Familiarity and Expertise of RAFC and non-RAFC
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3854",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Soil is an irreplaceable resource that sustains life on the planet, challenged by food and energy demands of an increasing population. Therefore, soil contamination constitutes a critical issue to be addressed if we are to secure the life quality of present and future generations. Integrated efforts from researchers and policy makers are required to develop sound risk assessment procedures, remediation strategies and sustainable soil management policies. Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination provides a wide depiction of current research in soil contamination and risk assessment, encompassing reviews and case studies on soil pollution by heavy metals and organic pollutants. The book introduces several innovative approaches for soil remediation and risk assessment, including advances in phytoremediation and implementation of metabolomics in soil sciences.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1235-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4235-5",doi:"10.5772/57086",price:169,priceEur:185,priceUsd:219,slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-soil-contamination",numberOfPages:920,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"88e43f7e0affb0c1ba3eccf8675e10f2",bookSignature:"Maria C. 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Hernández-Soriano is a UQ Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Queensland. She received her PhD degree in 2009 from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium) within an international agreement with the Spanish National Research Council. Her research addressed mobility and bioavailability of pesticides and heavy metals in relevant environmental scenarios such as agricultural wastewater-irrigated soils or heavy metal contaminated soils. She continued her research as postdoctoral at the KULeuven. In 2010-2011 she visited North Carolina State University (USA) as a Fulbright Postdoctoral Fellow and conducted research in carbon sequestration by metal complexation. 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Emerging efforts to provide food safety and quality has led to a grown number of quality assurance schemes both at national and international levels. To this end, several “new” alternatives eliminate a number of concerns towards industrial food production and distribution. These “alternative foods” options include labels such as local, natural, organic, and more recently, paleo. Advocates of these movements are against any industrialization of the food chain, its production, and distribution. This system is based on two major elements, namely: (i) food mileage and carbon footprint and (ii) non-industrialization of the food chain. It is obvious that support for the local economy and country of origin are by-products of such system.
The organic market moved from a niche market to a mainstream market in the last two decades. This trend originated in the nineties, following a number of food scares in the conventional sector. The global market for organic products was approximated at US $18 billion in 2000, then US $23 billion in 2002, then increased by 43% reaching US $33 billion in 2005, and US $50 billion in 2008 [40, 36]. In the last decade, double-digit growth rates were observed each year [41]. Further, there are 633,891 farms managing 31 million hectares of “organic” land [40]. Although organic agriculture is now going mainstream, its credibility might be jeopardized as the production methods and processes are being industrialized [4]. Padel and Foster [26] claim that “
Aside from hardcore consumers that are very knowledgeable, others are still not well educated about the meaning of alternative food labels. Although there is a lack of a widely accepted single definition of these new alternative food concepts, there are serious attempts to provide clear bounds to this label. In fact, radial distance, such as 100 miles, replaced ambiguous characteristics such as political lines of distinction [39] or distinct characteristics of people and places [3]. In addition, Geographical Indication Labels (GIs) provide a clear signal to identify a local product. The European Union, for instance, recognizes two basic categories of GIs: the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and the Protected Geographical Indications (PGI). These labels help consumers not only recognize where the product comes from but also the production methods used [15].
The use of the term “organic” is restricted to farms, products, processors, and other intermediaries in the value chain between production and consumption, which have been certified by Certifying Bodies. The USDA United Stated Department of Agriculture. The Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL)
Besides ensuring no use of genetic engineering, pesticides, additives, or fertilizers, local food labels should provide the consumer the value related to operation size, as well as distribution. In other words, buying local food should contribute to protecting the local farming economy, as well as the environment by reducing “food miles”. In addition, culture is another important dimension which might be considered in defining local foods. Besides associating terroir and local food products with PGI, PDO, TSG (Traditional Specialty Guaranteed), food baskets, distributor’s own label, or slow food, Bérard and Marchenay [5] underline the concept of localized food, which is based on the cultural dimension [20]. Consumers, particularly locavores, are becoming considerate not only about where their food comes from and production processes but also the way the food is made and creative versions of regional food classics of each season [12]. That said, it is important to consider what consumers qualify as “locally grown” since it determines differentiation patterns and, consequently, profits [9].
Labels like “local”, “natural”, “paleo”, “pesticide-free”, and “ecologically friendly” are not regulated and tend to be used by small farms catering to local or regional clientele. With the exception of marketing board-regulated products like dairy or chicken, production and handling of foods sold under these labels are for the most part not monitored or regulated, except by governmental agencies and district health units, and then only in terms of health/safety inspections and only as required by law. As a result, information on farms operating outside of the organic certification system is scattered and incomplete. Lastly, “organic” foods have to be differentiated from “functional” foods [35]. Organic foods tend to be regulated and are based on supply side value while functional foods are not very regulated and are based on demand side value. While both types of product are marketed to achieve the same objective (i.e., healthy products), the market positioning is very different.
Studying what determines consumer preferences for local food, as well as organic food, has been the concern of numerous studies in different countries [26, 6].
Aprile et al. [2] piloted a segmentation analysis of olive oil consumers in order to analyze consumers’ attitude towards local produce in Naples, Italy. They identified four clusters of local food consumers: local traditionalist, local ecologist, local fans, and local health conscious. Results show that seven factors explain consumer attitudes towards local food consumption: health concerns, altruism, environmental concerns, local habitual, local origin, certification, and specialties. Willingness-to-pay for PDO and PGI labels and other quality signals vary across the different identified segments. Similarly, Aguirre [1] conducted a comparative synthesis of the organic consumer profile in four different locations, US, Canada, Europe, and Costa Rica, based on three criteria: socio-demographics, purchase motivations, and main concern. The results indicate important similarities among the US, Canada, and Europe organic consumer with the Costa Rican consumer. Particularly in the four locations, the purchase motivations relate to health, environment, no-use of chemical, some concern about ethical issues, and helping farmers. Despite some differences in the barriers to purchase, consumers in all four locations state factors such as price and availability or unstable supply.
The importance of consuming local food is increasingly converging across different countries and cultures. Green et al. [16] conducted a study in four European countries (Finland, Germany, Italy, and UK) and the results of the study reveal the relative importance of risk associated with consuming conventional industrialized food, as well as the issue of provenance of food as a key element of the cultural framework in all countries. This highlights the fact that consumers seek alternative food as a way to reduce this risk and the importance of trust to facilitate choices in complex choice situations. Consequently, in making complex decision choices, consumers tend to use “pragmatic decision aids” rooted in cultural frameworks, as well as “craft skills”, in order to assess food quality [16].
When it comes to understanding the main reasons for organic food consumption, Tarkiainen and Sundqvist [34] suggest that it is a way of life connected to a particular value system that affects attitudes, and consumption behavior. Padel and Foster [26] tried to ascertain those underlying values taking into account differences among consumers in terms of frequency of purchase and demographics (gender, marital status, number of children, etc.). Those values include enjoyment, unity with nature, respect for nature, taking care of family, benevolence, etc. More specifically, organic food-sales volume increase is due to consumers’ self-interest motives that are predominant (e.g., personal health, high food quality, and taste). These are widely cited in the literature as the key factors to explain consumers’ purchasing decision of organic food [24, 42]. However, it has been argued that organic food consumers might also have altruistic motives (e.g., environmentally friendly, animal welfare, fair trade). In Canada, organic food consumers mainly identify health and the environment, as well as support of local farmers, as main motives for their food consumption [19]. In the same vein, the Norm Activation Theory [29] explains altruistic behavior by feelings of moral obligation to act on one’s personal internalized norms. This theory is particularly relevant in explaining consumers’ attitudes towards organic food as an ethical food choice, which is based on political, ecological, and religious motives [21]. These political motives confirm Weber\'s [37] statement that human behavior is a way to affirm oneself and differentiate social status and belonging to groups.
Overall, growing consumer demand for alternative foods has been attributed to consumers’ concerns regarding nutrition, health, the environment, and the quality of their food [14, 23, 31]. Further, various studies conducted in Europe and the US have explored consumer behavior and have tackled the issue of determining consumers’ motivations and preferences for organic products [42, 38]. Although some consumers are environmentally conscious, most studies confirm the predominance of egocentric values like health, attitude towards taste, and freshness that influence alternative food choices [13, 42]. That said, Padel and Foster [26] show that motives and barriers may change with the purchasing frequency and across product categories. They distinguish between regular consumers who are generally families with at least one child suffering from asthma or food allergies and non-buyers who are more skeptical about organic food benefits and more sensitive to price premiums. They also highlight that consumers consider fruits and vegetables as the “key entry points” to the “organic experience”, followed by other categories such as eggs and dairy, grocery products, meats, and soft drinks. In addition, their study reveals that trust appears as an important factor in deciding where to buy. In fact, consumers trust more specialist organic or local shops rather than supermarkets and large corporations.
On the other hand, the main reasons that prevent consumers from buying alternative foods are expensiveness, limited availability, unsatisfactory quality, lack of trust, lack of perceived value, poor presentation (packaging, display) and misunderstanding of the production processes, and lack of information [13, 14, 23]. In fact, the lack of information is related to the ability of consumers to locate organic products, to learn about the organic certification process, in addition to their ability to identify an organic product. The easiest way is to look for the word “organic” on the label. However, some consumers are familiar with various organic labels and might choose based on other features such as “natural”. Conversely, previous research on the recent growth of consumer interest in local food shows that it is attributed to increased concerns with safety and accountability about food, in addition to a desire to support regional farmers, the local economic and natural environment. Consumers want to know where their food comes from and how it is grown or raised.
With the rapid growth of the organic supply, producers moved from traditional production methods to more industrialized production methods. Industrial farming addresses efficiently and effectively the challenges related to the cost and logistics of moving produced foods to national and global markets. Conventional food value chain applies an important downward pressure on price leading to the issues of profitability and productivity. This has resulted for some small farmers - concerned with the philosophical aspects of organic production – indiminished credibility of the organic standard and in a refusal to industrialize. These key contradictions lead to a “bifurcation” between market- and movement-oriented organic distribution systems since dedicated consumers continue to support alternative organic networks [28]. It has also hardened the value chain against entry by these small farmers. Hence, the challenge that the alternative food system is facing is a gap that spans between the consumerism/producerism system in place, the current food chain, and the alternative value delivery network/value chain.
Furthermore, this gap is broader between developed and developing countries. It is interesting to shed the light on similarities and differences between developed and developing countries in terms of the variables that might shape the buying behavior of organic foods consumers versus local foods consumers. As a matter of fact, there were almost 1.9 million organic producers in 2009, an increase of 31% since 2008, mainly due to a large increase in the production in India. Further, 40% of the world’s organic producers are in Asia, followed by Africa (28%), and Latin America (16%). In North America, Canada allocates 0.7 million hectares to organic production while the United States has 2 million hectares. This represents 7% of the world’s organic agricultural land.
