Number of samples taken out by surgery.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5957",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",title:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Speech-language pathology has different practice and research histories, standards, methods, and challenges in different countries and regions. Awareness of these different realities may contribute to the scientific development of the field and improve the services delivered to different populations. Sharing solutions to similar problems in different contexts can increase evidence-based practice that is relevant in specific situations. The aim of this book was to build a panel of contributions from different countries and several areas of research. Authors were invited to contribute with their newest conclusions and results about the themes they considered most relevant. The result includes discussions about new theoretical trends, research results, and new proposals for assessment and intervention.",isbn:"978-953-51-3510-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3509-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4657-5",doi:"10.5772/66241",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"advances-in-speech-language-pathology",numberOfPages:382,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0aa9183a00d31fd1970187a4452a62d8",bookSignature:"Fernanda Dreux M. Fernandes",publishedDate:"September 13th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5957.jpg",numberOfDownloads:36114,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:75,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:108,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 9th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 9th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 18th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"28286",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda Dreux Miranda",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"fernanda-dreux-miranda-fernandes",fullName:"Fernanda Dreux Miranda Fernandes",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOLpQAO/Profile_Picture_1643350340880",biography:"Fernanda Dreux M Fernandes is a Speech-Language Pathologist and Audiologist with Ph.D. in Semiotics and Linguistics. Associate Professor at the Communication Sciences and Disorders Program, School of Medicine, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil, teaching undergraduate and graduate courses. She is a former president of the Brazilian SLP & A Association and she received the Life Achievement Honor Award by this association. Dr. Fernandes is also an ASHA fellow and former member of the International Issues Board of the American Speech-Language and Hearing Association. Dr. Fernandes is in her second term as a member of the board of the International Association of Logopedics and Phoniatrics (IALP). In 2015 was nominated Fellow of the American Speech-Language and Hearing Association. She published over 150 papers in scientific journals and mentored over 50 Master’s, doctorate, and post-doctorate studies.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1244",title:"Communication Disorder",slug:"communication-disorder"}],chapters:[{id:"56266",title:"Discourse: Assessment and Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69894",slug:"discourse-assessment-and-therapy",totalDownloads:3109,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Discourse is essential for interaction and for the expression of ideas, feelings and opinions. Telling personal stories, such as talking about your day or recounting what happened in the playground, is essential for communication and establishing relationships. However, due to their language impairments, people with aphasia (PWA) and children with developmental language disorder (DLD) often have problems with everyday discourse which impact on their lives more widely. While improvement in language skills is supported by speech-language pathology (therapy), it tends to focus on smaller linguistic components, such as single words and sentences. This chapter outlines how speakers construct discourse in everyday situations and focuses on the meanings that people use discourse to convey, as well as the lexical and grammatical resources they use to convey these meanings. Current methods for discourse analysis will be outlined and key developments in narrative discourse production therapy will be reviewed.",signatures:"Lucy T. Dipper and Madeleine Pritchard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56266",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56266",authors:[{id:"201158",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucy",surname:"Dipper",slug:"lucy-dipper",fullName:"Lucy Dipper"},{id:"208542",title:"Dr.",name:"Madeleine",surname:"Pritchard",slug:"madeleine-pritchard",fullName:"Madeleine Pritchard"}],corrections:null},{id:"56385",title:"Formulaic Language: The Building Block of Aphasic Speech",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70038",slug:"formulaic-language-the-building-block-of-aphasic-speech",totalDownloads:1868,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Aphasia is a condition that may appear when parts of the brain (Broca’s or Wernicke’s area) responsible for language production and processing are damaged. In most cases, patients have the left side of their brain affected. Thus, formulaic language remains intact in most cases. During speech therapy, this can be a solid base to build on. Formulaic language consists of formulas that are fixed phrases, stereotypes that behave as a single-unit lexical item. They have a significant role in language acquisition and fluent discourse production. These ready-made parts of speech are stored in the long-term memory. Studies suggest that the processing of formulaic language engages right hemisphere areas of the brain. Due to their language impairment, people with aphasia often have a lower quality of life, consequently social and professional integration for them being problematic. The investigation of preserved patterns, such as formulaic language and impairments related to different aspects of discourse, may provide insights both for clinical practice and for cognitive science, therefore, facilitating a more efficient approach to treatment.",signatures:"Annamária Győrfi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56385",authors:[{id:"200880",title:"Dr.",name:"Annamaria",surname:"Gyorfi",slug:"annamaria-gyorfi",fullName:"Annamaria Gyorfi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56330",title:"Russian Scientific Trends on Specific Language Impairment in Childhood",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69932",slug:"russian-scientific-trends-on-specific-language-impairment-in-childhood",totalDownloads:1941,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In Russia, there are many decades of experience in the scientific study of the problem of impaired language development in children. Today, the term “Systemic speech-and-language underdevelopment (SLU)” has firmly established in Russian science and practice, implying a complex developmental disorder of speech and language in children with a primary normal hearing and a conserved intellect, in which the main components of the language system are violated: vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, and, as a consequence, dialogic and monologic speech. Traditionally, a differentiated level-by-level analysis of the speech and language abilities of children is used. The variability of the manifestations and severity of speech-and-language disorders were initially systematized and characterized in four levels of underdevelopment: from the complete absence of phrase speech to the availability of simple and complex sentences with lexico-grammatical errors. Effective algorithms of speech therapist work with SLU are introduced. The effectiveness of the application of these models and algorithms on the material of various language groups is proved.",signatures:"Tatiana Tumanova and Tatiana Filicheva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56330",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56330",authors:[{id:"204529",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Volodarovna",surname:"Tumanova",slug:"tatiana-volodarovna-tumanova",fullName:"Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova"},{id:"208704",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Borisovna",surname:"Filicheva",slug:"tatiana-borisovna-filicheva",fullName:"Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva"}],corrections:null},{id:"56084",title:"Phonological Problems in Spanish-Speaking Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69681",slug:"phonological-problems-in-spanish-speaking-children",totalDownloads:1543,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phonological development in some children does not follow the typical trajectory. This may affect their communication processes. The primary aim of this chapter is to characterize the phonological development of Spanish‐speaking children with phonological problems. The characterization is based on the Theory of Natural Phonology, which poses that children with phonological problems produce phonologically simplified words resulting from the application of strategies known as phonological simplification processes. Phonological development implies the progressive elimination of these strategies. It has been observed that children with phonological problems produce phonologically simplified words until advanced age. This chapter focuses on studies involving Chilean children with phonological problems, in an attempt to characterize their phonological performance. Overall, the point can be made that Chilean children with phonological problems have a trajectory of phonological development of their own, with phonological simplification processes equally affecting syllable structure and word structure. Also, these processes tend to consistently decrease with age at a steady rate. Once 5 years of age, however, processes tend to become more persistent and decrease becomes slower. They are also prone to have problems both with the phonological representation of words and lexical comprehension. Finally, they seem to be challenged by phonological awareness and grammar.",signatures:"María Mercedes Pavez and Carmen Julia Coloma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56084",authors:[{id:"112573",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen Julia",surname:"Coloma",slug:"carmen-julia-coloma",fullName:"Carmen Julia Coloma"},{id:"208476",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Mercedes",surname:"Pavez",slug:"maria-mercedes-pavez",fullName:"Maria Mercedes Pavez"}],corrections:null},{id:"56322",title:"Swallowing Disorders in Newborn and Small Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69921",slug:"swallowing-disorders-in-newborn-and-small-children",totalDownloads:1884,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reviews the main aspects of dysphagia in children: epidemiology, etiology, physiopathology, bedside assessment, and instrumental assessment in the perspective of planning treatment. More details will be given on the endoscopic assessment in children of different ages in consideration of the information useful in planning treatment. This chapter offers a review of the literature on the topic and a simple diagram of the main aspects of the management of dysphagia in children. This chapter aims to offer a simple and useful guide for students and professionals working in the field and suggestions for the implementation of clinical steps in daily practice when and where managing children with swallowing disorders is a reality.",signatures:"Daniele Farneti and Elisabetta Genovese",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56322",authors:[{id:"175419",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabetta",surname:"Genovese",slug:"elisabetta-genovese",fullName:"Elisabetta Genovese"},{id:"203197",title:"M.D.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Farneti",slug:"daniele-farneti",fullName:"Daniele Farneti"}],corrections:null},{id:"56581",title:"Reading Disorders and the Role of Speech-Language Pathologists",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70234",slug:"reading-disorders-and-the-role-of-speech-language-pathologists",totalDownloads:2193,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Speech-language pathologists have been actively involved with the assessment and intervention processes of language disorders, especially concerning the child population. Regarding their professional role toward reading disorders, other professionals have been equally involved with the learning process such as educational psychologists, educators, for instance. It is therefore less clear of the involvement and possible role of speech-language pathologists, focused on adolescent and young adults with reading difficulties that may interfere with the learning processes. The aim of this chapter is to discuss the competences of speech-language pathologists and their essential role in the clinical settings with reading disorders, not only with children but also at later stages in the schooling process. Additionally, it will be discussed of the role of these professionals as a part of the school team in order to advice best practices of language-related learning processes, as well as to work with students who need special education adaptations, in all ages.",signatures:"Ana Luiza Navas, Tais Ciboto and Juliana Postigo Amorina Borges",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56581",authors:[{id:"203355",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",surname:"Navas",slug:"ana-luiza-navas",fullName:"Ana Luiza Navas"},{id:"211298",title:"MSc.",name:"Tais",surname:"Ciboto",slug:"tais-ciboto",fullName:"Tais Ciboto"},{id:"211299",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",surname:"P.A. Borges",slug:"juliana-p.a.