood, but recent studies have shown a slight deterioration of the same from childhood to adulthood. The respiratory system is not the only one affected by this disease. Gastroesophageal reflux is present in 45–89% of children with CDH and appears to be correlated with the size of the defect. Stunted growth is also a frequent finding, affecting 69% of these children at 1 year of age. Neurological alterations (in terms of delay in neurodevelopment but also sensorineural deafness) represent one of the most feared and also most frequent complications of CDH, with incidence rates ranging from 12 to 77%, especially in children undergoing ECMO. Finally, musculoskeletal deformities (chest anomalies, hemithorax asymmetries, scoliosis) were reported in 21–48% of patients treated for CDH [3].
All this, together with the fact that a good percentage of CDHs fall into syndromic pictures or are associated with other congenital anomalies, justifies the importance of a long-term follow-up program.
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