One could infer that developing countries are increasingly concerned about providing food safety and all the ecological, social, and economic motivations behind adopting this option. However, some studies proved that “
The approach of the current study is based on an integrative production-distribution-consumption model (cf. Figure 1). There are three layers of decision in this model: (i) supply chain related to certification and production methods; (ii) value delivery network related to the channels of distribution broken down into three main categories, long or standard channel, short channels, and direct channels; and finally, (iii) the consumer behavior related to the psychographics influencing the consumption of alternative food.
Integrative Production-Distribution-Consumption Model
The tri-Party model shows the alternative food value that will be assessed in this study. Basically, consumers are assumed to have a certain
The current study aims to uncover the demand and supply side factors that affect the alternative foods supply chain and how value is created through the distribution channel and perceived by the final consumers. This value needs to be determined and estimated at the demand side level. Further, the logistics of the value delivery network need to be investigated. This will lead to an in-depth understanding of the value added in the alternative food distribution system, the current market structure, as well as its determinants. Further, building trust in the organic food (OF) supply requires more than just ensuring product quality and product knowledge, or labeling and setting proper pricing and communication strategies, as actually trust is missing at various levels of the marketing value delivery system and the food supply chain. The dimensions of trust necessary to achieve market growth have to be integrated to the OF product positioning and the distribution strategies. Moreover, this will provide a detailed assessment of the actual purchasing situation in the current distribution system, e.g., superstores, specialty stores, and farmers’ market. This analysis is done taking the perspective of both a developed country (Canada) and a developing country (Tunisia). This will help to understand the importance of the value delivery network in creating value added to the target market. Hence, the second objective is to explore the market responsiveness to the different distribution strategies used in developed and developing countries. In order to target more efficiently consumers, we need to provide a more precise and useful profile of these consumers, who they are, what they eat, how they buy, where they buy, and why they eat alternative foods. This will lead to an in-depth understanding of the major forces shaping the current market structure, as well as an understanding of the challenges faced by the main players of the alternative food industry.
Hence, our objectives can be summarized as follows:
Determine alternative food consumers’ purchasing behavior in terms of how consumers buy, where they buy, reasons to buy, attitudes, expertise, and trusted channels of distribution;
Compare consumers’ purchasing patterns of developed and developing countries; and
Cluster alternative food consumers with regard to their psychographics in both country types.
This operational model shows the alternative foods value that will be assessed in this study. Basically, as it is shown in Figure 2, consumers are assumed to have requests and preferences regarding food quality, freshness, environmental and economic impacts, and healthiness. This is assumed to depict a certain size of operations (country economic development). This in turn will impact the expertise and familiarity of these consumers with regard to alternative foods. These elements are the foundation of the motivation to buy alternative foods.
Operational Framework
Preferences will drive the motivation to buy alternative foods. It is assumed that beliefs, motivation, and attitudes are prerequisites to intentions to buy. Lastly, store image as defined above plays a moderating role here.
To address the study objectives, a quantitative design is required. The design will help profile consumers by country and their purchasing patterns. The conceptual framework depicted in Figure 1 has been developed to assess the alternative food consumption schemes. This in turn is expected to lead to the development of a second model that also takes into account the key factors shaping this new market. The former model has been tested using a structured questionnaire. Prior to developing the survey, secondary data was collected in Canada and Tunisia using major sources of information, as well as informal interviews with industry key players (experts, certifiers, and government representatives). These gatekeepers can provide the most recent and accurate information about the alternative food market and industry. Information obtained from these key players, while fairly comprehensive within its scope, is not necessarily accurate. This is illustrated by the example that in order to reach various target export markets, some farms, products, and businesses are certified by multiple bodies simultaneously.
The output of these interviews helped design the questionnaire. This latter is structured into three sections. The first section deals with consumers’ general opinion about organic food, consumption and shopping habits, and reasons for buying organic products (measured on a 5-point Likert scale). The second section of the survey measures consumers\' psychographics in terms of trust, beliefs, and attitudes (all measured on a 5-point Likert scale). Finally, the third section is structured to design a socio-demographic profile of our respondents. The survey was developed by selecting other case study questionnaires on the topic of alternative food marketing [27, 11, 32, 13, 17]. Prior to administering the survey, a pre-test was done and minor modifications were made. Quantitative data for this study has been analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). A total of 500 questionnaires were collected, and 480 questionnaires were usable. Data was cleaned and missing values were replaced using the mean. All variables were tested to check their internal consistency. Further, all reliability tests were coupled to a series of factor analyses to determine the structure of the data. Factor analyses also helped to test if the items were measuring the right constructs. Results from factor analysis and reliability analysis show good levels for an exploratory study [18].
To address the abovementioned objectives, alternative food consumers have been surveyed to assess their consumption behavior/patterns. Hence, a survey was administered to consumers in a developed country (Canada) and a developing country (Tunisia). The population targeted for this study is alternative food shoppers (organic food, certified organic food, local food, and fair trade food). For the purpose of gaining a good representation, respondents needed to fit within a specific profile. The idea was to randomly select alternative food consumers that make their purchase mainly at small producers’ farm gates, community farmers, farmers’ market, community groceries, specialty stores, and community chain stores. Further, they had to consume at least one of the following product categories: fruits, vegetables, dairy, bread, meat, and prepared food. They also had to be in charge of household grocery/food purchases. This being said, countries have been selected based on the stage of alternative food product’s life cycle. Further to this, it is well known that food is culture in developing countries while in developed countries, this is not the case [5].
The point of contact of data collection—point of respondent interception—was selected according to the value delivery network. It is obvious that developing countries present different marketing distribution patterns than developed countries. More precisely, the delivery chain differs as per (i) channel size and type, (ii) alternative food products variety, and (iii) channel position—number of layers in the distribution system. Developed countries align all types of channels of distribution while developing countries have limited distribution channels embodied mainly in the direct channels (producers) and, to a limited extent, in short channels (specialty stores). Lastly, there is a two-prong challenge related to surveying some of these distribution players: (i) limited availability of some alternative food, and (ii) the limited size of the population requires a large sample size sufficient enough to ensure consistency of the results without reaching any saturation.
Consumers have been profiled using the data collected from the respondents who indicated that they currently purchase alternative foods (mainly organic and local). Overall, the typical alterative food consumers are aged 25 to 35 years old (30.1%); single (63.3%); household composed of 4 to 5 persons (38.6%); have at least an undergraduate degree (51.5%); buy at least two organic food products (90.8%); eat mainly national country-based organic (32.1%); buy organic food mainly from supermarkets; and finally, consider price as the major determinant when buying alternative foods.
Consumers have been regrouped using their lifetime consumption. As per Cunningham\'s [8] work, if respondents have been buying alternative foods on a regular basis, then they are classified as regular alternative food consumers (RAFC); while if they haven’t been consuming alternative foods for a very short period of time, then they are tagged as non-regular alternative food consumers (non-RAFC). It is important to note here that alternative foods have been defined in broad terms of consuming either organic foods (certified, fair trade, local) or local (foods). Accordingly, respondents are distributed as follows: 63.1% of RAFC and 36.1% of non-RAFC. This means that a third of the consumers has been consuming alternative foods for more than a year while the rest of the sample have shorter experience with the product. Lastly, RAFC and non-RAFC are almost equally distributed on the Canadian sample, while in the Tunisian sample there are more non-RAFC (76.9%) than RAFC (23.1%).
Lifetime consumption could serve as a proxy to several indicators such as experience with the product, knowledge about the points of sales and price differentials, and level of trust. To corroborate this, several ANOVAs were run to check if there are significant differences between RAFC and non-RAFC in terms of their familiarity and expertise with regard to alternative foods. Results show that RAFC are more familiar than expert when compared to non-RAFC. These findings are summarized in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Familiarity with alternative foods | \n\t\t\t4.68 | \n\t\t\t3.21 | \n\t\t\t0.000* | \n\t\t
Expertise | \n\t\t\t3.76 | \n\t\t\t2.40 | \n\t\t\t0.000* | \n\t\t
Familiarity and Expertise of RAFC and non-RAFC
Given that the survey did not clearly define what alternative food is, it is assumed that respondents understand this concept. Further, there was no differentiation between local, local organic, fair trade organic, and certified organic. This is also evidenced by how respondents addressed the question related to alternative food preferences. In terms of local food consumption, 21.9% of respondents indicated they do purchase local organic food, 32.1% purchase national organic (Nationally produced – Canada or Tunisia), 7.3% buy certified organic, 4.3% buy fair trade organic foods, and 33.8% have no specific preference.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
National organic | \n\t\t\t11.9% | \n\t\t\t20.9% | \n\t\t
Certified organic | \n\t\t\t2.3% | \n\t\t\t5% | \n\t\t
Local organic | \n\t\t\t15.4% | \n\t\t\t6.5% | \n\t\t
Fair trade organic | \n\t\t\t0.8% | \n\t\t\t3.8% | \n\t\t
No preference | \n\t\t\t21.3% | \n\t\t\t12.3% | \n\t\t
Cross Tabulation: Country versus Product Preferences
Table 2 shows that RAFC and non-RAFC are mainly looking for the national and/or local food dimension. This downgrades certification and fair trade to lesser importance. These consumers are more hardcore alternative food consumers looking for good value products.
Further, when classifying these results by country, it is clear that consumers in developing countries do not clearly differentiate between the different types of alternative foods. This is mainly due to cultural food factors; the agricultural sector is not industrialized yet in developing countries. Consumers tend to associate agricultural production to local/national production. Imports are not as important as for developed countries. This is evidenced by the Chi-square test. It shows that there is an association between the country and alternative food preferences (
Furthermore, a simple mean analysis On a five-point Likert scale.
Question 10 of the survey measures consumers’ perception of the store offering and value. This is a very important indicator of the store impact on consumers’ choices. Table 3 shows that all dimensions are relatively important to all consumers; quality, convenience and services being the most important factors. Price is moderately important and presents the lowest score (3.51). The mode for all dimensions is 4 on a scale of 5. Hence, all criteria are considered by consumers but to different extents when buying alternative foods.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
It is convenient to do my shopping in this store | \n\t\t\t3.68 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
It offers a wide variety of products | \n\t\t\t3.60 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
It offers good quality products | \n\t\t\t3.82 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
It offers the services I am looking for | \n\t\t\t3.67 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
It offers good prices | \n\t\t\t3.51 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
Store Choice Mean Analysis
To complement these analyses, bivariate correlations were run to show that store choice is related to intentions to buy, attitudes, and reasons to buy. This proves the homogeneity and structure of the purchase behavior.
Lastly, an ANOVA was run to check if there are differences between developed and developing countries in terms of store choice. Results are not conclusive. However, even though there is no significant difference between both countries, it is interesting to note that consumers in developed countries have higher scores on all dimensions than developing countries. This clearly shows that the former countries have a stronger store image than the latter countries. This is mainly related to the degree of economic development and the structure and maturity of the value delivery network.