-borges",fullName:"Juliana P.A. Borges"}],corrections:null},{id:"56142",title:"Comorbidity of Motor and Sensory Functions in Childhood Motor Speech Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69710",slug:"comorbidity-of-motor-and-sensory-functions-in-childhood-motor-speech-disorders",totalDownloads:1922,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Subtypes of speech sound disorders (SSDs) with a sensorimotor origin are known as motor speech disorders (MSDs). The symptoms can be diverse, and the causes of the disorders in children are in many cases unknown. Examples of MSD are childhood apraxia of speech and dysarthria. MSD is often seen in neurodevelopmental disorders such as cerebral palsy, developmental coordination disorder (DCD) or autism spectrum disorders (ASD), or it is seen with no obvious diagnosis but usually with comorbid problems. Within all existing comorbidity dysfunctions, the motor and sensory systems are of interest for identifying possible underlying mechanisms of MSD. Namely, soft neurological signs such as hypotonia, decreased speed and low accuracy of motor skills and delayed motor development are given consideration by many researchers for better understanding of underlying motor mechanisms of MSD. Results from comorbidity studies highlight the relationship of MSD with complex sensorimotor tasks and sequential motor tasks. In this chapter, our aim is to frame findings from studies about comorbidity of sensory and motor dysfunctions in MSD in order to theorise affected mechanisms and propose an underlying global motor deficit. We will conclude with implications for therapy models.",signatures:"Helena Björelius and Şermin Tükel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56142",authors:[{id:"203489",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Şermin",surname:"Tükel",slug:"sermin-tukel",fullName:"Şermin Tükel"},{id:"204649",title:"MSc.",name:"Helena",surname:"Björelius",slug:"helena-bjorelius",fullName:"Helena Björelius"}],corrections:null},{id:"56728",title:"Information and Impression Regarding ASD Questionnaire Answered by Foreigners Living in Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70397",slug:"information-and-impression-regarding-asd-questionnaire-answered-by-foreigners-living-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1468,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) constitute a group of disorders characterized by changes present at early ages and manifesting in the areas of development of communication, behavior, and interpersonal relationship. Because ASD significantly affects communication and the social skills, all multicultural context needs to be better investigated. There is an urgent need to understand the impact of migratory process, bilingual environment exposure on the language development of children with ASD. The present study aims to present the results of 657 foreign residents in Brazil that answered an online questionnaire to know the consolidated information about ASD. Participants from 23 countries responded to the survey. Bolivia and Argentina were the countries with the highest number of participants. The present study found that 100% of the participants have heard of autism. About 80.6% of the sample had a family member with autism. The sociodemographic diversity identified in this study reflects the sociocultural diversity present in Brazil, besides reinforcing the importance of considering this population when thinking about strategies and behaviors directed at individuals with ASD.",signatures:"Cibelle Albuquerque de la Higuera Amato, Daniela Regina Molini-\nAvejonas and Cristina de Andrade Varanda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56728",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56728",authors:[{id:"38599",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Molini-Avejonas",slug:"daniela-molini-avejonas",fullName:"Daniela Molini-Avejonas"},{id:"204612",title:"Prof.",name:"Cibelle",surname:"Amato",slug:"cibelle-amato",fullName:"Cibelle Amato"}],corrections:null},{id:"56087",title:"Comparison of the Results of Token Test and Sentence Comprehension Test in Pre‐school Czech Children with Typical Language Development and with Speech‐Language Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69709",slug:"comparison-of-the-results-of-token-test-and-sentence-comprehension-test-in-pre-school-czech-children",totalDownloads:1377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"27 pre-school (26 native Czech-speaking and 1 native Russian-speaking) children (age 4; 6–7; 9 and gender 18 m; 9 f); 17 children with speech and language disorders from speech and language kindergarten (SLK) and 10 children with typical language development (TLD) from a kindergarten of common type, received two tests of language comprehension, the Token Test (TT) and the subtest from the Heidelberg Language Development Test (H-S-E-T) called The Sentence Comprehension Test (SCT). The results of the TT (success rate of children with TLD was 77%; children from SLK scored 70%) surpassed the results of the SCT (children with TLD 59%; children from SLK 44%) in both groups. The most severe deficiencies have been observed in children with SLI and a boy with severe bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. The observed differences between the means in both groups (TLD, N = 10; SLD, N = 17) were not statistically significant, using Student’s t-test (TT, p = 0.28; SCT, p = 0.11). There were not statistically significant differences between the means in children from three compared groups (TLD, N = 10; SLI, N = 8; articulation disorders, N = 6), using the ANOVA (TT, p = 0.60; SCT, p = 0.23).",signatures:"Renata Mlčáková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56087",authors:[{id:"203737",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Renata",surname:"Mlčáková",slug:"renata-mlcakova",fullName:"Renata Mlčáková"}],corrections:null},{id:"56060",title:"Speech Impairment, Phonation, Writing, Salivation, and Swallowing in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69711",slug:"speech-impairment-phonation-writing-salivation-and-swallowing-in-patients-with-parkinson-s-disease",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction Parkinson’s disease (PD) can influence the function of respiration, phonation and articulation, quality of speech, swallowing, salivation, and graphomotor skills.",signatures:"Goran Savić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56060",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56060",authors:[{id:"203214",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Goran",surname:"Savić",slug:"goran-savic",fullName:"Goran Savić"}],corrections:null},{id:"56124",title:"Response Behaviors in Conversational Speech among Japanese- and English-Speaking Parents and Their Toddlers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69743",slug:"response-behaviors-in-conversational-speech-among-japanese-and-english-speaking-parents-and-their-to",totalDownloads:1042,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present study aimed at exploring the responses of listeners in conversational speech between parents and toddlers. Children’s responses toward parents and parents’ responses toward children were the focus of this study. Participants included five dyads each of typically developing two‐year‐old toddlers and their parents from Japanese‐ and English‐speaking families. Responses of a mother/father toward a child or a child toward a mother/father were classified into three categories: non‐lexical backchannels (e.g., hoo, nn, hai), phrasal backchannels (e.g., hontoo “really,” soo desu ka “is that right?”), and repetition. The results showed that the average ratio of overall backchannels and repetitions produced by parents was quite similar in both languages and was much greater than that produced by children in both languages. Among Japanese‐speaking parents, non‐lexical backchannels and repetitions were preferred to phrasal backchannels, while among English‐speaking parents non‐lexical backchannels were most frequently used. With Japanese‐speaking parents, almost half of the repetitions were exact repetitions. They frequently repeated what a child had said and added the sentence‐final particle “ne” or content words. These findings are expected to be useful in understanding response behaviors in spoken communication between parents and their children.",signatures:"Yuko Yamashita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56124",authors:[{id:"202298",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuko",surname:"Yamashita",slug:"yuko-yamashita",fullName:"Yuko Yamashita"}],corrections:null},{id:"56331",title:"Variables That Influence Articulation Accuracy in Children with Down Syndrome and Specific Language Disorder: Similarities and Differences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69933",slug:"variables-that-influence-articulation-accuracy-in-children-with-down-syndrome-and-specific-language-",totalDownloads:1511,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Research about speech sound disorders (SSD) in children with Down syndrome (DS) and children with specific language impairment (SLI) suggests similar linguistic profiles with weakness in phonology skills. The question is if these similarities are superficial or share deficits in levels and underlying skills to its speech disorders: phonological memory (PM), coordination motor skills, and articulatory muscular system. Our research involved 24 children divided into four groups: SLI, DS, and two groups of typical development. SLI group presented a mild‐moderate speech disorder and DS group moderate‐severe. Following skills were evaluated: nonverbal intelligence, PM, and oral motor coordination (oral‐DDK). The Iowa Oral Performance Instrument (IOPI) was used for the measurement of physiological variables (strength and endurance of tongue and lips). Percentage of consonants correct (PCC) was found. Phonological memory, motor coordination, and physiological variables are factors associated with SSD in teenagers with DS. However, SSD in children with SLI only are associated to phonological memory. Motor coordination and physiological variables are not involved in their SSD of mild and moderate‐severe levels. We have objectively measured the strength and endurance of tongue and lips. This may have clinical implications. It is necessary to assess objectively all the variables affecting articulatory accuracy to design intervention programs in SSD.",signatures:"Miriam Zarzo-Benlloch, José F. Cervera-Mérida and Amparo Ygual-\nFernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56331",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56331",authors:[{id:"204358",title:"Dr.",name:"Amparo",surname:"Ygual Fernández",slug:"amparo-ygual-fernandez",fullName:"Amparo Ygual Fernández"},{id:"210247",title:"Dr.",name:"José F",surname:"Cervera-Mérida",slug:"jose-f-cervera-merida",fullName:"José F Cervera-Mérida"}],corrections:null},{id:"56042",title:"Cross-Cultural Adaption of the GRBAS and CAPE-V Scales for Portugal and a New Training Programme for Perceptual Voice Evaluation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69644",slug:"cross-cultural-adaption-of-the-grbas-and-cape-v-scales-for-portugal-and-a-new-training-programme-for",totalDownloads:1518,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Several methods have been proposed for the perceptual evaluation of voice quality, but the GRBAS and Consensus Auditory-Perceptual Evaluation of Voice (CAPE-V) scales are the most widely used and recommended as part of standardised voice evaluation protocols. In this study, cross-cultural adaptation and translation of the GRBAS (the first translation from the original Japanese version) and CAPE-V scales to European Portuguese were carried out following international guidelines. Results from a study of the intra- and inter-rater reliability of the perceptual evaluation of voices with the GRBAS and CAPE-V scales, before and after a training programme, designed according to the most recent American Speech-Language-Hearing Association and Japan Society of Logopedics and Phoniatrics guidelines, are also reported.",signatures:"Luis M.T. Jesus, Ana Inês Tavares and Andreia Hall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56042",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56042",authors:[{id:"202906",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Jesus",slug:"luis-jesus",fullName:"Luis Jesus"},{id:"204680",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ana Inês",surname:"Tavares",slug:"ana-ines-tavares",fullName:"Ana Inês Tavares"},{id:"204681",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreia",surname:"Hall",slug:"andreia-hall",fullName:"Andreia Hall"}],corrections:null},{id:"55960",title:"The Advanced Voice Function Assessment Databases (AVFAD): Tools for Voice Clinicians and Speech Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69643",slug:"the-advanced-voice-function-assessment-databases-avfad-tools-for-voice-clinicians-and-speech-researc",totalDownloads:1816,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A new open access resource called Advanced Voice Function Assessment Databases (AVFAD) was developed, based on a sample of 709 individuals (346 clinically diagnosed with vocal pathology and 363 with no vocal alterations) recruited in Portugal. All clinical conditions were registered according to the Classification Manual of Voice Disorders-I. Participants were audio-recorded, producing the following vocal tasks: Sustaining vowels /a, i, u/; reading of six CAPE-V sentences; reading a phonetically balanced text; spontaneous speech. The AVFAD are comprised of 8648 uncompressed audio files and an additional database file with 19 Praat Voice Report parameter values and 16 clinical data entries per participant. An annotated segment of the vowel /a/ for each participant was analysed automatically with a Praat script. Radial graphs were generated considering that all variables had an approximately normal distribution, and using previously calculated average and standard deviation values for all parameters. The normal and pathological f0 mean, Jitter ppq5, Shimmer apq11 and Harmonics-to-Noise-Ratio characteristics were compared. An additional analysis of the relation between the acoustic parameters and gender, age group, smoking habits, body mass index and voice usage, was considered. The AVFAD will allow future cooperative work and testing of non-invasive methods for voice pathology diagnosis.",signatures:"Luis M.T. Jesus, Inês Belo, Jessica Machado and Andreia Hall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55960",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55960",authors:[{id:"202906",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Jesus",slug:"luis-jesus",fullName:"Luis Jesus"},{id:"204681",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreia",surname:"Hall",slug:"andreia-hall",fullName:"Andreia Hall"},{id:"204682",title:"Mrs.",name:"Inês",surname:"Belo",slug:"ines-belo",fullName:"Inês Belo"},{id:"204683",title:"MSc.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Machado",slug:"jessica-machado",fullName:"Jessica Machado"}],corrections:null},{id:"56698",title:"Risk Factors for Speech-Language Pathologies in Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70107",slug:"risk-factors-for-speech-language-pathologies-in-children",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Risk factors are understood to encompass “aspects of individual behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, hereditary or congenital characteristics that are associated with a health related condition”. These are conditions that increase the chances of the child presenting speech-language disorders and that can be avoided, controlled, or treated. Risk is defined as the chance of a child exposed to certain factors (environmental or biological) to acquire or develop speech-language disorders. The objectives of the present study were: to identify the risk factors for speech-language disorders in children up to five years of age and to verify the relationship between risk factors and speech-language diagnostic hypotheses. The aspects of being male gender, prematurity, shyness, being an only child or youngest child, presenting deleterious oral habits, having a family history of speech-language disorders, and use of licit or illicit drugs during pregnancy seem to be the factors that should draw the attention of the health professionals in child development. Therefore, the monitoring of children who have these risk factors should be performed in order to promote the necessary stimulation and the construction of healthy environments.",signatures:"Daniela Regina Molini-Avejonas, Laís Vignati Ferreira and Cibelle\nAlbuquerque de La Higuera Amato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56698",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56698",authors:[{id:"38599",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Molini-Avejonas",slug:"daniela-molini-avejonas",fullName:"Daniela Molini-Avejonas"},{id:"204612",title:"Prof.",name:"Cibelle",surname:"Amato",slug:"cibelle-amato",fullName:"Cibelle Amato"},{id:"210543",title:"Ms.",name:"Laís",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"lais-ferreira",fullName:"Laís Ferreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"56414",title:"Evidence for Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) Assessment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70036",slug:"evidence-for-speech-sound-disorder-ssd-assessment",totalDownloads:1636,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Comprehensive studies on aspects related to the assessment of different biomedical parameters (acoustic and laryngeal signs and oral airflow amplitude), as well as parameters for speech disorders, articulation rate, speech inconsistency, and speech stimulability, are essential for better professional practice and to understand misarticulations in children with speech sound disorders (SSDs). Different equipments that enable noninvasive collection and analysis of data have become more common in speech-language pathology practice. Studies recently conducted by our research group have emphasized the evaluation of auditory-perceptual processing by means of assessments of central auditory processing, electrophysiology of hearing—considering that pure-tone, speech audiometry, and tympanometry are routinely used with children during the diagnostic phase and motor speech production performed by acoustic analysis of speech, electroglottography, aerodynamic measures, and ultrasound tongue imaging. This chapter presents the recent advances observed in studies with Brazilian-Portuguese speakers aiming to improve the assessment of speech sound disorders and to understand better the relationship between the different processing mechanisms involved in speech.",signatures:"Haydée Fiszbein Wertzner, Danira T. Francisco, Tatiane F. Barrozo\nand Luciana O. Pagan-Neves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56414",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56414",authors:[{id:"204570",title:"Prof.",name:"Haydée",surname:"Wertzner",slug:"haydee-wertzner",fullName:"Haydée Wertzner"},{id:"204572",title:"MSc.",name:"Danira",surname:"Francisco",slug:"danira-francisco",fullName:"Danira Francisco"},{id:"204573",title:"MSc.",name:"Tatiane",surname:"Barrozo",slug:"tatiane-barrozo",fullName:"Tatiane Barrozo"},{id:"204574",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",surname:"Pagan-Neves",slug:"luciana-pagan-neves",fullName:"Luciana Pagan-Neves"}],corrections:null},{id:"56105",title:"Superhero Costumes as a Method for Treating Children with Selective Mutism: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69613",slug:"superhero-costumes-as-a-method-for-treating-children-with-selective-mutism-a-case-study",totalDownloads:1533,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter describes a creative method for treating children with selective mutism. It is a case study of a 5 year, 8 month old child who has been silent since the first day of school for 2.5 years. No one, for 2.5 years, has ever heard him speak. He used to stare at his classmates as they played but did not participate. His mother described his language as normal and behavior as quiet. When the researcher first saw him he was wearing a “Superman” costume. The researcher used the child’s ambition to be superman as a platform to think creatively to treat his deficiency. He spoke in 1 hour and 30 minutes. The single session treatment successfully treated the child and he was observed afterwards for 2 months, no relapses, and he continued speaking. To maintain the success, the teacher and the student-teacher were advised to use the “descriptive language approach.” He was observed regularly.",signatures:"Nada Yousef Alrabiah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56105",authors:[{id:"203541",title:"Dr.",name:"Nada",surname:"AlRabiah",slug:"nada-alrabiah",fullName:"Nada AlRabiah"}],corrections:null},{id:"56281",title:"Remote Speech-Language Intervention, with the Participation of Parents of Children with Autism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70106",slug:"remote-speech-language-intervention-with-the-participation-of-parents-of-children-with-autism",totalDownloads:1530,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The question about the possibility of identifying the best therapeutic approach for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has also been discussed in the literature. The intervention should be individualized, in order to involve the current level of development of the child and to identify the profile of the facilities and difficulties of each child. The families are constantly involved in complex and changeable context and are aware of the importance of access and participation to the treatment chosen, since that service delays can directly affect efficacy. In general, studies on language acquisition and development in autism focus on the child’s communication, and some analyze the mother seeking to understand how the role of parents and caregivers influences the communication of the children with autism. Observing the importance of the active inclusion of parents in the speech and language therapy of children with ASD, a Distance Speech Therapy Intervention project, was developed that would allow language stimulation of a greater number of children and adolescents with autism.",signatures:"Milene Rossi Pereira Barbosa and Fernanda Dreux Miranda\nFernandes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56281",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56281",authors:[{id:"28286",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda Dreux Miranda",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"fernanda-dreux-miranda-fernandes",fullName:"Fernanda Dreux Miranda Fernandes"},{id:"171244",title:"Dr.",name:"Milene Rossi P.",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"milene-rossi-p.-barbosa",fullName:"Milene Rossi P. Barbosa"}],corrections:null},{id:"55924",title:"Recovery from Diffuse Brain Injuries: Two Case Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69624",slug:"recovery-from-diffuse-brain-injuries-two-case-studies",totalDownloads:1173,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Subarachnoid hemorrhages (SAHs) are grave medical emergencies, whereas 30–50% of all SAHs may ultimately result in death. Subarachnoid hemorrhages share many resemblances with other neurological traumas such as a cerebral vascular accident, meningitis, and/or traumatic brain injury. Autoimmune encephalopathies (AE) occur when human antibodies assault the body’s cell surfaces and/or synaptic proteins. Consequently, widespread nervous system and diffuse brain involvement may occur. With subarachnoid hemorrhages and autoimmune encephalopathies, multiple areas of cognition and language can be impaired. Case studies in communication sciences and disorders are underutilized, yet are important in evidenced‐based practice. Speech‐language pathologists in medical settings have worked with patients and families with similar types of disorders. Therefore, speech‐language pathologists should be well equipped to provide therapy with these types of injuries. This chapter presents two case studies and cognitive language rehabilitation strategies following diffuse brain injuries.",signatures:"Alejandro E. Brice and Roanne G. Brice",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55924",authors:[{id:"201179",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Brice",slug:"alejandro-brice",fullName:"Alejandro Brice"},{id:"217135",title:"Ms.",name:"Jennifer",surname:"Walker",slug:"jennifer-walker",fullName:"Jennifer Walker"}],corrections:null},{id:"56051",title:"Intervention Program for Brazilian Children with Language Delay",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69757",slug:"intervention-program-for-brazilian-children-with-language-delay",totalDownloads:1501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The acquisition and development of language are primary in a child’s life, especially because language is one of the main means of social interaction. Therefore, it is of great importance that good language development has been assured to children and, when necessary, good intervention at their difficulties. Currently, in the field of children’s language in Brazil, different therapeutic approaches are arguable, but the necessity of development of structured therapeutic programs is verified, elaborated with technical and scientific quality so that they may stimulate the different abilities of language, aiming at considering the specificities of each child in order to minimize the difficulties. Such intervention programs would guide speech-language pathologists to plan their therapies and provide more effects in the intervention process. The aim of this study is to elaborate a stimulation program for verbal language for children with language delay. For this reason, the stimulation program was judged by peers (experts) after it was designed. The experts verified if the strategies were coherent about (a) the stimulation target and (b) the complexity level. In conclusion, the program reached the goal, since it could give direction and enhance to speech-language pathologists in cases of difficulties in verbal language.",signatures:"Camilla Guarnieri and Simone Aparecida Lopes-Herrera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56051",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56051",authors:[{id:"202582",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",surname:"Lopes-Herrera",slug:"simone-lopes-herrera",fullName:"Simone Lopes-Herrera"},{id:"204676",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camilla",surname:"Guarnieri",slug:"camilla-guarnieri",fullName:"Camilla Guarnieri"}],corrections:null},{id:"56560",title:"The Role of Speech and Language Therapist in Autism Spectrum Disorders Intervention – An Inclusive Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70235",slug:"the-role-of-speech-and-language-therapist-in-autism-spectrum-disorders-intervention-an-inclusive-app",totalDownloads:2341,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The chapter describes the possibilities of involving a speech-language therapist in the assessment of the pragmatic level of communication in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), where one of the most frequently impaired areas is communication pragmatics. These difficulties lead to a disruption of social interaction, which might be one of the obstacles to speech-language intervention in these children. The text is based on an originally developed testing material aimed at selected pragmatic-oriented communication situations relating to everyday activities and real life. Based on a comparison of domestic and international resources in this area, as well as mediated and own empirical experience, our assessment approach is based on the conclusion that pragmatics can be understood in different contexts and perspectives. The text presents the results of a partial survey comparing the performance of children with ASD and children with typical development. The assessment focused on the children’s election of the correct picture of a pair of pictures that represent usual communication and social situations. The results of the research suggest fewer incorrect responses in children with ASD and in different areas compared with children with typical development. However, the results of a qualitative analysis indicate a necessity to expand the assessment of communication pragmatics by adding an individually specific qualitative analysis of children’s performance.",signatures:"Kateřina Vitásková and Lucie Kytnarová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56560",authors:[{id:"203061",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kateřina",surname:"Vitásková",slug:"katerina-vitaskova",fullName:"Kateřina Vitásková"},{id:"212035",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucie",surname:"Kytnarová",slug:"lucie-kytnarova",fullName:"Lucie Kytnarová"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"66689",slug:"risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterials",signatures:"Guilherme Lenz e Silva, Camila Viana, Danieli Domingues and Fernanda Vieira",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - 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Hearing loss, vertigo, dizziness, and tinnitus are the common symptoms in otology clinics. The cochlea and vestibule in the inner ear are filled with endolymph and perilymph, and the homeostasis of the water and blood circulation in the inner ear is essential for maintaining its hearing and equilibrium functions [1]. There are more evidence of interactions between sex hormones and the function of the inner ear, especially in the mechanism of hearing impairment and balance disorders in old women and pregnant women. Is the female sex steroid estrogen the key to preserved hearing in the aging human? Is the hearing loss more profound in elderly males than females? Is the hearing loss easier spontaneously recovered in pregnant women? All these questions remain unanswered. In this chapter, we will discuss the mechanism of sex hormones on the inner ear, describe both clinical and basic research that has led us to our current understanding, and conclude with future perspectives on avenues of investigation that will contribute to stratification strategies on the hearing loss, tinnitus, autophony, and dizziness resulted from the changes in sex hormone levels.
\nThe sex hormones, including estrogen, progesterone, and androgen, are known to be implicated in normal auditory function in different proportions [2]. It is the balance of all three hormones in the body that promotes human health and vitality, including inner ear functions. Estrogen is usually thought of a “female” hormone; it may act as an auditory protectant; it is made in the ovaries, adrenal glands, and fat cells; and its levels are higher in those of reproductive age, which is helpful to prevent bone loss and works toward maintaining good cholesterol levels. Estrogens are known to facilitate the loss of intravascular fluid into the extravascular space, producing edema; however, blood vessel permeability, blood circulation, or inflammation has been reported to be related to the inner ear diseases. Progesterone is the sex steroid frequently mentioned for sexual health. In women, it is produced in the ovaries and through ovulation, which performs different benefits in balancing the unwanted effects of estrogen, helping the body use fat for energy, maintaining healthy weight, promoting restful sleep, and protecting against breast and uterine cancer; however, it may have a negative effect on hearing [3]. Androgen is a “male” hormone, the primary and most well-known androgen is testosterone, produced in the testicles and to a lesser degree in the adrenal glands, which helps build muscle tome, increases energy, contributes to a healthy libido, and aids in sperm production [4]. Healthy levels are also important in women; testosterone is produced in the female ovaries and a small amount is made in the adrenal glands, which helps to increase libido, promote musculoskeletal tone and strength, and raise energy levels. When testosterone is too high, however, it can lead to acne, unwanted hair on the face and body, polycystic ovaries with resulting interference of ovulation, and aggression among other concerns. Getting all three sex hormones balanced can be helpful for both men and women, and the results often offer clues on how to prevent unwanted inner ear symptoms in the future.
\nEstrogens influence physiological functions of many organs and systems in both female and male, including the skeletal, cardiovascular, and nervous systems, as well as the male urogenital tracts, mammary glands, and female reproductive organs. Estrogen could lead to neural excitation and thus facilitate auditory transmission, but the possible increase in neurosteroids in the brainstem may counteract this effect. Estrogen may act as an auditory protectant, which influences the inner ear at different levels, at the cochlea, vestibular organs, and more proximal levels.
\nEstrogens are mediated through estrogen receptors (ERs). There are at least three and possibly four distinct estrogen receptors. The most common estrogen receptors are ERα, which is encoded by a gene on chromosome 6, and ERβ, encoded by a gene on chromosome 14. Other ERs include G protein-coupled receptor (GFER, GPR30, and a putative receptor (ER-X), which has been studied mostly in brain [5]. Estrogen receptors α and β containing cells were also found in the inner ear, with a specific distribution pattern, both in auditory pathways and in the water/ion regulating areas. The presence of ERs in the inner ear cell nuclei implies that estrogen may have an influence on the inner ear and auditory functions. Estrogen receptors have been found in the inner ear of rats and mice in different cell types, including inner and outer hair cells, stria vascularis, spiral ligament, Reissner’s membrane, and spiral ganglion cells especially type I cells [5]. Moreover, estrogen receptors in the auditory epithelium of vertebrates also occur in fishes [6], cichlid [7], songbird [5], and rodents [8], which suggest a widespread occurrence of steroid-dependent auditory plasticity among the vertebrates.
\nBut in adult human inner ear, ERα-containing cells were only found in the spiral ganglion, and ERβ-containing cells in the stria vascularis selectively, which are important for hearing transmission and inner ear homeostasis [8]. It has been shown that there is less expression of ERα in strial marginal cells, outer hair cells, and type II ganglion cells [9]. ERα and ERβ are regulated depending on the stage of maturation, development, and pregnancy, suggesting that estrogen may have an effect on the cochlea during different life time. ERs were not found in the cochlea of the growing fetus, which implied that estrogen does not have an influence on the cochlea during the period of gestation [10]. Estrogen receptor mRNA is expressed in supporting cells with similar functions within the saccular epithelium of midshipman fish [6].