In the current study, the buying process is measured with a multi-step sequence starting with motivations, beliefs, reasons to buy, and ending with intentions to buy more alternative foods. This latter variable is dependent on attitudes that is, in turn, dependent on beliefs and reasons to buy. Attitudes are considered as a proxy for the final purchasing behavior. Two simple linear regressions were run to test the buying process. Before running the first regression, a factor analysis was run to determine the number of dimensions of the variable beliefs towards alternative foods. Results show two dimensions: one related to the intrinsic attributes such as taste and healthiness, and another one related to the extrinsic attributes such as price and the meaning of alternative foods.
Regression 1 tests the influence of the reasons to buy and beliefs (intrinsic and extrinsic) on attitudes (cf. Table 4).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Reasons to buy | \n\t\t\t0.000* | \n\t\t\t+0.394 | \n\t\t
Intrinsic beliefs | \n\t\t\t0.000* | \n\t\t\t+0.305 | \n\t\t
Extrinsic beliefs | \n\t\t\t0.069 | \n\t\t\t-0.049 | \n\t\t
Regression 1: Reasons and Beliefs on Attitudes
Reasons to buy and intrinsic beliefs are determinants of attitudes. Both explain 33.5% of the variance of this latter variable and both have a positive influence on attitude. It is important to note that consumers do not consider extrinsic beliefs when building their attitudes. This shows clearly that such consumers look more for a value rather than a product. Regression 2 tests the last link in the process, namely the influence of attitudes on the intentions to buy more alternative food products (cf. Table 5).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Attitude | \n\t\t\t0.000* | \n\t\t\t0.699 | \n\t\t
Regression 2: Reasons and Believes on Attitudes
As expected, attitudes have a positive effect on intentions to buy more alternative foods
It is important to test whether these results hold true for both countries. Several ANOVAs have been run to test differences and similarities between Canada (developed country) and Tunisia (developing country). All results are depicted in Table 6. It is obvious that there is no significant difference between both countries in terms of reasons to buy, attitudes, and intentions to buy. However, there is a difference in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic beliefs. It is also important to note that Canadians score higher than Tunisians on all variables except for extrinsic beliefs. This is in line with the previous regression results.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Belief – Intrinsic | \n\t\t\t3.70 | \n\t\t\t3.89 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Belief – Extrinsic | \n\t\t\t3.61 | \n\t\t\t3.36 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Reasons to buy | \n\t\t\t3.87 | \n\t\t\t3.90 | \n\t\t\t0.661 | \n\t\t
Attitudes | \n\t\t\t3.97 | \n\t\t\t4.00 | \n\t\t\t0.285 | \n\t\t
Intentions to buy more | \n\t\t\t3.72 | \n\t\t\t3.77 | \n\t\t\t0.543 | \n\t\t
ANOVA Inter-country Tests
Further, all consumers score relatively higher on attitudes and reasons to buy. As expected, the lowest scores are for extrinsic beliefs. As stated in the literature review, extrinsic beliefs do make more sense for developed countries than developing countries.
Since the main focus is to classify consumers with regard to their motivation, attitudes, beliefs, expertise, and their intentions to buy more alternative foods, various analyses were run. Therefore, cluster analysis and discriminant analysis are natural techniques to segment the alternative food market and discriminate between consumers. This approach is best suited to identify consumption and behavior patterns and create a consumer typology. Specifically, we are more interested in exploring differences in behavior between the segments than predetermining the number of segments.
Different combinations of socio-demographic indicators and psychographic variables have been implemented to determine with minimal bias an optimal segmentation strategy. The idea is to maximize intra-group homogeneity and intra-group heterogeneity. This allows for more robust profiling, as consumers behave in the same way when they belong to the same segment and behave differently if they belong to different segments. Note that homogeneity and heterogeneity are defined with regard to the segmenting variables. A good segmentation is defined as a segmentation strategy that maximizes both the inter-group homogeneity and intra-group heterogeneity. Conversely, a broad segmentation is defined as a segmentation strategy that minimizes both the inter-group homogeneity and intra-group heterogeneity.
Different combinations of socio-demographic indicators and psychographic variables have been used to segment the market. Several of these combinations show problems with either the intra-group homogeneity or the inter-group heterogeneity. Alternatively, for the purpose of having a good measure of intra-group heterogeneity, several ANOVAs were run to make sure that consumers in different segments have different profiles. All tests were conclusive.
Our aim here is to classify respondents based on their intentions to buy more alternative foods. Question 8 prompts respondents to rate their willingness to buy more alternative foods in the future. This has been done using a five-point itemized scale, with a median point of 3. A two-step cluster analysis was run. Results show that we have a good segmentation strategy with three distinct segments (cf. Table 7).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
High intentions to rebuy | \n\t\t\t27.8% | \n\t\t\t4.86 | \n\t\t
Moderate intentions to rebuy | \n\t\t\t58.7% | \n\t\t\t3.63 | \n\t\t
Low intentions to rebuy | \n\t\t\t13.6% | \n\t\t\t2.01 | \n\t\t
Cluster Analysis for Intentions to Buy More
Half of the consumers have moderate intention to rebuy alternative food in the future while a third of the respondents are more than willing to rebuy alternative foods in the future. Further, cross tabulations between the cluster membership and the type of alternative food consumers (RAFC–non-RAFC) show that there is an association between the type of consumers and their intentions to rebuy alternative foods. As expected, most of the high intentions to rebuy consumers are RAFC while most of the low intentions to rebuy consumers are non-RAFC.
The two-step cluster analysis shows one cluster with high scores on the five dimensions of reasons to buy, namely healthiness, taste, environmental friendliness, quality, and support for the local economy. Factor analysis confirms one dimension for reasons to buy. A simple mean analysis Measured on a five-point Likert scale.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Healthiness | \n\t\t\t4.01 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
Taste | \n\t\t\t3.59 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t
Environmental Friendliness | \n\t\t\t4.02 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
Quality | \n\t\t\t3.79 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
Support for the Local Economy | \n\t\t\t3.91 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t
Mean Analysis of Reasons to Buy
To investigate this finding more, several statistical checks were performed. One last cluster analysis was run to explore the effect of the country on the reasons to buy. It is interesting to see that there are two clusters intimately related to the country classification (cf. Table 9). These clusters are composed of consumers that have moderate to high reasons to buy.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Cluster size | \n\t\t\t52% | \n\t\t\t48% | \n\t\t
Clustering variable: Country | \n\t\t\t100% Canada | \n\t\t\t100% Tunisia | \n\t\t
Clustering variable: Reasons to buy | \n\t\t\t3.90 | \n\t\t\t3.87 | \n\t\t
Cluster Analysis for Country and Reasons to Buy
It is clear from Table 10 that true believers have positive extrinsic and intrinsic beliefs; while skeptics have the opposite beliefs. The third segment is a hybrid segment that has high intrinsic beliefs and low extrinsic beliefs.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Segment 1: Skeptics | \n\t\t\tLow | \n\t\t\tMedium | \n\t\t\t29.6% | \n\t\t
Segment 2: True believers | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\t45.7% | \n\t\t
Segment 3: Hybrids | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tMedium | \n\t\t\t24.7% | \n\t\t
Cluster Analysis for Beliefs Toward Alternative Foods
To investigate these findings more and to get plausible explanations, cross-tabulations with the type of consumers have been run (cf. Table 11). A third of the respondents are true believers and new RAFC (non-RAFC) 14.4% are RAFC. Further, there are almost three times more non-RAFC skeptics than RAFC skeptics. Lastly, there is an even distribution of non-RAFC hybrids and RAFC hybrids. These findings are in line with the results presented above. There is a strong association between the segments and the type of consumers
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Skeptics | \n\t\t\t17.6% | \n\t\t\t6.9% | \n\t\t
True believers | \n\t\t\t31.2% | \n\t\t\t14.4% | \n\t\t
Hybrids | \n\t\t\t15.3% | \n\t\t\t14.6% | \n\t\t
Cross-tabulations of Type of Consumers and Belief Clusters
Combining country and familiarity to beliefs leads to the following segments (cf. Table 12):
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Cluster 1 | \n\t\t\tTunisia | \n\t\t\tMedium | \n\t\t\tMedium | \n\t\t\tMedium | \n\t\t
Cluster 2 | \n\t\t\tCanada 1 | \n\t\t\tLow | \n\t\t\tMedium | \n\t\t\tMedium | \n\t\t
Cluster 3 | \n\t\t\tCanada 2 | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tMedium | \n\t\t
Cluster Analysis for a Combination of Variables
This clustering strategy shows that extrinsic beliefs are not important regardless of the country. Further, results show that there is only one cluster in Tunisia that scores medium on all variables. This could be explained by the fact that the food culture is not based on food concerns. As mentioned above, there is not industrialization of the agricultural sector. Conversely, Canada presents two opposite profiles: (i) consumers familiar with alternative food products and have expertise to assess these products,-these consumers have moderate to high beliefs; and (ii) consumers that have limited expertise regarding alternative foods, and have negative beliefs.
This exploratory study has academic and practical implications to both producers/distributors and consumers. Even though alternative food has not been clearly defined in the study, results show that consumers buying local foods and fair trade or local/national organic have a purchasing behavior slightly different from what is known in the current literature. Using familiarity and expertise (lifetime consumption) as a segmentation variable provides several insights on the current behavior of RAFC. Results show that RAFC are hard-core consumers. As a matter of fact, lifetime consumption has been used as a proxy of several other psychographic indicator such as trust, reasons to buy, beliefs, and intentions to buy more. Further, this adds to the classical segmentation strategy that has been used so far in the literature. For instance, compared with [22], our clustering strategy provides more insight into the why, who, and what alternative consumers buy.
Each segment exhibits a separate and distinct behavior from the other segments. RAFC are habitual purchasing consumers and non-RAFC are variety-seeking consumers. First, when buying alternative food products, RAFC are making straight habitual purchases and have their own purchasing scheme. They are characterized as consumers who are motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic attributes but only by intrinsic beliefs. This explains why these consumers have strong principle-oriented lifestyles as they also look for locally produced products and/or purchases that might help the local economy. They also care about the product quality and the healthiness. As expected, these consumers are 18 to 35, single, and educated. Gender is not determinant here; males and females exhibit the same behavior. Further to that, they buy all types of OF products ranging from fruits, vegetables, and dairy to meat. Second, non-RAFC buy alternative foods occasionally; for less than a year. For these consumers, the main reason to buy alternative foods is healthiness. However, there is a significant difference between RAFC and non-RAFC in terms of taste and environmental healthiness of alternative foods. These consumers do not perceive significant differences between alternative food and conventional food. Non-RAFC seem to have a basic trust structure. This is in accordance with [32, 19]. For instance, non-RAFC base their trust on the information available at the point of purchase because they do not collect information to build their knowledge based on OF. These consumers are not fully principle oriented.