\nThe expression of ERα was found in forebrain nuclei, including anterior parvocellular (PPa) and anterior tuberal (AT), which are sites of the integration between auditory and vocal motor system [11], and anterior tuberal is densely innervated by the neuropeptides, arginine vasotocin and isotocin, which modulate vocal motor patterning in midshipman [12, 13, 14]. Also, in some gene knockout studies, estradiol plays an important role in the regulation of both vasopressin and oxytocin, especially by ERα in limbic regions [15, 16] and by ERβ in hypothalamic areas [17].
\nThe expression of ERs in known target organs is influenced by the amount of estrogen in the serum. Lots of studies have shown a gender difference in hearing function. And some of them suggested that part of this variation was because of the difference in estrogen levels between the two genders. As for the expression pattern of ERs, there is no gender- or age-related difference to be found. However, the fluorescence intensity of ERα was stronger in female mice than in young male ones. To compare with, ERβ showed no significant difference. Also, the expression of ERs decreased with age. In the old mice, the fluorescence intensities of ERs were significantly decreased in both male and female [9].
\nMany clinical and basic studies have proved that estradiol plays an important role in auditory physiology, neuronal plasticity, and the metabolic levels of neurotransmitters [18, 19]. ERα might change cochlea and vestibular sensory transduction, and ERβ may have a neuroprotective effect in the inner ear [9]. ERβ protects the auditory system from acoustic trauma in young male and female mice. ERβ in accordance with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes neuronal plasticity and protection against trauma in the auditory system [20]. But experimental estrogen-induced hyperprolactinemia leads to hearing loss in the guinea pig. It suggests that otic capsule and hair cell pathology related with estrogen-induced prolonged hyperprolactinemia and conditions such as pregnancy may lead to similar auditory pathology [21]. 17β-estradiol leads to adjustments in the molecular biology of the cochlea and the inferior colliculus of mouse accompanied with behavioral alternations [22]. Estrogen-related receptor gama (ESSR) plays a role in maintenance of hearing in both humans and mice [23].
\nProgesterone is secreted principally by the granulosa lutein cells of the corpus luteum, which are formed from granulosa cells after the luteinizing hormone surge. Progesterone is the main hormone of pregnancy, and in pregnancy, after week 8, the placenta replaces the corpus luteum as the main source of progesterone. Several steroids have similar properties and are together classified as the “progestogens.” These include 17α-hydroxyprogesterone and pregnenolone as well as progesterone itself.
\nThe two main progesterone receptors are progesterone receptor-A and progesterone receptor-B. And, there are two isoforms of the progesterone receptor encoded by the same gene, but with different start sites for transcription, hence the increased size of progesterone receptor-B compared with progesterone receptor-A. Expression of the progesterone receptor is regulated by estrogens, while progesterone receptors have an important effect, mediated by progesterone receptor-A, in inhibiting the proliferative actions of estrogen. For this reason, progesterone is nearly always given in addition to estrogen therapy, for example, in the oral contraceptive pill and in hormone replacement therapy. The presence of progesterone as a component in hormone replacement therapy leads to poorer hearing in aged women, affecting both the peripheral and central auditory system, and it interferes with the perception of speech in background noise [21].
\nNevertheless, there is no direct nuclear effect of progesterone in the inner ear. There is no nuclear progesterone receptor being found in human or rat stria vascularis, organ of Corti or spiral ganglion with immunohistochemistry, or polymerase chain reaction (PCR). But, progesterone receptor-B is being found with Western blot in the cochlea. It probably indicates the staining in the cochlea bone. In this case, the effect of progesterone on hearing is probably not relevant to the action in the inner ear [25].
\nProgesterone receptors are important for integration of external signals and internal physiological cues in the brain to output an appropriate behavior. In a study using the frog,
Androgens, which are produced by Leydig cells, like all steroid hormones, are made from cholesterol. A range of androgens is made in the body and, although most of these come from the testes, some are made in the adrenal cortex. The most potent and important of these androgens is testosterone, and by far the highest production of testosterone is in the testes. Testosterone has two main actions: the initiation of spermatogenesis and the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics. In order to achieve the second group of actions, testosterone must be converted to 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). This conversion happens outside the testes, in peripheral tissues. Furthermore, both testosterone and DHT act on the same receptor, the androgen receptor (AR).
\nIn contrast to these well-known effects of estradiol on hearing function, relatively little is known about how androgens might influence hearing or whether androgen receptors (AR) are also expressed in the inner ear of vertebrates. The lack of regenerative ability of adult mammalian cochlea and the irreversible degeneration of cochlear sensory hair cells leads to permanent hearing loss. Whether the androgen receptors (ARs) establish in the inner ear, there are many studies on it, in a transcriptomic analysis of the developing and adult mouse cochlear sensory epithelia, the adult cochlear sensory epithelium overexpressed 2542 transcripts including new transcripts, such as AR, which previously were not reported to be expressed in the adult cochlea [27].
\nIn all major vertebrate animals, androgen receptors have been identified in neural circuits that shape vocalization. Many of those nuclei mentioned above are part of the known vocal and auditory circuit in midshipman. The distribution of androgen receptor mRNA supports that androgens modulate behaviorally defined vocal, auditory, and neuroendocrine circuits in teleost fish and vertebrates in general [28].
\nAdditionally, testosterone in serum increased neural thresholds in females in a frequency-specific way [29]. And hyperandrogenism may be responsible for the elevation of hearing threshold, particularly in the high frequency, in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome [30, 31, 32]. On the contrary, hyperandrogenism did not seem to affect otoacoustic emission levels or the medial olivocochlear reflex response in adult female subjects [33].
\nIn audiology, the usage of biomedical interventions and biotherapeutic methods could play an important role in modulating or preventing some kinds of hearing loss. Planar cell polarity is of high importance as it regulates cochlea extension and coordinates orientation of sensory hair cells in the inner ear. If we could use the effect of sex hormone in the inner ear, the establishment of ectopic hair cell-like cell polarity could be built. Testosterone is related to the neuroprotection and regeneration in central nervous system. We could promote an increase in hair cell-like cell polarity in the LER through proliferation and transdifferentiation by using testosterone-3-(O-carboxymethyl) oxime bovine serum albumin and Math1 treatment [34]. In the treatment of immune-mediated sensorineural hearing loss, it was confirmed that testosterone has the preventive and therapeutic effects induced by sensitization using bovine inner ear antigens [35].
\nThe levels of sex hormones vary in response to endogenous and exogenous stimuli and many vary in a cyclic fashion. The endocrine changes related to reproductive function (ovarian cycle, pregnancy, and menopause) could in turn affect auditory and balance function. Additionally, there are multiple interactions between the sex hormones involved in these physiological changes and this enhances the possible multidirectional effects on the inner ear.
\nIn the ovarian cycle, the levels of estrogen and progesterone in the body have a dynamic regulation. Both clinical and basic studies have proved that the changes of auditory and balance system are attributed to estradiol and progesterone. In other words, the fluctuating hearing levels are evident in females during the ovarian cycle. Across the life span, both women and men undergo transitions in reproductive status related in part to changes in sex hormone levels. There is controversy over how hormonal conditions influence cerebral physiology related to evoked potentials and perceptual speech processing in women during ovarian cycle. Hearing thresholds change upon different sex hormone levels during the menstrual cycle [36]. And hearing conduction, measured by auditory brainstem response, is better in postovulatory phase compared with preovulatory phase of menstrual/ovarian cycle [37]. Also, brainstem auditory evoked potentials change in the mid follicular and the mid luteal phases of the ovarian cycle [38]. Moreover, ovarian cycle effects on postural stability but not optokinetic function, and this needs to be considered when conducting studies of postural stability in women [39]. Studies of dichotic listening in women of the reproductive age also show that there is variation in laterality as a function of menstrual cycle phase. The perceptual speech processing of women is highly plastic and operates at varying states of functional asymmetry across days of the menstrual cycle, which are consistent with other works showing menstrual cycle-related changes in lateralized neurocognitive systems in the language domain [40, 41, 42].
\nMore organs are found to be influenced by the positive effects of estrogen, and estrogen has been expected to be benefit on auditory system by many investigators. As for the postmenopausal women, many studies suggested that the hearing and balancing problem appeared might be related to their sex hormone levels. Hearing loss in older people usually affects the highest frequencies early on and gradually affects the lower frequencies. Progesterone may have negative effects on the hearing of pre- and postmenopausal women and aging mice. On the contract, estrogen was found in some situation to have a positive influence [25]. The auditory brainstem response thresholds of postmenopausal female are higher than younger men or women [43, 44]. And the lower level of circulating serum estradiol possibly impedes hearing sensitivity in postmenopausal women, which has no relationship with bone mineral densities [45].
\nIntrinsic estrogen at physiological levels might slow down hearing loss in aging women [46]. At the same time, estrogen therapy may slow down the hearing loss in aging postmenopausal women [47]. Tibolone, a synthetic steroid drug with estrogenic, progestogenic, and weak androgenic actions, is often used in the hormone replacement therapy for menopausal or premenopausal women. And tibolone had no negative effect on hearing function and might decelerate hearing loss in aging postmenopausal women, intrinsic estrogen at physiological levels might slow down hearing loss in aging women [46]. After treatment of healthy menopausal women with tibolone for 6 months, the improvement was more prominent on the right side in audiometry results at low frequency. It may be explained by differences in distribution of ER in the ear. ERs might be more dense in the right ear, so give better response to estrogen therapy [47]. Many studies have showed that estrogen affects hearing function, especially in the postmenopausal women; a recent study gets a result that there may be hearing lateralization in menopausal women, especially significant improvement on right ear can be explained by lower BMD on that side ear bones in turn better response to estrogen therapy due to this, which may be related to ER concentration and the more dense of type ERα and/or ERβ in the right ear [48].
\nAccording to the vestibular function, the level of estradiol and progesterone decreases obviously in postmenopausal women with benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, which can cause the inner ear microcirculation disorder, may be a risk factor of BPPV [49].
\nAlthough estrogen has been expected to be benefits on auditory system, both clinician and patients need to take into concern that estrogen may have some unwanted side effects, such as increased risk of uterine cancer. Because in the central nervous system, ERβ is highly expressed in neurons and glial cells. And there is little ERβ in the mature uterus, selective ERβ agonists, then they become available [50, 51].
\nHearing loss appeared in pregnancy is not a commonly reported problem. Some investigators have noticed reversible and physiological sensorineural hearing loss at low frequencies during the period of pregnancy [52, 53]. In some case reports, sudden onset of sensorineural hearing loss during pregnancy has been described [54], and one report concerning a patient who had the hearing loss with each serial pregnancy [55]. But a nationwide population-based study suggested that sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL) in pregnancy is rare. SSNHL is defined as sudden, idiopathic, usually unilateral deafness developed at most in 72 hours in previously healthy people [56]. It often happens in the third trimester. And SSNHL in pregnancy does not increase the risks of delivery or subsequent stroke [57]. As for the mechanism, there is a hypothesis implied that SSNHL is connected with the changes in cardiovascular system, hematological system, and/or some other systems because of pregnancy. These changes in pregnancy may evoke disorders of cochlea circulation or cochlea fluid homeostasis resulting in SSNHL [57]. Otosclerosis is one of the most common causes of acquired hearing loss and is widely supposed as being related with pregnancy. Another study revealed that resonance frequency of middle ear was found to be low during the third trimester of the pregnancy. And low resonance frequency informs that the acoustic immittance of the middle ear changes during pregnancy [58].
\nTinnitus is another auditory symptom in pregnant patients, with proposed theories of pathogenesis, including hyperdynamic circulation, increase in perilymphatic fluid pressure, and hormonal changes. Clinically, it appears that the hearing loss and tinnitus related to pregnancy can spontaneously recover. As for treatment, it depends on the otorhinolaryngologic doctors to decide whether they should administer steroid drugs for acute hearing loss, as it may recover after the delivery [54].
\nAutophony is a classic complaint of patients suffering from a patulous Eustachian tube (PET). The typical patients with PET have lost a drastic amount of weight, resulting in shrinkage of the peritubal mucous membranes. One third of the patients with PET are either pregnant or taking an estrogen replacement therapy [59]. In order to resolve the symptoms postpartum, management should consist of informative reassurance alone [60].
\nThere is an increase in incidence of Bell’s palsy (BP) during pregnancy [61]. One of the reasons could be a brain stem synaptic impairment caused by estrogen, presumably because of ischemic changes [62]. And most of them seem to be concentrated in the third trimester. The most likely explanation about the concentration in the third trimester may be the altered susceptibility to herpes simplex viral reactivation during pregnancy. And the prognosis of pregnant patients may be poorer [63].
\nMany authors have shown that a gender differences in auditory function and some of them implied that part of this variation was due to the difference in estrogen levels between females and males. There are well-known sex differences in the auditory brainstem response, with women having shorter latencies than men [64]. Hearing loss is more profound in elderly males than females. Many early studies on otoacoustic emissions revealed the existence of sex and ear differences in human beings. Some also revealed that the sex and ear differences in adults are evident in newborns as well. These differences are in the direction of human females having stronger and more numerous spontaneous otoacoustic emissions and stronger click-evoked otoacoustic emissions than do males; also, human right ears have stronger and more numerous spontaneous otoacoustic emissions and stronger click-evoked otoacoustic emissions than do left ears. There is a so-called prenatal-androgen-exposure explanation. Prenatal androgen exposure apparently can alter auditory evoked potentials. The sex difference in otoacoustic emissions in newborns may be that the prenatal androgen exposure in some way weakens the cochlea amplifiers and thereby weakens spontaneous otoacoustic emissions and click-evoked otoacoustic emissions (and perhaps distortion product otoacoustic emissions less markedly) [65].
\nSex differences are limited to frequency ranges, which are related to the processing of natural vocalizations and depend on the type of stimulus. In a research using green tree frog,
Gender differences also occur in some pathological situations. In the presence of sex hormone receptors in human middle ear cholesteatoma, stronger expression of progesterone receptor was found in samples from male patients, while stronger expression of estrogen receptor was found in samples from female patients. It suggests that female sex hormones may stimulate proliferation of middle ear cholesteatoma keratinocytes [67]. Estrogen levels between females and males in different ages may influence the function of the auditory systems, and the details of the mechanism should be studied in the future.
\nConsiderable anecdotal evidence and limited information from previous studies suggest that auditory and vestibular functions may be influenced by sex hormones resulting in pathological conditions such as hearing disorders in Turner syndrome, Presbyacusis, Otosclerosis, and Menière’s disease.
\nHearing disorders are obvious in mice and women with Turner syndrome (total or partial loss of one X chromosome) [68]. Approximately one-half of women with TS have a 45,X karyotype, about 20% have 45,X/46,XX mosaicism, and the remainder have structural abnormalities of the X chromosome such as X fragments, isochromosomes, or rings. TS is characterized by bilateral streak gonads, short stature, primary amenorrhea, streak ovaries, and no estrogen production, which often develop an early presbyacusis.
\nThe hearing loss features in patients with Turner Syndrome should be taken into consideration. The common clinical complaints are recurrent otitis media, dysfunction of the Eustachian tube, conductive hearing loss during infancy, and sensorineural hearing loss in the adolescence. The karyotype appears to be important in the hearing loss, with studies demonstrating an increased prevalence in patients with monosomy 45,X or isochromosome 46,i (Xq). It is necessary of morphologic studies of the cochlea to help out in clarifying the etiology of the sensorineural hearing loss [69]. And sensorineural hearing loss is the most common type of hearing loss. It is mostly characterized by a high-frequency loss and/or a mid-frequent dip. It is uncommon for conductive hearing loss in young women with Turner Syndrome. But in a TS cohort, 91% of patients suffered middle ear disease, but the incidence of SNHL was 9%. It is suggested that TS patients should be screened for onset and progression of hearing loss [70]. Consequently, there is a need for hearing rehabilitation in these patients. Questions about hearing must be asked by physicians when treating women with Turner Syndrome to identify those who need hearing rehabilitation, even if they have an audiogram with a normal pure tone average [71].
\nBoth the karyotype and sensorineural dip in hearing could be used to predict the future course of hearing levels for TS patients. And estrogen may have an influence on hearing loss in TS patients [72].
\nProgressive hearing loss is relatively common in human without a clear molecular basis and medical therapies. A new gene, WBP2, was defined to be involved in the molecular pathway linking hearing impairment to hormonal signaling and provides new therapeutic targets. WBP2 is required for normal glutamatergic synapses in the cochlea and is crucial for hearing [73].WBP2 encodes the protein that acts as a transcriptional coactivator for ERα (ESR1) and progesterone receptor. The loss of Wbp2 expression leads to progressive high-frequency hearing loss in mouse, as well as in two deaf children, each carrying two different variants in the WBP2 gene [73].
\nPresbyacusis or age-related hearing loss is a complex degenerative disease that affects many people worldwide. Gender does play a role in age-related hearing loss. Longitudinal studies of aging have shown that hearing declines more rapidly in males than females. Elderly people with presbyacusis not only have a loss in sensitivity to sound but also have significant difficulties understanding speech in background noise at supra-threshold, conversational levels. Many researchers have identified sex-specific differences in presbyacusis in humans and animal models [74].
\nThere is growing evidence that interactions between sex hormones and sensory systems are sometimes beneficial, but oftentimes detrimental, such as progesterone with negatively affect hearing in older women, whereas in some cases, estrogen may have positive effects [24]. Data from a large cohort of adults (48–92 years) in the Beaver Dam Epidemiology of Hearing Loss Study show significant age effects in word recognition scores in competing messages for both men and women, but performance is consistently poorer in men than in women at all age groups and hearing loss categories [75].
\nOtosclerosis is a major cause of acquired hearing loss in adult life affecting exclusively the human temporal bone, which is reported to worsen during periods of intense hormonal activity. Many researchers show a possible link between aggravation of otosclerosis and pregnancy is still debated. Thus, sex hormones were believed to be involved in the progression of the disease. Estrogen deficiency is considered to be a cause of osteoporosis in menopause women, and estrogen substitute therapy has shown beneficial effect in those cases [76].
\nOtosclerosis becomes manifest between the ages of 20–50 years and is usually bilateral. It affects twice as many females as males [77]. A retrospective study on a sample of 479 women with otosclerosis showed that the risk of subjective hearing deterioration with bilateral otosclerosis increased from 33% after one pregnancy to 63% after six pregnancies [78]. Several reports have suggested that oral contraceptives may increase the risk of hearing loss and in particular otosclerosis, although no clear conclusion has been drawn [79].
\nEstrogen has an inhibitory effect on bone resorption by directly inhibiting osteoclast activity as well as decreasing auto and paracrine production of cytokines such as interleukin (IL) 1 and IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor, TNF [80]. Researchers investigated the effect of 17β-estradiol on bone remodeling via diastrophic dysplasia sulfate transporter (DTDST) in otosclerosis and in a human osteoblast-like cell line, and they have demonstrated that the response to estrogens in terms of DTDST activity might be related to the expressed receptor type. It is possible that exacerbating effects of estrogens in patients with otosclerosis may be mediated by peculiar profiles of estrogen receptor in otosclerotic cells [81]. However, the regulatory mechanisms of Otosclerosis related to the estrogen receptor profile in the otosclerotic cells need to be further analyzed.
\nMenière’s disease is characterized by hearing loss, tinnitus, and vestibular dysfunction. It is thought that endolymph malabsorption is the underlying cause of the swelling of the endolymphatic spaces. Estrogens are known to facilitate the loss of intravascular fluid into the extravascular space, producing edema. Endogenous alterations in concentrations of estrogen and progesterone in the premenstrual syndrome or with the use of exogenous hormones such as oral contraceptives may trigger vertigo in patients with Menière’s disease. Many reports show that women with Menière’s disease were identified as having premenstrual phase of their monthly cycle or during pregnancy [82]. Genetic factors could contribute, at least partially to it. Many researchers have identified that in some women with Meniere’s disease, attacks of vertigo, low frequency hearing loss, aural fullness and tinnitus are exacerbated in the premenstrual phase, when estrogen levels are low with edema in the endolymphatic spaces due to the loss of intravascular fluid into the extravascular space facilitated by estrogens [83, 84, 85]. One possible explanation may be estrogen-induced hyperprolactinemia, which was reported to provoke hearing loss and otic capsule dysmorphology in guinea pig [24].
\nSignificant associations have been reported between Menière’s disease and genetic polymorphisms. Polymorphisms associated with blood vessel permeability, blood circulation, or inflammation have been reported to be related to the inner ear pathology. AQP5 is known as an exocrine-type water channel with the roles in conveying a high degree of membrane water permeability [86]. Mice lacking AQP5 show lower frequency hearing impairment [87]. Some researchers demonstrated identified AQP5 as an ESα target gene in the mouse uterus using chromatin immunoprecipitation and DNA microarray analyses [88].
\nSex hormone-related symptoms of auditory and vestibular systems are common in clinic. Here, we address by recognizing that interactions between sex hormones and sensory systems can be beneficial or detrimental to the peripheral and central auditory and vestibular systems. Knowing how sex steroids can alter hearing ability may give important clues as to how estrogen can preserve hearing in humans. The postmenopausal women have slightly better hearing if administered estrogen replacement therapy, physiological levels of estrogen would seem to have a possible protective effect on hearing function. The association described here shed light to the role of sex hormones and their receptors in the inner ear and behavior and underline the therapeutic potential of specific sex hormone agonists and antagonists.
\nThis study was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC 81420108010, 81370022, 81570920, 81771077 and 81000413), Key Project of Chinese National Programs (2016YFC0905200, 2016YFC0905202), and Zhuo-Xue Plan of Fudan University.
\nBreast cancer begins in the late 20s, but the mammary glands are well developed in the 20s and 30s, making initial diagnosis by X-ray mammography, which is a general examination, difficult. There is an ultrasonic diagnostic device (US) as an alternative method, but the reliability of the diagnosis depends on the skill of the inspector, the reproducibility of the data is poor, and continuous tomographic images cannot be obtained [1]. On the other hand, magnetic resonant image (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) are not candidates for examination equipment because of their large scale, long examination time, and high cost. Microwave imaging (MI) has a stronger contrast between soft tissues than X-rays and ultrasound. MI is not exposed to radiation, and has the characteristics of being small in scale and inexpensive. However, there are problems to be solved and it has not yet been put into practical use.
There are two types of MI, scattering tomography (ST), which solves the inverse scattering problem and reconstructs the relative permittivity and conductivity distribution in the breast, and confocal imaging (CI), which reconstructs the scattered power distribution [2]. In principle, the former can reconstruct the shape of intramammary tissue and is suitable as a diagnostic device. However, the inverse scattering problem is a non-linear ill-posed problem with more unknowns (relative permittivity / conductivity distribution in the breast) than the number of equations (measurement data), and is susceptible to modeling, manufacturing, and measurement errors. The latter has been clinically imaged by several research groups, including the author, and strong scattering has been confirmed around the cancer [3, 4, 5, 6]. However, even in breasts without lesions, meaningless scattered images (artifacts) appear due to multiple reflections in the breast, so how to identify the presence or absence of cancer is an issue.
In recent years, as a third method, research on near field holographic imaging (NFHI), which can reconstruct the shape of intramammary tissue, is also in progress [7, 8]. Since the principle of image reconstruction of NFHI is based on the principle of Fourier transform, the time required for image reconstruction is short. However, there are still problems that a huge amount of observation data is required to increase the resolution and that images cannot be reconstructed correctly with high-contrast objects.
In this chapter, we first explain the electrical properties of breast tissue, which is the basis of MI, based on large-scale measurement data [9]. Next, the basic device configuration of MI, three imaging algorithms, and the features of CI, ST, and NFHI are described. Next, we will introduce the equipment that implements these algorithms and the experimental results. Finally, the issues of MI and future prospects will be described.
Living tissue has different electrical properties depending on the tissue, and when electromagnetic waves are incident, reflection occurs at the boundary. The basis of MI is to detect reflections that occur at tissue boundaries. This section describes the electrical properties of breast tissue.
Living tissue is a lossy dielectric, and when an electromagnetic wave is incident, its wavelength is shortened and propagates while being attenuated. When an electromagnetic wave having a main polarization in the x-axis direction propagates in the z-axis direction through a dielectric having a loss, the electric field at an arbitrary distance z is expressed by the following equation.