One of the main forces that affect the current state of the market is food culture. As per Figure 1, food culture is dependent on the economic development of the country. In the context of the current study, food culture is a by-product of the industrialization or non-industrialization of the agricultural sector. In developing countries, the agricultural sector is using basic production techniques leading to the production of small quantities. These findings need to be related to the product life cycle. For instance, the organic market is driven by conventional marketing strategies and is consistently looking to standardization of the supply. This defeats the intrinsic sustainability objective of such products. This study shows the importance of the production operations and the distribution logistics. There is a clear differentiation between developed countries (using all possible distribution channels) and developing countries (using less complex distribution schemes and shorter channels). The channels reflect a certain market reality. Consumers buy from long channels because of convenience and price. They offer a local value targeted toward a certain consumer profile; these are customers that buy alternative foods for health reasons. Conversely, short channels are production method driven. These channels serve consumers that have a principle-oriented lifestyle; thus, the support of the local economy is the main drive of this market demand. Price is not an issue here.
One of the limitations of the study has been that consumers might not
To recapitulate, the starting point of the marketing model depicted in Figure 3 starts with the market needs. Depending on the degree of consistency of the need and the knowledge level of the target market, there are two schemes: habitual consumers (RAFC) and variety seeking consumers (non-RAFC). The more the consumers know about their needs, the more they will look for an enhanced value capturing mainly intrinsic beliefs. These consumers will look for basic channels offering quality, convenience, and services. Conversely, if consumers have limited knowledge but are driven by social consciousness (sustainability and helping the local economy), then they will buy from longer channels (specialized, community grocery stores) under the impression that food is local.
Final Model
Alternative food research is an area of study with a vast number of possible areas of future research. Local farmers will find value in knowing that market potential does exist for their product, and consumers are expressing an interest in purchasing locally produced food in short channels of distribution. Their motivation to buy local food products is not driven by fear and concerns over food products but rather by quality, healthiness, and support for the local economy. In terms of channels of distribution, it is obvious that convenience and service are key for the channels choice. These two factors are a proxy for trust. This result is consistent with the findings from the study conducted in Ontario [25], which also found a willingness to buy local food products if available in more conventional stores.
Although consistent with other research that has profiled a typical local food consumer, farmers should not solely target the typical demographic profile (well-educated woman with above average income and family) but should consider the importance of product attributes to all consumers when creating their marketing approach. For example, knowing that a product is locally produced, and promoting it based on quality indicators (e.g., nutrition, health benefits, taste, and reduced food mileage) might be a better strategy than just focusing on the typical local foods consumer. Contrary to the existing literature on sustainability, and the concept of embeddedness, this study did not indicate that the consumer\'s concerns and/or fears changed the consumer’s decision to buy local. While the study does reveal that concerns have altered the purchasing patterns and behaviors of consumers, these concerns about foods might relate more to the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) crisis for example than the fear of the globalized food system. Further exploration of the reasoning behind the decision to buy local could be explored in order to determine if social theory and the desire to purchase sustainable products plays a role in consumers\' decision-making.
One of the most striking characteristics of human beings is the diversities. Different ways of being, thinking and existing, different needs, world views, ethical positions mark the relationships between people. In this sense, interpersonal conflicts are understood as tension that involves different interests or positions, are inherent to human relationships, and are present in various social organizations, among them, the school.
The school as microcosms of society brings together different views of the world, different ways of being, thinking, and living, thus becoming a space for representing social differences and being a place where different conflicts occur daily. Dealing with this situation type requires learning and that is why teachers need training in conflict management so that they can correctly manage the classroom conflicts and educate also your students for conflict management.
Recognizing that the school is an organization that brings together social diversity and adopting as an assumption that interpersonal conflicts are inherent to human relationships, we define the school conflicts as this chapter theme. In this sense, this chapter addresses school conflicts with a focus on classroom conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. In the first part, a brief reference is made to the conflict. This is followed by a review of the bibliography on school/classroom conflict causes.
Due to its intrinsic characteristics, school is a favorable medium for conflict situations development. So, the conflict in the education system can be seen from the dialectic between the macrostructure of the education system, the general policies oriented towards it, and the management processes that prevail in each school [1].
The conflict presents formative possibilities, since the perception of the differences existing between people/or groups and their needs, values, ideas, and different ways of living are essential to a democratic society [2]. In this sense, it is important to enhance positive conflict characteristics and reduce the negative ones. So, the difficulty in resolving conflicts is largely due to the difficulties existing between those involved in the conflict to be able to communicate effectively. Therefore, the constructive and educational potential of conflicts depends largely on the skills of those involved. Thus, knowing how to communicate, and respecting the rights of others and existing differences are essential for conflicts to revert to social and human development benefits.
The concern with improving coexistence in schools, centred on the conflict variable, is addressed in different studies, whose objectives mark both understanding the school conflict [3, 4, 5, 6], as well as preventing its occurrence [7]. Since it is impossible to eliminate school conflicts, it is essential and urgent to reduce their intensity, duration, and severity, so that the teaching and learning process is not harmed. In this sense, this chapter addresses also the strategies used to manage classroom conflict, and some examples of programs that work these skills on teachers and students.
The conflict is defined and classified from different perspectives, and its definition can differ, in context, process, intervention, and study areas [1, 8]. Conflict is a phenomenon of incompatibility between individuals or groups with irreconcilable ends and/or values between them, considering it a social process [1]. For this author, four elements are present and must be addressed in all conflicts: the causes that give rise to it; the conflict protagonists; the process and the way the protagonists face the conflict; and the context in which it occurs. In turn, Chrispino [9] understands conflict as to any divergent opinion or a different way of seeing or interpreting an event, that is, the conflict originates in the difference of interests, desires, aspirations, or positions between individuals. He adds that conflicts can arise from difficulties in communication and assertiveness.
In this way, we can say that there is a conflict when two or more people interact with each other and perceive incompatible differences, or threats to their resources, needs, or values and when they respond according to what was perceived, then the ideal conditions for conflict are created. The conflict intensity, duration, or severity can then increase or decrease depending on the strategies used to resolve it. Regardless of the different conflict definitions, there is no conflict if the individuals involved are not aware of its existence. This conclusion is consensual to the majority of the definition proposals and to the attempts to conceptualize the conflict found in the specialized literature.
In addition to different conflict definitions, there are also different proposals for classifying it. Concerning the different conflict classification [8, 10, 11] the emphasis is placed on the theoretical proposals of [8, 11]. Conflicts can be classified into five different types: structural, value, relationship, interest, and data [11]. In structural conflicts, causes are associated with unequal control situations, possession or resource distribution, unequal power, and authority, geographical, physical, or environmental factors that prevent cooperation and time pressures. In value conflicts, it highlights situations of opposing ideas or behaviors, different ways of life, ideology, or religion. Relationship conflicts are caused by strong emotions, misperceptions or stereotypes, inadequate or deficient communication, and negative and/or repetitive behaviors. The causes of interest conflicts are perceived or real competition over fundamental interests (content), procedural interests, and psychological interests. Finally, about data conflicts, [11] highlights the lack of information or wrong information, different points of view on what is important, different data interpretations, and different assessment procedures.
In turn, Torrego [8] presents a typology that seems to reflect the type of school conflicts: relationship-communication conflicts; interest/needs conflicts; and preferences, values, and beliefs conflicts. As for the relationship-communication conflicts, it cannot be said that there is a concrete cause that justifies their appearance, however, it appears as a result of the relationship deterioration itself. As such, aggressions, struggles, offenses, defamations, rumors, humiliations, misunderstandings are part of this type of conflict, but also perception conflicts, because, despite the conflict reality being only one, this fact does not invalidate that those involved have their view of it. Interest or needs conflicts usually occur when one party considers that it will only be able to satisfy its needs/interests if the other gives in to theirs. This conflict type can include those that stem from disagreement about how to perform jobs or tasks and those that result from the need felt by one of the parties to own or be coerced into giving in: objects, time, space, or any type of appeal. Finally, preferences, values, and beliefs conflicts result when these systems are discordant or viewed as such by those involved in the conflict. However, this conflict type can be resolved if the parties identify higher values common to both.
It is important to say that the conflict constructive paradigm indicates that the conflict has positive and negative aspects, advantages, and disadvantages. This new model is opposed to the classic model and indicates that moderate levels of conflict are perceived as positive [12]. The conflict effects are positive, when they are well managed, to establish more cooperative relations and seek to reach an integrated solution, for the benefit of those involved in the conflict [10]. In any organization, the existence of low levels of conflict leaves the organization vulnerable to stagnation, to making impoverished decisions, even to the lack of effectiveness; on the other hand, having too much conflict leads the organization directly into chaos.
Given the above, we can say that conflicts are inherent to human relationships since human beings are characterized by diversity. The school, by bringing together people from different social groups with different values and worldviews, becomes a locus for conflicts.
The school is a society microsystem, in which are reflected constant changes. Thus, one of the most important school functions is to prepare students, teachers, and parents to live and overcome the difficulties of a world full of rapid changes and interpersonal conflicts, contributing to the development process of each individual. For being a society microsystem and bringing together different ways of life, thinking, feeling, relationship, constitutes a space conducive to interpersonal conflicts.
School conflict is defined as the disagreement between individuals or groups regarding ideas, interests, principles, and values within the school community, perceiving the parties their interests as excluded, although they may not be [13], being that the most frequent school conflicts occur in the relations between student–student and between student-teacher [14].
Conflicts in the school can be classified according to their causes and those involved. For Martinez [15], the conflicts between teachers are mainly caused by lack of communication, personal interests, previous conflicts, issues of power, or political and ideological differences. This author indicates that conflicts between students and teachers, as they happen due to the lack of understanding of the teacher’s explanation, due to arbitrary grades and divergence in the evaluation criteria, lack of didactic material, discrimination, disinterest in the study material, and because the students are ears. In turn, conflicts between students can arise due to misunderstandings, fights, the rivalry between groups, discrimination, bullying, use of spaces and assets, dating, sexual harassment, loss or damage of school assets, diverse elections, travel, and parties. Conflicts between parents, teachers, and administrators can arise due to aggressions that occurred between students and between teachers, due to the loss of work material, problems in the school canteen or similar, lack of teachers, lack of pedagogical assistance by teachers, evaluation, approval and disapproval criteria, failure to meet bureaucratic and administrative requirements of management [15].
From the literature review, it is possible to infer and highlight the different causes pointed to the school conflict. Participating teachers in the Göksoy and Argon [16] study indicate as causes for school conflict: the communication failures, personal, political/ideological, and organizational causes.