Here,
Here, c0 is the speed of light propagating in the vacuum, and
The dielectric material with loss is represented by the complex permittivity.
It can be seen that the imaginary part of the complex permittivity changes with frequency. By the way, it is known that the real part of the complex permittivity of a living body changes depending on the frequency. The property of such a material is called dispersibility. The complex relative permittivity of dispersible materials can be modeled by the following equation [10].
The curve of the complex relative permittivity represented by Eq. (5) is called the Debye model. Figure 1 shows the result of measuring the complex relative permittivity of the mammary gland tissue by the probe method [11] (solid line) and the approximate curve (dotted line) modeled by Eq. (5). Here,
Complex dielectric constant of glandular tissue and approximation by Debye model.
The electrical constants of breast tissue can be measured using a dielectric probe [9, 11]. Ref. [11] shows that a cylindrical region with a depth of 1.5 mm and a radius of 3.75 mm is required to achieve a measurement error of 10% using a 2.2 mm diameter dielectric probe. In our study, we measure the complex permittivity of breast tissue using a 2.2 mm diameter dielectric probe in the dielectric measurement kit Keysight 85070E and a vector network analyzer, E5071C. The measurement range is 1–8 GHz.
In recent year, since breast cancer is often detected at an early stage, the size of the tumors removed by surgery has become smaller. To investigate the minimum required volume of a specimen, the dielectric constant was measured by placing ketchup in containers of various volumes. Ketchup is readily available and has about the same electrical constant as cancer. The container, apart from the petri dish, was created using a 3D printer. The material of the container is ABS resin. Figure 2 illustrates the appearance of the container and measurement system.
(a) Containers of various volumes, petri dish 1×1×0.5 cm, 0.5×0.5×0.5 cm container. (b) Measurement equipment for complex permittivity.
In the preliminary measurement using ketchup, for a container measuring 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.5 cm, an error of 3% occurred with respect to the measurement result of the petri dish. However, in a container measuring 1 × 1 × 0.5 cm, the error reduces to 1% or lower. We selected the 1 × 1 × 0.5 cm container for analysis. Samples removed by surgery were cut into fats, mammary glands, and cancerous tumor tissues. Each tissue was placed in a container and the probe was pressed downwards to measure the complex permittivity. Figure 3 shows a photograph of the tissue put in a container.
Tissue samples.
During the breast cancer surgery performed at Aichi Medical University from May 2018 to July 2020, breast tissue specimens were collected from 140 patients who consented to the specimen collection [9]. Table 1 shows the number of samples and the average age of the patients classified by case. Here, mammary gland tissues of the highest possible density were collected from every patient.
Histological classification | Patient | Tumor | Gland | Fat | Age (years) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Invasive ductal carcinoma | Tuble forming | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 59.6 |
Solid | 38 | 35 | 23 | 36 | 63.3 | |
Scirrhous | 64 | 52 | 46 | 58 | 61 | |
Others | 9 | 8 | 6 | 9 | 59.9 | |
Special | Invasive lobular carcinoma | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 63.6 |
Mucinous carcinoma | 6 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 66.8 | |
Others | 5 | 0 | 5 | 5 | 49.4 | |
Mixed connective tissue and epithelial tumors | Fibroadenoma | 5 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 31.1 |
Phyllodes tumor | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 54.2 | |
Total | 140 | 118 | 98 | 126 | 60.3 |
Number of samples taken out by surgery.
In recent years, there have been many stage 0 and stage 1 (tumors less than 2 cm) surgery, and it has not been possible to collect tumor tissues that can withstand measurement from all patients. X-ray mammography findings of mammary gland density revealed that nearly half of the patients had dense mammary glands. Due to the disappearance of mammary gland tissue at an older age, it was not possible to obtain mammary gland tissue that could be used for measurement from all patients.
Invasive ductal carcinoma accounts for 84%, of which more than half are scirrhous type. Fibroadenoma is more common in young women, with a minimum age of onset of 15 in this study. Five patients in their 30s with invasive ductal carcinoma account for 4% of all patients with invasive ductal carcinoma. All of the patients were at stage 2. Women in their 30s are not eligible for breast cancer screening in Japan. When cancer grows, it is said that necrosis and calcification occur in the center of the cancer. X-ray mammography detects this calcification. In the pathological findings, there were necrosis in 6 cases and calcification in 11 cases.
Figure 4 shows a typical example of the complex relative permittivity of the sample measured using the measurement system shown in Figure 2. The measurement result that we expect is that the relative permittivity of tumor tissue is considerably higher than that of mammary tissue, as shown in Figure 4a. However, as shown in Figure 4b, there were 8 cases in the scirrhous type and 1 case in the solid type in which the relative permittivity of the mammary gland tissue was higher than that of the tumor tissue. The reason for the opposite properties may be that, as noted in the Ref. [13], not all areas of the tumor sample are filled with tumor tissue.
(a) Measurement example of the complex permittivity, solid tubular carcinoma (Age 49, dense breast). (b) Measurement example of the complex permittivity, Scirrhous carcinoma (Age 49, dense breast).
Table 2 shows the average of relative permittivity εr and conductivity σ of tumor and mammary gland at 1.6 GHz by pathology. On average, the relative permittivity of cancer is 17.5% higher than that of mammary gland tissue, and the conductivity is 16.2% higher.
Histological classification | Tumor | Mammary gland | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
εr | σ [S/m] | εr | σ [S/m] | ||
Invasive ductal carcinoma | Tuble forming | 60.5 | 1.66 | 50.1 | 1.4 |
Solid | 58.6 | 1.59 | 49.8 | 1.39 | |
Scirrhous | 58.9 | 1.65 | 52.4 | 1.47 | |
Others | 59.6 | 1.63 | 41.6 | 1.15 | |
Special | Invasive lobular carcinoma | 58.4 | 1.63 | 43.0 | 1.19 |
Mucinous carcinoma | 65.3 | 1.93 | 45.9 | 1.3 | |
Others | — | — | 53.4 | 1.5 | |
Mixed connective tissue and epithelial tumors | Fibroadenoma | 62.7 | 1.74 | 60.2 | 1.73 |
Phyllodes tumor | 61.7 | 1.61 | — | — | |
Total | 59.5 | 1.65 | 50.6 | 1.45 |
Averaged permittivity and conductivity.
Fibroadenoma has the lowest contrast between the relative permittivity and conductivity of cancer and mammary gland. Fibroadenoma is common in women in their teens and 20s, has well-defined lump boundaries, and is often classified as a benign tumor. The disease is not a tumor, but is made up of an excessive amount of normal cells (anaplasia), so there is almost no difference in contrast with the mammary gland. Among the invasive cancers, tumors that are said to be a special type have a large contrast between the mammary gland and the cancer, and good detection by microwave imaging can be expected. The scirrhous type is the most common type of invasive ductal carcinoma, but the contrast between the relative permittivity and the conductivity of the cancer and mammary gland tissue is 12%, which is relatively small. Therefore, MI requires the ability to identify objects with a contrast of about 10%.
Table 3 shows the average Debye parameters for tumor and mammary gland by pathology. The Debye parameter is a parameter considering dispersibility (frequency characteristic). Relaxation time τ does not differ significantly between tumor tissue and mammary gland tissue. This is an important prior knowledge of ST for solving the inverse scattering problem [14]. Among the Debye parameters, ε∞ has an extremely high contrast between cancer and mammary gland. By utilizing this feature, it will become easy to distinguish between the mammary gland and cancer in microwave imaging.
Histological classification | Tumor | Mammary gland | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ε∞ | Δε | σs | ε∞ | Δε | σs | ||||
Invasive ductal carcinoma | Tuble forming | 5.63 | 55.9 | 0.94 | 11.6 | 1.25 | 49.7 | 0.77 | 11.5 |
Solid | 3.91 | 55.5 | 0.90 | 11.2 | 1.56 | 49.0 | 0.81 | 10.7 | |
Scirrhous | 4.59 | 55.2 | 0.95 | 11.4 | 0.59 | 52.5 | 0.85 | 10.5 | |
Others | 3.39 | 57.0 | 0.97 | 10.3 | 1.81 | 40.4 | 0.64 | 10.3 | |
Special | Invasive lobular carcinoma | 5.28 | 53.9 | 0.97 | 11.0 | −0.45 | 44.0 | 0.70 | 9.9 |
Mucinous carcinoma | −1.76 | 66.2 | 0.98 | 10.3 | −4.71 | 47.0 | 0.68 | 9.8 | |
Others | — | — | — | — | −1.88 | 55.9 | 0.90 | 9.7 | |
Mixed connective tissue and epithelial tumors | Fibroadenoma | 1.46 | 61.8 | 0.96 | 11.1 | 1.99 | 56.3 | 0.96 | 11.8 |
Phyllodes tumor | −0.45 | 63.0 | 0.89 | 10.3 | — | — | — | — | |
total | 3.87 | 56.3 | 0.94 | 11.2 | 0.64 | 50.5 | 0.81 | 10.6 |
Debye parameters.
Figure 5 is a plot showing the relationship between relative permittivity εr and conductivity σ of breast tissue at 1.6 GHz, It shows that there is a strong correlation between εr and σ. This is also important priori information for ST to solve the inverse scattering problem [15].
Linear relationship between relative permittivity and conductivity.
This chapter gives an overview of the configuration of an imaging device using microwaves and the algorithm for reconstructing images. The details of the reconstruction algorithm are omitted due to space limitations. For details of the reconstruction algorithm, refer to the related literature.
Figure 6 shows the hardware configuration of the MI system. Multiple antennas are placed around the object. One antenna is selected to transmit electromagnetic waves, and all antennas including the antenna used for transmission receive and record scattered waves from the imaging target. The observation data group Xnn (n = 1, .., N) is collected by changing the antenna used for transmission one after another. The first digit of the subscript of Xnn indicates the transmission condition number, and the second digit indicates the reception condition number. When transmitting and receiving using 18 antennas, N = 18 and 18 × 18 = 324 observation data groups can be obtained. If multiple signals are received at the same time, the hardware configuration becomes complicated, so a changeover switch is used for time-division reception. A commercially available vector network analyzer (VNA) can be used as the transmitter / receiver. Since short pulses are equivalent to wideband frequency sweep signals, VNA can be used even with radars that use pulses.
Hardware of the MI system.
Table 4 shows typical image reconstruction methods.
CI | NFHI | MT | |
---|---|---|---|
Reconstructed Image | Scattered power distribution | Reflection coefficients distribution | Complex permittivity distribution |
Reproduction of tissue shape | Impossible | Possible | Possible |
Processing time | Short | Very short | Long |
Installation | Easy | difficult | difficult |
Problems | • Identification of abnormal tissue | • Means for acquiring a large amount of observation data.• Investigating the effects of multiple reflections between objects | • Accuracy / resolution• Establishment of calibration method. • Design of high sensitivity antenna |
Reference | [3, 4, 5, 6, 16, 17, 18, 19] | [7, 8, 20] | [14, 15, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28] |
Image reconstruction method.
The principle of image reconstruction of CI is the same as that of ultrasonic diagnostic equipment. That is, while shifting the focal point set in the imaging region, the magnitude of the scattered wave at the focal point is calculated and the magnitude distribution is visualized. Electromagnetic waves are more attenuated in the body than ultrasonic waves, and objects embedded in the high contrast tissue cannot accurately reproduce the tissue image due to the multiple reflections. Reconstructed images of breasts of breast cancer patients have been reported by the author and several other research institutes [3, 4, 5, 6]. In all reports, large reflection images were observed around the cancer, but the shape and size of the cancer could not be accurately reconstructed. In addition, meaningless images are reconstructed even in cancer-free breasts. Doctors make a diagnosis from the reconstructed image, but it is not possible to make an accurate diagnosis because the tissue shape is not accurately reconstructed.
NFHI reconstructs the reflection coefficients’ distribution in the imaging region, and the reconstructed image reflects the shape of the tissue [20]. Since the image reconstruction is based on the Fourier transform of the spatial region, the reconstruction time is extremely short and real-time display will be possible. The problem is that the resolution is governed by the sampling theorem, so a huge amount of observation data is required to obtain a high-definition reconstructed image, and it is difficult to realize a practical data acquisition system. For example, in order to obtain a spatial resolution of 2 mm, observation data for each 2 mm is required on the projection surface of the imaging region, and observation data at 2500 positions is required assuming an observation surface of 100 mm × 100 mm. Data can be acquired by mechanical scanning of the antenna, but the observation time will be significantly longer. If the antenna is an array to save time, 2500 transmitters and receivers are required, which increases the cost and limits the aperture length of one antenna to 2 mm or less. In this case, millimeter waves should be used, but the attenuation is extremely large in the body, which is not practical. Another issue is that the currently proposed 3D reconstruction algorithm does not take into account the effects of multiple reflections within the imaging region, making reconstructed images of object with a large size or a complicated structure difficult.
Research by the authors has shown that NFMI can, in principle, reconstruct the tissue image precisely [8]. In addition, Manitoba University has developed an experimental device that collects observation data by moving up and down while mechanically rotating two wideband horns, and showed that it can detect foreign matter in the phantom even in the air interface between the phantom and the antenna [7]. However, clinical imaging with NFMI has not yet been reported.
In ST, which solves the inverse scattering problem, the complex permittivity distribution in the imaging region is reconstructed and the structure shape can be reproduced. However, the processing time is long because it is necessary to repeat the full-wave electromagnetic field analysis. In our research, even workstations with the latest GPUs take hours for a single analysis and days for image reconstruction. The biggest problem is that the phenomenon of radio wave propagation in the imaging region cannot be faithfully reproduced on a computer. It is extremely difficult to completely match the results of experiments with computer simulations that model microwave equipment with current numerical analysis technology for electromagnetic waves. The key to the realization of this technology is how to calibrate the experimental results and match them with the computer simulation. In this method, the breast is treated as a set of small hexahedrons or tetrahedra (called voxels), and the complex permittivity of each voxel is estimated. To improve the resolution is to make the voxels smaller, and the number of complex permittivity to be estimated increases on the order of the third power. In the inverse scattering problem, the governing equations are Born approximated and solved by replacing them with linear simultaneous equations, but this is an ill-posed problem with many unknowns (complex dielectric constant of each voxel) with respect to the number of equations. In this case, the reconstructed image looks like a defocused photograph because the sudden change in contrast between voxels cannot be reproduced. In addition, a highly sensitive antenna that can capture small changes in the complex permittivity of small voxels is required.
A group at Dartmath University has prototyped an imaging device with a structure in which 18 monopoles are submerged together with the breast in a matching fluid, and is performing clinical imaging [21]. The monopole array is moved up and down to acquire several observation data. For the imaging algorithm, forward analysis by Discrete Dipole Assumption (DDA) and inverse analysis by iterative method are adopted. Reconstructed images of scattered mammary glands accurately capture the location and size of the cancer, but the results of imaging the dense breast are not shown, and it seems that they have not reached the stage of practical use.
This section introduces the MI device and imaging results developed by the author. Only the equipment using CI was performed up to clinical imaging, but the equipment of ST and NFHI is in the stage of basic experiment.
A schematic diagram and photographs of the developed microwave mammography equipment are shown in Figure 7 [5]. The equipment comprised a sensor, an aspirator, an antenna switch, a network analyzer, a PC for control, and a workstation (WS) for data processing.
(a) Schematic diagram of the microwave mammography. (b) Overview of the microwave mammography. (c) Overview of the sensor.
Figure 8 shows the concept of the proposed sensor. It consists of several stacked patch antennas fed by the slot. The number of antennas depends on the breast size. The antennas are embedded in a cup made by Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd., the material of which has almost the same electromagnetic parameters as those of the adipose tissue (εr = 6.3, σ = 0.15, 6 GHz). The elements are designed so as to match impedance over the bandwidth of 4 to 9 GHz when the aperture touches the breast. When the pressure in the sensor is reduced by the aspirator, the breast is fixed to the inside of the sensor. Therefore, we need not know the breast shape for the image reconstruction process.
(a) Sensor (longitudinal section). (b) Sensor (6-element). (c) Sensor (18 element). (d) Sensor (30-element).
As shown in Figure 8, we prepared three different sensor types for various breast sizes: a 30-element sensor with a diameter of 13 cm and a depth of 5.4 cm (large), a 18-element sensor with a diameter of 10 cm and a depth of 4 cm (middle), and a 6-element sensor with a diameter of 8 cm and a depth of 2 cm (small).
The antenna switch selects one or two antennas connected to the input/output port of the network analyzer (Agilent E5071C), and can correspond with the three sensor types. It consists of 42 single port double transfer (SPDT) switches and 6 single port 6 transfer (SP6T) switches. The total insertion loss is less than 5 dB at 6.5 GHz, and the peak amplitude and phase deviation are less than 0.2 dB and 10°, respectively. The antenna switch and network analyzer are automatically controlled by the PC.
The size of the microwave mammography equipment is 600 (width) × 600 (length) × 500 (height) mm. It is designed to align and connect lengthwise with a bed in the consulting room. Before inspection, a sensor with the proper size must be selected. Using a transparent cup that has the same size as the sensor on the breast and then by decompressing, one can confirm that the breast touches all elements by observation. Then, patient lies facedown on the bed and places her breast in the sensor and suction begins. S11 when the breast is placed in the sensor is compared with S11 when no breast is present. If S11 is not sufficiently reduced, an alarm is activated. In this case, the inspector aligns the position or inclination of the sensor. The inspection time is approximately 5, 30, and 200 s for 6, 18, and 30 sensor elements, respectively. An array rotation technique was used for artifact removal [16]. Additional inspection when the sensor is mechanically rotated by 20° was carried out.
We imaged the breasts of an elderly woman with fatty tissue. Referring MRI Image shown in Figure 9a, her right breast is infected with early breast cancer of 9 mm in diameter at lower inside near the chest wall, while no pathological changes can be seen in her left breast. In this case, boundary of the cancer is comparatively clear, and it isolates from the fibro-glandular tissue.
(a) MRI image of the right breast with cancer and healthy left breast. (b) Imaging results by the microwave mammography (right breast). (c) Imaging results by the microwave mammography.
Figure 9b shows the imaging results using microwave mammography. In this case, the small-sized sensor was used. The reflection strength is normalized by the peak reflection field where it is generated around the cancer. Then, areas where the back-scattered energy is more than 80% of the peak scattered power are shown. In addition, estimated position and size from MRI image are shown as green circle. We can see a large scattering near the cancer.
Six breast cancer patients were clinically imaged and a strong scattering image was confirmed around the cancer. The location of the cancer can also be detected by confocal imaging. However, if the cancer is large, its shape cannot be reproduced. In the experiment, the scattering intensity distribution is standardized by the peak value of the response in the breast with the cancer with the largest scattering power. For this reason, the scattering intensity in cancer-free breasts is low. However, assuming cancer screening, it is predicted that scattered images will appear in such standardized processing because of the difference in mammary gland density between the left and right breasts even without cancer. In addition to cancer, the breast has other diseases such as cysts and mastitis. The cyst is a bag of water, and it is predicted that a scattered image stronger than that of cancer will appear. Since it is necessary for medical devices to be able to accurately reproduce the shape of cancer and to distinguish between cancer and diseases such as cysts, the use of tumor markers in Ref. [17] is a realistic solution for confocal imaging.
Since UWB radar could not reconstruct diagnostic images with the tissue structure, we are working on scattering tomography to solve the inverse scattering problem. A simple imaging sensor with a printed board dipole inserted in a dielectric block was prototyped and evaluated. However, if the rough position and size of the target were not used as preliminary knowledge, a reconstructed image with sufficient quality could be not obtained [5]. This was due to a modeling error issue as well as a lack of sensitivity. It was necessary to investigate a highly sensitive antenna with a structure with small modeling error.
In [24], the evaluation results of radar imaging using a circular array with a structure in which a folded quasi self- complementary antenna (FQSCA) composed of a printed board is pressed vertically against a cylindrical dielectric block containing the target are demonstrated. We evaluated the image reconstruction of an image sensor constructed by pressing FQSCA against a rectangular dielectric block by computer simulation compared with a printed dipole. As a result, it was found that the imaging sensor using FQSCA has higher image reconstruction capability than the printed dipole.
In this section, high sensitivity with FQSCA is first confirmed by computer simulation using the sensor structure in [22]. Next, FQSCA is applied to a sensor for clinical imaging, and it is confirmed that high-quality diagnosis image is reconstructed using a numerical phantom.
Figure 10 shows the image sensor and phantom used in the computer simulation [25]. Figure 10a shows an imaging sensor in which two printed board dipoles arranged in an inverted L shape are inserted on the side of a dielectric block. Figure 10b shows an image sensor with a structure in which two FQSCAs arranged in an inverted L shape are pressed against the side surface of a dielectric block.
(a) Simulated imaging sensor (printed dipole). (b) Simulated imaging sensor (FQSCA).
In this model, an imaging area of 40×40×40 mm is provided in the center of the dielectric block. The imaging area is modeled by cubic voxels with a side length of 10 mm or 5 mm. The number of voxels in the imaging area is 64 when the resolution is 10 mm and 512 when the resolution is 5 mm. In the image reconstruction using one frequency, the number of observation data is 8C2 = 28, so it is an ill-posed problem with unknowns greater than the number of equations for any resolution. The distance between the imaging area and the antenna is 30 mm. The relative permittivity and conductivity of the dielectric block are 6.5 and 0.036 S/m.
Figure 11 shows photographs of the printed board dipole and FQSCA. The printed board dipole is mounted on a substrate with a thickness of 0.8 mm, relative dielectric constant of 3.8, and tanδ = 0.003. FQSCA is mounted on a substrate with a thickness of 1.6 mm, relative permittivity of 4, and tanδ = 0.011.
(a) Printed dipole. (b) FQSCA.
In order to evaluate image reconstruction quantitatively, the voxel number of the imaging area is determined as shown in Figure 12. As shown in Figure 12, the target of relative permittivity 39.6 and conductivity 1 S/m is set to 8 voxels in the center of the imaging area. The algorithm used for reconstruction is Distorted Born Iterative Method (DBIM) [14], the forward problem is solved with CST-Studio Suite [26], and the inverse problem is solved with MATLAB [27]. The frequency used for image reconstruction is 1.85 GHz for printed dipoles and 1.5 GHz for FQSCA. These are the frequencies of the lowest resonance point of each antenna.
Voxel number.
Figure 13 shows the results of reconstruction of the dielectric constant after 10 iterations assuming a resolution of 10 mm. Both the printed dipole and FQSCA show good reconstruction results. Note that the reconstruction result of the conductivity is omitted due to space limitations, but a reconstruction result equivalent to the relative dielectric constant has been confirmed.
(a) Reconstructed relative permittivity (resolution of 10 mm, printed dipole is used). (b) Reconstructed relative permittivity (resolution of 10 mm, FQSCA is used).
Figure 14 shows the results of reconstruction of the relative permittivity after 10 iterations, assuming a resolution of 5 mm, a relative permittivity of 39.6, and a conductivity of 1 S/m for only one voxel. Targets cannot be detected with printed dipoles, but targets can be detected with FQSCA.
(a) Reconstructed relative permittivity (resolution of 5 mm, printed dipole is used). (b) Reconstructed relative permittivity (resolution of 5 mm, FQSCA is used).
Figure 15 shows the appearance of an imaging sensor for clinical trials using FQSCA and a breast modeled with hexahedral voxels. In this sensor, six FQSCA are arranged on the side of a 140×140×50 mm dielectric block, and 12 FQSCA are arranged on the upper surface with different polarization.
(a) Imaging sensor for clinical test. (b) Breast model.
Figure 16a shows 3D distribution of permittivity and conductivity of the numerical breast phantom. Figure 16b shows the reconstructed 3D distribution of permittivity and conductivity. The resolution is 4 mm and the frequency used is 1.5GHz. Circles indicate the cancer site. With the proposed sensor, mammary gland structure and cancer shape can be accurately reconstructed. The quality factor [28] evaluated by the complex dielectric constant was 0.96.
(a) Set relative permittivity distribution. (b) Set conductivity. (c) Reconstructed relative permittivity distribution. (d) Reconstructed conductivity distribution.
The sensor shown in Figure 15 was prototyped and mounted on the system shown in Figure 7. Figure 17 shows the prototype ST. The transmission characteristics of the antenna were measured with nothing in the cup that holds the breast, but as expected, they do not match the analysis results of CST Studio Suite. Therefore, we plan to adapt the measurement results to the simulation results by calibration based on the measurement of the reference object in [23], and proceed to clinical imaging.