With a very similar rating, Jares [1] indicates four main causes: ideological-scientific, related to different pedagogical, ideological, and organizational options, and the type of school culture or cultures that coexist; power causes, related to organization control, professional promotion, access to resources and decision making; causes of structure, related to the ambiguity of objectives and functions, organizational fragility, organizational and variable contexts; and personal and interpersonal causes, related to self-esteem, security, professional dissatisfaction, and communication. Also, Burguet [17] points out as possible causes for the school conflict in the school’s organizational structure.
In this sequence, and given the increase in school conflicts, Ibarra [18] recognizes as school conflict causes: the increase in compulsory schooling, the increase in the number of students per class, teachers perceive a progressive decline in their authority about students, and students are less likely to comply with certain rules and limits, which results in conflict situations. Regarding the increase in compulsory education, this leads to a greater number of unmotivated and undisciplined students, which implies an increase in school conflict. Likewise, the increase in the number of students per class, without increasing the facilities or associated conditions, increases the conflict occurrence, because of their negative changes in the physical and psychological environment, in overcrowded classrooms, with a lack of space for practical and collaborative activities.
In addressing interpersonal relationships in schools cannot neglect family background. When dealing with interpersonal relationships in the school context, it is necessary to take into account the family reality of each student, since the family interpersonal relationships have a strong connection with the school conflict [19]. Distinguished authors indicate that school conflict situations often have their genesis at the family level [17, 20] since they are the most deprived families, where alcoholism, domestic violence, and unemployment problems occur, being that all these violence and incivilities manifestations that arise in the students’ lives are transported to school. Burguet [17] points the dismissal of families as educational agents. This author highlights the overprotection with a sense of guilt for not dedicating more time to children, the experience of fatherhood as a “burden” of those who educate in aggressiveness, and the criticisms of parents, and society itself, to teachers, instigates conflicts. In other words, the role of the family often does not seem to offer a good foundation in the education of young people, which is reflected in their behavior in the processes of interaction at school. As Berkowitz [20] indicates, many of the interaction problems originate in the family, and the student reproduces the behaviors he learns with his parents.
It should be noted that the context experienced by the Covid-19 pandemic has a greater impact on students from poorer families. The situation of these most vulnerable students was a problem whose dimension grew with online classes, as they encountered immense barriers and lack of support for quality education during confinement. Thus, students who before the pandemic were unmotivated and presented conflicting behaviors at school should be the target of more support during this pandemic phase, to minimize the conflicting behaviors. It should also be noted that although family-school relationships are extremely important for students’ learning and development, family participation in school is not always satisfactory.
So, the family and the school must go together to contribute to the conflict becoming part of a process of growth, acceptance of the other, and accountability. Learning to deal with school conflicts positively is essential for the development of healthy relationships.
Another cause of school conflicts is pointed to society and the values it conveys, Burguet [17] points to the example of social communication, which encourages violence through violent programs, broadcasting news with prejudiced and conflicting messages. All of these situations enhance the conflicting attitudes of children and young people, which are reflected in school behaviors.
The school builds a social interface favorable to involvement, where conflicts proliferate in the educational process complexity, being common and daily in classes. Thus, in the classroom different types of conflict occur, being a challenge for most teachers to know how to face, manage, and resolve these conflicts [7].
Teachers often perceive conflicts as indiscipline, violence, disrespect, and like all situations threatening his authority, and inexperienced and experienced teachers emphasize the teacher-student conflict as a frequent situation in difficult classes [21]. In this context, Silva and Flores [19] refer to the negative effect that these situations have on attainment and student motivation, so it is urgent to find solutions to avoid or mitigate such effects.
The classroom coexistence problems are mainly related to social and pedagogical changes [22]. In this sequence, there are several conflict situations that teachers can face during classes. Some of those indicated by the teachers are, namely: the student’s presence that did not focus on activities; students with serious learning and communication difficulties; students groups who do classroom not work and maintain an aggressive and provocative attitude; students with destructive attitudes towards school material, theirs and/or colleagues, as well as aggressive and violent attitudes towards colleagues and teachers; apathetic students, who do not show classes enthusiasm; and in extreme situations, students who take and display instruments in the class that can be used as weapons, in an attitude of defiance to the teacher [23].
Given the increase in the classroom conflicts, multiple causes, which include a combination of external and internal factors in the school environment, are indicated, such as the increase in compulsory education, the increase in students per class, the progressive decline in the teacher’s authority about students, and students are less likely to comply with rules and limits, which results in conflict [18]. The increase in the year of schooling also leads to greater difficulties in living and learning in the classroom, and older age student’s groups consider themselves inserted in an educational system that sometimes does not respond to their needs and some of them consider not be essential to your life. So, the increase in compulsory education leads to a greater number of dissatisfied, unmotivated, and undisciplined students. Likewise, the increase in students per class, without increasing the facilities or associated conditions, negatively affects the psychological environment in overcrowded classrooms, with a lack of space for practical and collaborative activities. In turn, the progressive decline in teacher authority in relation to students and students are less likely to comply with certain rules and limits, results in conflicts in the classroom.
Conflicts in the teacher-student relationship are recurrent in the classroom, and [17] indicates as causes generating conflict, not only concerning the expectations of the teacher-student but also the student towards the teacher. In this sequence, the authors highlight the following problems that cause conflict: discipline problems, adaptation to individual differences problems, and evaluation problems.
As for discipline problems, these are the result of provocation and contempt of the student towards the teacher, or the teacher towards the student, to exercise their authority. In turn, problems of adaptation to individual differences are related to heterogeneous behaviors and diminished personal relationships. As for the problems related to the evaluation, result mainly from the personal rhythms of each student and teacher.
Students’ undisciplined classroom behavior can lead to conflicts that divert the teacher’s attention to issues that blur him from his teaching function [19]. In this context, Pérez-de-Guzmán et al. [7] indicate disinterest, mainly academic, as the main source of classroom conflict, also mentioning that one of the conflicts that persist and continues to be common is the lack of study habits and the carrying out work, leading to a negative attitude during class. Also, the mandatory stay in the classroom, away from the interests and expectations of some students, is recurrent as a conflict cause.
There are many and diverse classroom conflict situations that disturb the class dynamics. And in situations where the conflict remains latent, the result of the diversity of class interests, if the teacher does not create a good environment, acting positively about communication, the use of legitimate authority, and the conflict management, he will see conflicts increase exponentially within the classes [24]. Thus, regardless of the classroom conflicts type, if they are not managed, they accumulate, which makes them more cohesive and complicated, triggering negative feelings in those involved, and negatively affecting the educational quality [24].
The causes of the aforementioned conflicts are linked to personal issues and interpersonal relationships. And, most of these conflicts reveal an undisciplined character and increase daily in the class context. In this way, the teacher in the absence of solid guidelines can develop discontent, insecurity, and dissatisfaction that are reflected in his conflict face performance. Another aspect to be highlighted is that related to the power or lack of it that, increasingly, the teacher presents, and that reveals itself in discontent. In short, there is a gap in society, between the values it promotes and demands the school and the lack of credibility that is given to the teacher, questioned before the disapproval of parents and society itself, which instigates an even greater student’s conflict, in classes.
Conflict can inspire innovations and creative strategies in addressing challenging issues, as well as improving work, results, and encouraging organizations to achieve higher levels of quality and achievement. In this context, Göksoy and Argon [16] argue that school conflicts have positive and negative impacts on psychological, social, and organizational results.
Negative psychological impacts include discomfort, insecurity, insignificance feelings, sadness, resentment, frustration, and stress. In turn, at the social level, results of hostility, intolerance, and violence are present [16]. As for the negative results within the institutions, the author highlights the existence of a tense environment, weakened cooperation, communication failures, poor performance, and an undisciplined environment. Inevitably, in this way, there is a decrease in education quality.
The conflicts traditional and negative view has implications for the training of students, as the current discourse in many schools is about how to avoid conflicts since their educational potential is sometimes not perceived by the school community. This discourse conceives the conflict by the violent consequences that result from its non-management.
Conflict is recognized as an engine of social development and its effects are positive when the conflict is managed well. Thus, about the positive impacts arising from the school conflict, these have various levels of benefits [16]. At a personal level, the conflict allows learning to be related to the perception of errors, and to develop new ideas. On the other hand, at the social level, it enables the reinforcement of communication, respect for others, and enhances commitment. Regarding the benefits at the organizational level, it makes it possible to understand problems, seek and develop new solutions, and develop a democratic and enriching environment in the school. Thus, conflicts can contribute to the construction of broader visions of certain situations and, at the same time, guarantee rights and opportunities for all, regardless of interpersonal differences.
Teachers’ perceptions of conflict indicate that they focus mainly on the conflicts’ negative aspects [6, 25]. It is noteworthy that the methods most used at school, face of students conflicting behaviors, include warning, disapproval, summoning guardians, and in some cases, student suspension. Methodologies that provoke negative feelings and, later, originate new undesirable behaviors, being applied without taking into account the needs, personal conflicts, problems, and students expectations [26]. As indicated by Torrecilla et al. [22] if the teacher is not an effective conflict manager, he will project this lack of skill, resulting in negative learning for students.
As noted earlier, classroom conflict is an unavoidable reality. Thus, being inevitable, adequate strategies are needed to resolve it so that the conflict potential advantages are taken advantage of and its harmful effects are minimized or canceled out. Conflict management strategies are understood as the behavior types that are adopted in the conflict context, that is, they are basic strategies to manage a situation in which the parties consider their interests to be incompatible.
It is important to note that the choice between different conflict management strategies depends on the conflict level and the various situations that must be managed effectively [27], that is, to manage conflict functionally, it is important to recognize that one strategy may be more appropriate than another, depending on the conflict situation, being considered appropriate if its use leads to the effective formulation or resolution of the conflict [27]. So, strategies refer to specific patterns of behavior that are adopted in conflict situations. Following this approach, Rahim and Bonoma [28] established five conflict management strategies using two dimensions “self-concern” and “others concern”. They are different strategies for conflict management and correspond to the attitudes to confront and conflict resolutions.
These five strategies for conflict management are [27]: (a) Avoiding: when conflicted parties show low levels of concern for others’ interests and a low level of concern for oneself. Strategy characterized by a low degree of assertiveness and a low degree of cooperation, where neither its interests nor those of its opponents are satisfied; (b) Dominating: reflecting the attempt to satisfy one’s interests without consideration of the interests of the other. Characterized by a high assertiveness and lack of cooperation, in which the acquisition of objectives is viewed with supremacy over the interests of the other party. Furthermore, it is often considered an aggressive strategy; (c) Obliging: tends to be adopted by those individuals who attempt to play down the differences and emphasizes commonalities to satisfy the concerns of the other party. Represents a conflict management strategy where the cooperation is high, and assertiveness is low; (d) Integrating: individuals who use this strategy manage conflicts directly and cooperatively, seeking to solve in collaboration with the other, is a strategy connected with problem-solving. The use of this involves openness, exchanging information, looking for alternatives, and examination of differences to reach an effective solution for everyone involved in the conflict. Is a strategy useful for effectively dealing with complex problems; and (e) Compromising: represents the attempt to satisfy, moderately and partially, the interests of all those involved in the conflict, and shares commonalities with all of the other four strategies. Is a strategy that requires compromise and assignment. Compromising is an intermediate strategy on assertiveness and cooperation, which implies a compromise in the search for an acceptable intermediate position for everyone involved in the conflict.
Among the variables that influence the choice of different conflict management strategies, the teachers’ emotional intelligence stands out. Valente and Lourenço [24] conclude that teachers who tend to have higher levels of emotional intelligence use more integration and commitment strategies, for conflict management in the classroom, and fewer strategies of consent, avoidance, and domination. Too, the findings of Aliasgari and Farzadnia [29] indicate that teachers prefer the integrating strategy over the other conflict management strategy. So, in the presence of classroom conflict, the teacher proposes alternatives, applies open lines of communication, makes concessions, accepts responsibility, maximizes similarities, and minimizes existing differences between self and student [24]. Therefore, the integrating strategy is connected with classroom problem-solving, the use of this strategy involves openness and exchanging information, being the ideal strategy in dealing with complex classroom problems [24]. When applying a commitment strategy, the teacher’s objective is an intermediate solution for conflict management, for this, he knows how to reduce differences with the student suggests an exchange of proposals with the student, and provides a quick solution to conflicts in the classroom [24]. This is an intermediate strategy on assertiveness and cooperation, which implies a compromise in the search for an acceptable intermediate position for everyone involved in the conflict [27]. In this way, teachers’ emotional intelligence allows for better conflict management, which supports the development of interpersonal relationships in the classroom and enables a favorable environment for teaching and learning.
So, conflicts involve, in addition to interpersonal skills such as availability for dialog, emotional intelligence skills, which require the perception and recognition of the affective dimension, and the feelings of those involved. In this sense, we can say that the evolution of interpersonal relationships has not kept pace with scientific and technological developments. We were not educated to know how to interpret the language of emotions, just as we did not learn to solve conflict situations. We do not learn to perceive and manage emotions. Thus, the emotions that emerge from conflicts must be the target of attention and discussion, so that teachers and students are aware of their emotions and know how to deal with them.
The concern with improving coexistence in schools, namely about conflict, is mentioned in several studies, whose objectives refer to the understanding of school conflicts, as well as preventing their occurrence through programs aimed at teachers and students [4, 5]. Thus, the school community must develop effective skills for conflict management, increasing self-awareness, and understanding of conflict through formal education sessions.
The manage conflict ability is not innate, so it must be learned through educational interventions. There are different programs that work these skills in the educational context, of which they stand: Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, Regulating (RULER), Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), and the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL).
RULER program was created based on the emotional intelligence Mayer-Salovey’s model [30]. This training program focuses on emotional intelligence development and involving the students, parents, teachers, and the entire educational community [31]. RULER focuses on learning skills that deal with issues of interpersonal conflict and teach strategies for emotional regulation. Empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of RULER programs indicates that they enhance students’ academic performance, improve the quality of learning environments, improve teacher-student relationships and reduce student behavior problems, being a success in reducing violence and abusive classroom behavior [32].
The SEL was developed with the aim of preventing school violence and includes five areas of interconnected skills (self-knowledge, social awareness, self-management and organization, responsible problem solving, and relationship management). Teaching these skills is vital to deal with behavioral, academic, disciplinary, and safety problems, promoting self-awareness, managing emotions, and acquiring skills such as empathy, the ability to perceive different perspectives and points of view, respect for diversity, and the ability to make the right decisions [33]. SEL programs refer to processes of developing socio-emotional competencies, which depend on the individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions. These skills are the main building blocks for other outcomes that SEL programs include, such as the ability to persist in the face of challenges, stress management, the ability to develop healthy relationships, build trust in others, and to thrive both in the academic context, as in personal and social life. In a study carried out on more than 213 SEL programs, it was concluded that a school that successfully applies a quality curriculum of the SEL program can achieve behavioral improvements and a positive increase in the results of assessments [34].
CASEL program was created with the aim of establishing social and emotional education in a school context and making it a reality in today’s education. Its purpose is to apply high-quality, evidence-based SEL programs, from pre-school to secondary education [35]. The results of this program reveal significant changes in the socio-emotional capacities, social interactions, and academic results of the students who attended these programs. Among the results, it should be noted that students show greater communication skills, are more collaborative in teamwork, and more resistant to challenges and difficulties [36].
The school is a space for socialization par excellence and, precisely, due to the variety of styles, cultures, and values, it becomes an environment rich in conflicts. Conflict, commonly seen as something negative, destructive, and generating violence, is, in fact, extremely necessary for individual evolution. It should be noted that the conflict itself does not generate violence; this comes when there is a lack of peaceful solutions to conflict resolution, when there is no conflict constructive management.
Among the conflict management methodologies used in the school, the following stand out: arbitration, conciliation, negotiation, and mediation. School arbitration is a dialog process that takes place between the involved in the conflict with the presence of a third party that determines the conflict resolution based on the benefits of the parties with their authority and knowledge [37]. The school conciliation is a dialog process carried out between the involved in the conflict, with the support of a conciliator, who helps them decide, based on their interests and needs. This may present proposals for solutions that the parties can accept or not. The decision-making power belongs to the parties, even if the solution comes from the conciliator [37]. In turn, the school negotiation is a dialog process focused on conflict resolution between the involved in the conflict, which either meet face to face to work together unassisted to conflict resolution. Negotiation is one of the most used conflict management mechanisms in the classroom. The school mediation, this is a dialog process carried out between the parties in conflict, assisted by a third party, the mediator, who should not influence the conflict resolution, acting as a communication facilitator. Inserted in a socio-constructivist paradigm, it is considered not only as of the most current and flexible instrument for peaceful conflict resolution at the educational level, and promote a new culture for conflict management. Arising not only to solve school problems, but equally as a feasible way for creative conflict modification [38].
A more detailed approach to school negotiation is presented as it is considered the most appropriate method for resolving classroom conflicts, in teacher-student relationships. Negotiation includes a set of behavioral skills that teachers must master. It is essentially a well-structured process and based on some tacit behavior, being understood as a process of communicative interaction in which two parties seek to resolve a conflict of interest, use dialog, and progress gradually through mutual concessions. The negotiation process implies several skills, which stand out, effective communication, considered the main tool of the negotiation process.
Effective communication is essential to the school conflicts negotiation, as it enhances: the fear decrease of being rejected, the anxiety reduction produced in the struggle for acceptance and recognition, a greater predisposition to listen to the other and recognize their positive aspects, a strengthening of self-esteem, an increase in the degree of security, and a decrease in defensive-offensive behavior [39].
Concerning the negotiation phases, although there is no consensus on the definition of the negotiation stages, there are at least three that are classically identified [40]: definition of the content and limits of the negotiation (exploratory stage), with the manifestation of antagonism, facing individuals the “dilemma of trust” and the “dilemma of honesty”; negotiation dynamics (dynamic and tactical stage), with manifestations of concession flexibility, systematically assisting proposals and counter-proposals, constituting the central moment of the negotiation process; and, the resolution and agreements stage, this more integrative, brief, and intense phase, almost always implies tension and uncertainty.
These phases testify to the transformation that the negotiations must undergo and must respond to the three negotiation objectives, namely: identification of differences between the parties, making joint decisions, and building a commitment to resolve the conflict.
It should be noted that during a conflict negotiation, it is also important to highlight the importance of [39]:
Empathy: the pillar of good communication and the connection between teacher and student, which allows one to understand each other’s feelings and motivations;
Assertiveness: being able to expose your point of view, emotions, or opinions without provoking a defensive attitude, through a self-affirmative phrase that tells students what to think without blaming you, not putting you as an opponent. Being assertive requires understanding limitations to do another. The teacher when negotiating a conflict must establish his position and build self-confidence thus limiting abuse situations without attacking students;
Active listening: a tool is useful to obtain more information, corroborating data so that the student knows that he was heard. When we listen actively, we are asking, paraphrasing, asking for clarification, defining, and contextualizing. Some ways of they appear can be by echo, repetition of what the other said, reformulation, expressing in words what was understood, resolving points or questions, summarizing and ordering information or reflection of the feeling, an expression of what we perceive of the other; and
Feedback: the teacher must support and encourage positive behavior, correcting the inappropriate ones. To put feedback into practice, it is necessary to let the student know what the teacher feels and what he thinks.
That way, thinking of the joint construction of solutions to the conflict, through the correct use of empathy, assertiveness, active listening, and feedback can make those involved in the conflict evaluate their actions and rethink their attitudes, discovering ways to solve the problems, trying to maintain respect and balance. Knowing how to listen, evaluate, rethink with everyone involved in the conflict, creating the habit of dialog. Because when those involved in the conflict participate in the construction of possible actions for solutions, relationships can be restored, and the conflict constructively resolved. Therefore, classroom conflicts when managed constructively contribute to the preservation of interpersonal bonds and promote the socio-emotional skills of involved, since it makes possible to develop skills to know how to see reality from the perspective of the other, knowing how to cooperate, and also learn that conflict is an opportunity for growth and maturation.
As seen, although conflicts have negative impacts in general, the constructive and destructive consequences of conflict depend on the management skills of the individuals who experience it [25]. Effective conflict management strategies minimize the conflict negative impacts and enhance the positive ones, helping to improve interpersonal relationships and job satisfaction at school.
In general, teachers and the school ignore the importance of conflicts in the integral development of the student and training as autonomous citizens. In this way, most schools do not conceive of conflict resolution as an integral part of the curriculum, emphasizing only the contents of the curricular subjects. They leave aside interpersonal relationships, homogenizing the training of students without promoting the development of problem and conflict management skills. Thus, for the educational potential of the conflict to be truly used in the school context, it is necessary that the community, and especially teachers and management bodies, recognize the conflict possibilities. Constructive management of school conflicts is important and necessary for new generations to learn to live with social differences.
In this sequence, educational action is required, intentionally aimed at conflict management as an element inherent to the human condition and indispensable to democratic societies. Therefore, the formative potential of the conflict depends on the strategies used to resolve the conflict and the management that takes place. The way to conflict management, in turn, depends on how those involved experience the conflict. Therefore, the negative view of the conflict and the lack of perception of its educational potential can prevent those involved from developing essential skills such as respect for diversity, respect for the rights of others, and availability for dialog.
Pérez-de-Guzmán et al. [7] indicate that training in conflict management, generates very positive results in all members of the educational community, verifying a reduction in the interpersonal conflict between teacher-student. Also, Massabni [41] defends the urgency to prepare teachers to face professional conflicts; otherwise, we will have a generation of teachers able to succumb to the pressure that the profession is going through, to accept the reduction of their action, their status, and to share their commitments with other professionals, who take away the property of regulating their work. It is necessary to support teachers and provide them with tools to develop their ways of managing conflicts.