(a) Sensor for the manufacturing model. (b) Overview of the manufacturing model.
First, we confirm by computer simulation that NFHI can reconstruct intramammary tissue. Next, a simple image system is constructed and experimental verification is performed.
Computer simulations were performed to confirm that NFHI can reconstruct intramammary tissue. Figure 18 shows the simulation model, and Table 5 shows the simulation conditions. Similar to X-ray mammography imaging, imaging is performed with a model in which the breast is sandwiched between two glass plates and two antennas move on a plane at the same time. In order to obtain a resolution of 2 mm, the scattering parameters are acquired while the two antennas move in 2 mm steps on a plane of 100 × 50 mm. The frequency band used is 20.4-26GHz and the frequency step is 100 MHz. The antenna is a dipole antenna with a resonance frequency of 23.2 GHz. Figure 19 shows the original tissue image and the reconstructed image. The reconstructed image faithfully reproduces the original image.
Simulation model.
Frequency (GHz) | 20.4 ∼ 26 | |
Scanning range (mm) | x-axis | −50 ∼ 50 |
y-axis | 0 ∼ 50 | |
z-axis | −10 ∼ 30 | |
Scanning step (mm) | 2 | |
CO | size(mm) | 2 × 2 × 2 |
permittivity | 25 | |
Conductivity{S/m} | 0.75 |
Simulation conditions.
Original image (left) and reconstructed image (right).
Figure 20 shows the appearance and system diagram of the imaging system used in the experiment. Table 6 summarizes the measurement conditions.
(a) Overview of the NFHI system. (b) System configuration of NFHI system.
Frequency (GHz) | 8.5 ∼ 12.5 | |
Scanning range (mm) | xy- plane | 100 ∼ 100 |
z-axis | −10 ∼ 30 | |
Scanning step (mm) | xy-plane | 2 |
z-axis | 10 | |
CO(mm) | 10 × 10 × 5 |
Measurement conditions.
The antennas are the commercially available primary feeds for Communication Satellite (CS) broadcast reception shown in Figure 21, and two antennas are arranged at intervals of 15 cm above and below, and can be scanned on the xy plane by an automatic stage. The imaging table is a celluloid plate with a thickness of 2 mm and 150 × 150 mm, and the height in the z-axis (vertical) direction can be adjusted by the z-axis stage. The outputs of the two CS antennas are connected to the input / output ports of the vector network analyzer, and the data of S11, S21, S12, and S22 are measured while changing the relative positions of the antenna and the object. The calibration object (CO) is glycerin (relative permittivity: 4.042, dielectric loss tangent: 1.021 (10 GHz)) filled with a 10×10×5 mm ABS resin container in Figure 20a. The complex permittivity of glycerin was measured by the equipment described in Section 2.2.
Feed antenna for communication satellites broadcast.
The CO was placed in the center of the imaging table, and the S-parameters of the CO were measured in 10 mm steps in the range of −10 mm to 30 mm on the z-axis. Next, the pork was placed on the imaging table at the position of z = 10 mm as shown in Figure 22b, and the S parameter was measured. In order to acquire the scattering component, the S-parameters of the background were measured at the positions of 10 mm steps of −10 mm to 30 mm on the z-axis, and this was subtracted from the S-parameters of the object. Figure 23 shows a reconstructed image. It can be seen that the position and shape of the pork and the contrast between the lean and white meat are reproduced.
(a) Calibration object (CO) on the imaging table. (b) Pork placed on the imaging table.
(a) Original image. (b) Reconstructed image.
Bright spots may appear in the reconstructed image due to measurement error. This is because the measurement data on the xy plane has a measurement error corresponding to white noise. That is, when the white noise is inverse Fourier transformed, it becomes an impulse. In this case, the median filter used in image processing is effective. Take out a part of the measurement data (for example, 9×9 data) measured at the grid points every 2 mm on the xy plane, find the median value, and use this as the measurement result of the center position of the 9×9 data. This process eliminates the bright spots caused by noise and improves the quality of the reconstructed image.
The breakthroughs required to put MI-based diagnostic imaging equipment into practical use are summarized below.
CI
How to extract only the scattered wave of the target (lesion) in the living body?
Reference [18] attempts to characterize breast cancer using all currently conceivable methods such as principal component analysis, independent component analysis, and kurtosis analysis. TR-MUSIC is applied to image reconstruction to improve the resolution. Clinical trial equipment has been developed and clinical trials have begun. In [19], the scattering response when the shape of the target (cancer) changes are analyzed and extraction of the characteristics of the cancer is tried. In the future, it is thought that the development of technology to determine the presence or absence of cancer by giving a response signal to artificial intelligence will progress [29].
ST
Improvement of simulation technology: It is required to develop a numerical analysis method that matches the experiment and the simulation result, a sensor that has a structure that easily matches the simulation result, or to establish a calibration technology. It is also expected to speed up forward analysis using cloud computing and supercomputers.
NFHI
It is necessary to proceed with the development of high-density sensing technology to ensure the resolution, and to find a measure in which the Born approximation can be applied in the biometric environment.
This work was supported by grants-in-aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan.
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Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. 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Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:13759,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:null,title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:null},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8225,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3341,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82382",title:"A Cultural Approach in the Synchronous Class in English Teaching and Learning",slug:"a-cultural-approach-in-the-synchronous-class-in-english-teaching-and-learning",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105553",abstract:"If culture is defined as a way of training to obtain knowledge through educational channels, the concept is associated with educability. Therefore, teaching cognitive, attitudinal, and procedural knowledge directly indicates teaching and learning culture to acquire norms and patterns of sociocultural behavior. The purpose of this study was: to debate about the way interaction among students and teachers in synchronous classes based on life’s materials, topics, and methods, and critical or reflective thinking can be adapted by the teacher to the students’ closest environment to communicate in English as an international language. If a language is taught, spoken, and learned in the country, culture surrounding the context is taught. If this language is not spoken in the place, the knowledge system also transmits norms and values, different from those of the language. So, the students get, culturally and socially, modes of action, principles, and knowledge through international language learning. Thus, teaching and learning English as an international language means the way possible interaction has opportunities for every student’s growth and the way their personality formation gets integral results. English taught and learned as an international language denotes reaching the students’ world and needs to communicate in English as a meaningful international language.",book:{id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy - Challenges, Recent Advances, New Perspectives, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg"},signatures:"Ned Vito Quevedo Arnaiz, Nemis García Arias and Fredy Pablo Cañizares Galarza"},{id:"82470",title:"The Effect of COVID-19 on the Quality of Life of Care Workers: Challenges for Social Services Leaders",slug:"the-effect-of-covid-19-on-the-quality-of-life-of-care-workers-challenges-for-social-services-leaders",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105603",abstract:"Stressful situations are likely to impact health and social care workers’ quality of life negatively. Indeed, mental, physical, and emotional health problems have been reported in relation to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the quality of life of health care workers. Instead of health care workers’ reality, and despite the care sector’s relevance, studies of the effects of COVID-19 on the quality of life of care workers have not been sufficiently explored. Recognizing the effect of COVID on the quality of life of care workers will collaborate with leaders of organizations, social work practitioners, and academics in the design of policies that promote better working conditions. Therefore, during 2021, a study was carried out in Chile where 150 social services and care workers were surveyed in Chile using a version of COV19-QoL in Spanish. The impact of COVID on quality of life is described, and the challenges that this reality implies to social service leaders are presented.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Magdalena Calderón-Orellana, Alejandra Inostroza and Paula Miranda Sánchez"},{id:"82448",title:"Virus World Vulnerability: A Critical Reading of Gender and Performance in Bo Burnham’s “Inside” (2021)",slug:"virus-world-vulnerability-a-critical-reading-of-gender-and-performance-in-bo-burnham-s-inside-2021",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105182",abstract:"Through an engagement with the seminal work of Raewyn Connell on masculinities and hegemonic masculinity, this chapter argues for the hegemonic norm as producing behaviour among men that can be traced in multiple male subjectivities. The argument is that men respond to the prevailing masculine norm by enacting self-protective disavowal—a complex psychological process that involves the reordering of reality in the interests of the maintenance of power, and one that is seen in cases of both legitimate and imagined threats to the self and the body. Self-protective disavowal is at the core of the Same Shit phenomenon—the idea that while the experience of masculinity varies across culture and position in the gender order, self-protective disavowal is a constant that leads to predicable patterns among men. The discussion then explores deliberate vulnerability as a kind of anti-protective disavowal in Bo Burnham’s INSIDE, a complex, undefinable ‘special’ released on Netflix in 2021. The chapter considers Burnham’s work as a departure from self-protective disavowal and Same Shit masculinity through deliberate vulnerability and critically evaluates the value of this alternative, especially given the nihilism that reigns over the work and calls into question the validity of uncritically romanticization of alternatives.",book:{id:"10540",title:"Masculinity Studies - An Interdisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10540.jpg"},signatures:"Chris McWade"},{id:"82454",title:"Prospects and Pitfalls Experienced by Social Workers Working in a Confounding Environment in a South African Setting",slug:"prospects-and-pitfalls-experienced-by-social-workers-working-in-a-confounding-environment-in-a-south",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105604",abstract:"While social workers are professionally and aptly placed to facilitate a turn-around environment rife with a conglomeration of challenges such as poverty, ignorance, and diseases, the chapter discusses the developmental prospects and pitfalls that confound their practice in South Africa. Opportunely, social work interventions continue to gain developmental mileage through increased training of social workers, their increased deployment in various versatile domains of social and economic development and increased widening of the scope of social work research, especially current research in fields such as HIV/AIDS and coronavirus. On the other side of the coin, the chapter discusses social work pitfalls attributed to professional curricular gaps as social work continue to follow a western-centric curriculum; the presence of various metaphysical beliefs and myths that weaken or derail social work interventions and a weaker research environment to offer a plausible and timely solution to the prevalent problems. The chapter concludes by calling for a paradigm shift in the social work curriculum as well as its indigenization to productively respond to the South African socio-cultural and geographical milieu.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Simon Murote Kang’ethe"},{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",abstract:"Project-based learning and future-based pedagogy are important and effective tools for teaching and learning in the twenty-first century. They are especially suited to instilling social activism among students, which is extremely valuable in today’s multicultural society. This study examined the impact of such learning among Arab and Jewish students and teachers in Israel. Following a collaborative program on social activism, in which students from different sectors worked together via digital platforms and face-to-face encounters, the impact of the program and its pedagogical tools were examined. The program, called Living in a Multicultural Society, reflects the mosaic of different people and communities, living side by side yet separated by religion, culture, and language. Through this program, students who may not have otherwise met worked together to learn, research, and create. This study was conducted using the mixed-method approach, whereby the qualitative data were gathered via interviews, and the quantitative data were collected through questionnaires. The findings show that this project-based learning program led to significant encounters, understandings, and co-operations between different sectors, and to meaningful end-products relating to social activism. This study enhances the concept that significant pedagogical processes increase students’ motivation, in-depth learning, and outcomes.",book:{id:"11481",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg"},signatures:"Anat Raviv"},{id:"81785",title:"Social Distancing Disbanding Learner Groupings: A Case on Language Development",slug:"social-distancing-disbanding-learner-groupings-a-case-on-language-development",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104893",abstract:"Information sharing is a fundamental aspect in learning an unfamiliar, yet, an additional language, with specific regards to reading comprehension. Language teachers are faced with a task to monitor development, performance, and effectiveness in learner reading proficiencies. This chapter aims to measure if disbanding learner groupings as per the social distancing protocols brought about by COVID-19 restrictions has any impact on language enhancement. Henceforth, there are limited suggestions by literature in relation to disbanding learner groupings, yet improved reading proficiency is one of the crucial language aspects to be mastered for one to be a successful scholar. Nonetheless, this chapter aims to provide teaching strategies applied by English language teachers to necessitate transmitted learning in accordance with information sharing as learners are dependent on one another for language enhancement, thus leading to academic achievement.",book:{id:"10912",title:"Psychosocial, Educational, and Economic Impacts of COVID-19",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10912.jpg"},signatures:"Bulelwa Makena and Thandiswa Mpiti"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:148},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. 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Silva, Susana M. Paixão, Ana S. Fernandes, José C. 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