By making conflicts the subject of reflection and explaining the professional context in which teachers work is, in the opinion of [41], the commitment of the different higher education institutions that form them. It is important to work not only on the training of future teachers but also on training in the active teachers in conflict management, small or large, which inevitably emerge in the teacher-student relationship, throughout their professional life. Also, the Freire et al. [42] results support the importance of professional development opportunities with a focus on facilitating the relationship of teachers with students with perceived challenging behavior.
The school is an institution that reproduces a microcosm of society, bringing together diverse identities. This context with diverse personalities, rules, and values is full of conflicts, problems, and differences between the different actors that make up the school (students, teachers, staff, and parents). Thus, the school system, in addition to involving a range of people, with different characteristics, includes a significant number of continuous and complex interactions, depending on the stages of development of each one. So, school is a place where individuals with different characteristics, backgrounds, experiences, and personalities live together daily. Among so many differences, naturally, divergences of the most diverse species arise. It is essential, then, the proper management of conflicts that may arise so that harmony and respect are present in the school of the main causes presented for the school conflict, we highlight family problems. Being the family the main student emotional support, it becomes the life model of this. In this way, unstable and weakened family relationships directly affect the behavior of your children, behaviors that these after reproduced in the school social relationships. The families of the most deprived students are considered less functional. They do not contribute to the growth of positive feelings, they do not carry out good communication between family members, nor do they assist in healthily making decisions that are, based on the exchange of ideas together instead of imposition. In this sequence, students from more dysfunctional families need school increased support to learn and develop interpersonal skills. Thus, family and school must go together to contribute to the conflict becoming part of a process of growth, acceptance of the other, and accountability. Learning to deal with conflicts positively is essential for the development of healthy relationships.
The school, by bringing together people from different social groups with different values and worldviews, becomes a locus for conflicts. Thus, the conflict must be understood as a reality inherent to the educational context, and the school, as responsible for the education of values and skills for living together must be differently prepared to deal with the conflicts that occur in it.
Conflicts of various types have always been present in the classroom, and the causes that originate them are of great importance, as they allow a better conflict understanding and, consequently, a more correct intervention to its management. It should be noted that personal harmony and the development of attitudes that promote understanding, dialog, and tolerance are indispensable for negotiating conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. The way to intervene in classroom conflicts is essential in education, not only in terms of content, but also as a series of vital procedures in interpersonal relationships. As Lapponi [39] points out, for conflicts correct negotiation with the student, it is necessary to communicate effectively, cooperate, decide responsibly, and so teach to resolve conflicts.
Ending school conflict is impossible, since they are intrinsic to the human being, being an integral part of their development and the interpersonal relationships they experience daily. Learning to live with school conflict requires creating attitudes of openness, interest in differences, and respect for diversity, teaching how to recognize injustice, taking measures to overcome it, resolving differences constructively, and moving from conflict situations to reconciliations. So, it is essential that the initial and continuous training of teachers encompasses conflict management, providing them with tools so that they can resolve the conflicts they experience in the classroom.
In summary, it is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process.
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\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Elements of sustainable design are integral to vernacular architecture that have evolved over time using local materials and technology emerging from ambient natural and cultural environment creating optimum relationships between people and their place. This chapter aims to redefine what identity is as a concept and the impact of globalization on contemporary architecture especially on regions with rich heritage and unique culture as the Arab World. To accomplish this, the chapter examines the emergence of “local identity” as a reaction to the globalization of cultural values, uniform architectural styles, and stereotype patterns through discussing sustainability as a motivation for identity in culture and architecture. The research methodology is based on conducting a qualitative analysis of literature review to the main concepts discussed in this chapter such as: identity, culture, vernacular architecture, and sustainability. Through comparative analysis, the chapter investigates sustainability potential of vernacular architecture in the region to derive core concepts as guidelines of reproducing the characteristics of society and reveal identity of contemporary architecture in the Arab World.",book:{id:"8260",slug:"urban-and-architectural-heritage-conservation-within-sustainability",title:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability",fullTitle:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability"},signatures:"Maha Salman",authors:[{id:"258226",title:"Dr.",name:"Maha",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"maha-salman",fullName:"Maha Salman"}]},{id:"51000",doi:"10.5772/63726",title:"Towards Sustainable Sanitation in an Urbanising World",slug:"towards-sustainable-sanitation-in-an-urbanising-world",totalDownloads:3202,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Urban sanitation in low‐ and middle‐income countries is at an inflection point. It is increasingly acknowledged that conventional sewer‐based sanitation cannot be the only solution for expanding urban areas. There are other objective reasons apart from the lack of capital. The lack of stable energy supplies, of spare parts and of human resources for reliable operation, and the increasing water scarcity are factors that seriously limit the expansion of centralised systems. This chapter argues that a new paradigm for urban sanitation is possible, if the heterogeneity within developing cities is reflected in the implementation of different sanitation systems, adapted to each urban context and integrated under one institutional roof. This new paradigm entails: (1) innovative management arrangements; (2) increased participation and the integration of individual, community and private sector initiatives; (3) thinking at scale to open new opportunities; (4) improved analysis of the situation and awareness raising. Moving beyond conventional approaches towards sustainable urbanisation needs to follow both a top‐down and a bottom‐up approach, with proper incentives and a variety of sanitation systems which, in a future perspective, will become part of the ‘urban ecosystem’.",book:{id:"5235",slug:"sustainable-urbanization",title:"Sustainable Urbanization",fullTitle:"Sustainable Urbanization"},signatures:"Philippe Reymond, Samuel Renggli and Christoph Lüthi",authors:[{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi"},{id:"182136",title:"Mr.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Reymond",slug:"philippe-reymond",fullName:"Philippe Reymond"},{id:"182137",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Renggli",slug:"samuel-renggli",fullName:"Samuel Renggli"}]},{id:"42926",doi:"10.5772/55736",title:"Disaster Risk Management and Social Impact Assessment: Understanding Preparedness, Response and Recovery in Community Projects",slug:"disaster-risk-management-and-social-impact-assessment-understanding-preparedness-response-and-recove",totalDownloads:10044,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3364",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Environmental Change and Sustainability"},signatures:"Raheem A. Usman, F.B. Olorunfemi, G.P. Awotayo, A.M. Tunde and\nB.A. Usman",authors:[{id:"156875",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman A",middleName:null,surname:"Raheem",slug:"usman-a-raheem",fullName:"Usman A Raheem"},{id:"166449",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M",middleName:null,surname:"Tunde",slug:"a.m-tunde",fullName:"A.M Tunde"},{id:"167886",title:"Dr.",name:"F.B.",middleName:null,surname:"Olorunfemi",slug:"f.b.-olorunfemi",fullName:"F.B. Olorunfemi"},{id:"167887",title:"Dr.",name:"G.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Awotayo",slug:"g.p.-awotayo",fullName:"G.P. 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Cupul-Magaña"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64381",title:"Sustainability and Vernacular Architecture: Rethinking What Identity Is",slug:"sustainability-and-vernacular-architecture-rethinking-what-identity-is",totalDownloads:4441,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Sustainability has often been a fundamental part of the composition of both tangible and intangible cultural resources; sustainability and preservation of cultural identity are complementary. Elements of sustainable design are integral to vernacular architecture that have evolved over time using local materials and technology emerging from ambient natural and cultural environment creating optimum relationships between people and their place. This chapter aims to redefine what identity is as a concept and the impact of globalization on contemporary architecture especially on regions with rich heritage and unique culture as the Arab World. To accomplish this, the chapter examines the emergence of “local identity” as a reaction to the globalization of cultural values, uniform architectural styles, and stereotype patterns through discussing sustainability as a motivation for identity in culture and architecture. The research methodology is based on conducting a qualitative analysis of literature review to the main concepts discussed in this chapter such as: identity, culture, vernacular architecture, and sustainability. Through comparative analysis, the chapter investigates sustainability potential of vernacular architecture in the region to derive core concepts as guidelines of reproducing the characteristics of society and reveal identity of contemporary architecture in the Arab World.",book:{id:"8260",slug:"urban-and-architectural-heritage-conservation-within-sustainability",title:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability",fullTitle:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability"},signatures:"Maha Salman",authors:[{id:"258226",title:"Dr.",name:"Maha",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"maha-salman",fullName:"Maha Salman"}]},{id:"67342",title:"Introductory Chapter: Heritage Conservation - Rehabilitation of Architectural and Urban Heritage",slug:"introductory-chapter-heritage-conservation-rehabilitation-of-architectural-and-urban-heritage",totalDownloads:2616,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"8260",slug:"urban-and-architectural-heritage-conservation-within-sustainability",title:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability",fullTitle:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability"},signatures:"Kabila Faris Hmood",authors:[{id:"214741",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Kabila",middleName:"Faris",surname:"Hmood",slug:"dr.-kabila-hmood",fullName:"Dr. Kabila Hmood"}]},{id:"76898",title:"The Relationship between Land Use and Climate Change: A Case Study of Nepal",slug:"the-relationship-between-land-use-and-climate-change-a-case-study-of-nepal",totalDownloads:700,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Land Use and Climate change are interrelated to each other. This change influences one another at various temporal and spatial scales; however, improper land uses are the primary causal factor on climate change. It studies relevant literature and Nepal’s case to assess the relationship between land use and climate change. Similarly focuses on how land-use impacts climate change and vice versa. In recent centuries land-use change significant effects on ecological variables and climate change. Likewise, understanding the research on both topics will help decision-makers and conservation planners manage land and climate.",book:{id:"10754",slug:"the-nature-causes-effects-and-mitigation-of-climate-change-on-the-environment",title:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment",fullTitle:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment"},signatures:"Pawan Thapa",authors:[{id:"349566",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pawan",middleName:null,surname:"Thapa",slug:"pawan-thapa",fullName:"Pawan Thapa"}]},{id:"50282",title:"Relation Between Land Use and Transportation Planning in the Scope of Smart Growth Strategies: Case Study of Denizli, Turkey",slug:"relation-between-land-use-and-transportation-planning-in-the-scope-of-smart-growth-strategies-case-s",totalDownloads:4667,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the decision-making process of planning residential areas in developing countries, importance of the commercial areas and need for a sustainable urban transportation infrastructure have generally been ignored based on several sociopolitical reasons. Meanwhile, decision-making periods of location choice and determining areal densities are conducted without quantitative spatial/technical analyses. Those urban matters bring along new planning paradigms like smart growth (SG) and new urbanism. SG is a land use planning paradigm which indicates that traffic problems should be minimized by transit alternatives, effective demand management and providing a balance between land use and transportation planning. This study aims to apply SG strategies to the land use planning process and evaluate the accuracy of land use planning decisions in the perspective of sustainable transportation. In order to reveal the effects of land use planning decisions on the available transportation infrastructure, two scenarios are investigated for 2030. In the first scenario “do nothing” option is considered, while the residential area densities and trip generation rates are regulated based on SG strategies in the second scenario. The results showed that the land use and traffic impact analyses should simultaneously be conducted before land use configuration process.",book:{id:"5235",slug:"sustainable-urbanization",title:"Sustainable Urbanization",fullTitle:"Sustainable Urbanization"},signatures:"Gorkem Gulhan and Huseyin Ceylan",authors:[{id:"182126",title:"Dr.",name:"Gorkem",middleName:null,surname:"Gulhan",slug:"gorkem-gulhan",fullName:"Gorkem Gulhan"},{id:"185555",title:"Dr.",name:"Huseyin",middleName:null,surname:"Ceylan",slug:"huseyin-ceylan",fullName:"Huseyin Ceylan"}]},{id:"42926",title:"Disaster Risk Management and Social Impact Assessment: Understanding Preparedness, Response and Recovery in Community Projects",slug:"disaster-risk-management-and-social-impact-assessment-understanding-preparedness-response-and-recove",totalDownloads:10045,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3364",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Environmental Change and Sustainability"},signatures:"Raheem A. Usman, F.B. Olorunfemi, G.P. Awotayo, A.M. Tunde and\nB.A. Usman",authors:[{id:"156875",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman A",middleName:null,surname:"Raheem",slug:"usman-a-raheem",fullName:"Usman A Raheem"},{id:"166449",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M",middleName:null,surname:"Tunde",slug:"a.m-tunde",fullName:"A.M Tunde"},{id:"167886",title:"Dr.",name:"F.B.",middleName:null,surname:"Olorunfemi",slug:"f.b.-olorunfemi",fullName:"F.B. Olorunfemi"},{id:"167887",title:"Dr.",name:"G.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Awotayo",slug:"g.p.-awotayo",fullName:"G.P. Awotayo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"136",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82644",title:"Climate-Driven Temporary Displacement of Women and Children in Anambra State, Nigeria: The Causes and Consequences",slug:"climate-driven-temporary-displacement-of-women-and-children-in-anambra-state-nigeria-the-causes-and-",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104817",abstract:"With increasing periods of extreme wet seasons, low lying geographic position, with socioeconomic, and political factors; some communities in Anambra State, Nigeria experience heightened floods annually resulting in loss of shelter, displacement of people with breakdown of livelihoods, particularly in rural communities worsening their risks and vulnerabilities. In 2012, a major flood event in the state temporarily displaced about 2 million people. In this chapter, we used a community-based adaptation approach to investigate the causes and consequences of climate-related temporary displacement on community members in Ogbaru LGA, Anambra State following flood events. We used global positioning system to obtain the community’s ground control points and gathered our data via field observation, transects walks, focus group discussions, photography, and in-depth interviews. Our findings reveal a heightened magnitude of flood related disasters with decreased socio-economic activities, affecting their health and well-being. Also, the community members have a practice of returning to their land, after flood events, as a local mitigating risk management strategy. For multilevel humanitarian responses at the temporary shelter camps, it becomes imperative to meaningfully engage the community members on the challenging risks and vulnerabilities they experience following climate-driven temporary displacement to inform adaptation and resilience research, policy change and advocacy.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Akanwa Angela Oyilieze, Ngozi N. Joe-Ikechebelu, Ijeoma N. Okedo-Alex, Kenebechukwu J. Okafor, Fred A. Omoruyi, Jennifer Okeke, Sophia N. Amobi, Angela C. Enweruzor, Chinonye E. Obioma, Princess I. Izunobi, Theresa O. Nwakacha, Chinenye B. Oranu, Nora I. Anazodo, Chiamaka A. Okeke, Uwa-Abasi E. Ugwuoke, Uche M. Umeh, Emmanuel O. Ogbuefi and Sylvia T. Echendu"},{id:"79637",title:"Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of the Annual Extreme Precipitation Using Kriging and Co-Kriging Methods in Algeria Country",slug:"evaluation-of-the-spatial-distribution-of-the-annual-extreme-precipitation-using-kriging-and-co-krig",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101563",abstract:"In this chapter, we have conducted a statistical study of the annual extreme precipitation (AMP) for 856 grid cells and during the period of 1979–2012 in Algeria. In the first step, we compared graphically the forecasts of the three parameters of the generalized extreme value (GEV) distribution (location, scale and shape) which are estimated by the Spherical model. We used the Cross validation method to compare the two methods kriging and Co-kriging, based on the based on some statistical indicators such as Mean Errors (ME), Root Mean Square Errors (RMSE) and Squared Deviation Ratio (MSDR). The Kriging forecast error map shows low errors expected near the stations, while co-Kriging gives the lowest errors on average at the national level, which means that the method of co-Kriging is the best. From the results of the return periods, we calculate that after 50 years the estimated of the annual extreme precipitation will exceed the maximum AMP is observed in the 33-year.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Hicham Salhi"},{id:"77854",title:"Flooding and Flood Modeling in a Typhoon Belt Environment: The Case of the Philippines",slug:"flooding-and-flood-modeling-in-a-typhoon-belt-environment-the-case-of-the-philippines",totalDownloads:162,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98738",abstract:"Flooding is a perennial world-wide problem and is a serious hazard in areas where the amount of precipitable water has potential to dump excessive amount of water. The warming of the Earth’s climate due to the increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) increases the availability of water vapor and hence, of extreme precipitation as observed and forecasted by researchers. With rainfall intensity too high, the torrential rains coupled with weather systems that enhances its effects, flooding not only submerges anything low-lying, it also washes away living and non-living things along the course of the river and the floodplain. The flooding is even worsened by the increase in velocity of flow caused by unsustainable urbanization and denudation of the watershed at the headwaters. Nature’s strength is an order of a magnitude that is way beyond that of the strength of men but human ingenuity enables us to transform our living environment into models that could help us better understand it. Flood modeling provides us decision support tools to deal better with nature. It also enables us to simulate the future especially nowadays that changes in our climate is imminent and even happening already in many parts of the world. Therefore, strategies on how to cope with our ever changing environment is very important particularly to countries that are at more risk to climate change such as the archipelagic Philippines.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Fibor J. Tan"},{id:"77797",title:"Adapting to Climatic Extremes through Climate Resilient Industrial Landscapes: Building Capacities in the Southern Indian States of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh",slug:"adapting-to-climatic-extremes-through-climate-resilient-industrial-landscapes-building-capacities-in",totalDownloads:98,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98732",abstract:"There is now greater confidence and understanding of the consequences of anthropogenic caused climate change. One of the many impacts of climate change, has been the occurrence of extreme climatic events, recent studies indicate that the magnitude, frequency, and intensity of hydro-meteorological events such as heat waves, cyclones, droughts, wildfires, and floods are expected to increase several fold in the coming decades. These climatic extremes are likely to have social, economic, and environmental costs to nations across the globe. There is an urgent need to prepare various stakeholders to these disasters through capacity building and training measures. Here, we present an analysis of the capacity needs assessment of various stakeholders to climate change adaptation in industrial parks in two southern states of India. Adaptation to climate change in industrial areas is an understudied yet highly urgent requirement to build resilience among stakeholders in the Indian subcontinent. The capacity needs assessment was conducted in two stages, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and focus group discussion (FGD) were conducted among various stakeholders to determine the current capacities for climate change adaptation (CCA) for both, stakeholders and functional groups. Our analysis indicates that in the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, all stakeholder groups require low to high levels of retraining in infrastructure and engineering, planning, and financial aspects related to CCA. Our study broadly supports the need for capacity building and retraining of functionaries at local and state levels in various climate change adaptation measures; likewise industry managers need support to alleviate the impacts of climate change. Specific knowledge, skills, and abilities, with regard to land zoning, storm water management, developing building codes, green financing for CCA, early warning systems for climatic extremes, to name a few are required to enhance and build resilience to climate change in the industrial landscapes of the two states.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Narendran Kodandapani"},{id:"77460",title:"Changing Climatic Hazards in the Coast: Risks and Impacts on Satkhira, One of the Most Vulnerable Districts in Bangladesh",slug:"changing-climatic-hazards-in-the-coast-risks-and-impacts-on-satkhira-one-of-the-most-vulnerable-dist",totalDownloads:210,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98623",abstract:"Changes in the climate due to anthropogenic and natural variation are indicated by parameters including temperature and rainfall. Climate change variability with changing trends of the two have been unpredictable and unprecedented globally leading to changing weather patterns, natural disasters, leading to sectoral impacts on food and water security, livelihood, human health among others. This research analyses the changing patterns of these parameters over the last 35/37 years of Satkhira district of Bangladesh to assess the state and trend across spatial and temporal dimensions. Such, the study validates to rationalize the observed seasonal changes that persist in Satkhira of Bangladesh. Both in terms of intensity and frequency of the occurrences of natural disasters, the series of natural events have been triangulated, with impacts and vulnerability being assessed from temperature variations, erratic rainfall, cyclone, flood and water logging etc. The study’s prime contribution remains in attribution of climate change in relation contextual circumstances in the region including sea level rise, salinity intrusion. Therefore, the risk and climatic hazards and its resulting impacts over time has been assessed to draw deeper connection between theoretical and practical values. The series of analyses also draw conclusion that assets are at risk from changing climatic condition.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Golam Rabbani, Md. Nasir Uddin and Sirazoom Munira"},{id:"76915",title:"The Impacts of Climate Change in Lwengo, Uganda",slug:"the-impacts-of-climate-change-in-lwengo-uganda",totalDownloads:101,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97279",abstract:"Climate Change has become a threat worldwide. Vulnerable communities are at foremost risk of repercussions of climate change. The present study aimed at highlighting a case study of climate change impacts on Lwengo District of Uganda. Out of the total geographical area of the district, 85% hectares are under cultivation and most of its population depends majorly on the rain- fed agriculture sector to meet the food requirement and as a major income source. With the changing climatic conditions, agriculture is the major sector which is being impacted. The region has experienced disasters from some time, usually the second seasons rains used to result in such disasters but since 2016 both seasons have occurred disasters, which majorly include hailstorm, strong wind, long dry spells, pests and diseases. The situation became more severe due to shortage of availability of skilled human resources, quality equipment for disaster management, limited financial resources and weak institutional capacity, which resulted in increasing vulnerability of small farm holders. Some of the adaptation strategies are being taken up by the government but there is a need to understand prospects of decision-making that are site specific and more sustainable for smallholder communities. Climatic changes possess many obstacles to farming communities which require sustainable adaptation to enhance the adaptive capacities of the communities through continued production systems, which are more resilient to the vagaries of weather. Farmers are practising such options which are location specific, governed by policy framework and dependent on dynamism of farmers. This study investigated how these drivers influence farmers’ decision- making in relation to climate change adaptations.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Shyamli Singh and Ovamani Olive Kagweza"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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