\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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In particular, he is interested in: \n- Computational models of neural architectures, mainly in the dorsal stream of the visual cortex.\n- Algorithms for motion and depth computation, exploiting processing techniques based on spatio-temporal, multi-channel and multi-scale filtering. \n- Robotic systems for active vision: functional assessment of anthropomorphic robotic heads for active foveation; sensorimotor coordination in the peripersonal (e.g., reaching and grasping) and extrapersonal (e.g., navigation) space; space-variant vision systems (log-polar mapping).\n- Context sensitive receptive fields: motion analysis and motion interpretation, e.g. the time-to-contact estimation.\n- Software tools for the simulation of robotic systems and for the real-time processing of complex visual descriptors: neuromorphic algorithms for graphics processing units, GPGPU; virtual environments for the simulation of stereo active vision systems.\n- Augmented reality systems for the study of the visuo-motor coordination in the peripersonal space.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Genoa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"15165",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Chessa",slug:"manuela-chessa",fullName:"Manuela Chessa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/15165/images/system/15165.jpg",biography:"Manuela Chessa is a Postodoctoral Research scientist at the University of Genoa, Italy. 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Product development is a complex integrated process of several steps starting from design where the market needs are identified and turned into competitive product specifications and different design concepts. In other words, design is about identifying a problem, developing solution proposals, and validating the most feasible solution with real users. Manufacturing technologies, on the other hand, help designers to make those virtual models into physical parts by transforming different types of raw materials. This book on design and manufacturing, written by a number of experts from all over the world, presents a design perspective and different manufacturing applications from various industrial sectors.",isbn:"978-1-78985-866-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-865-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-889-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83290",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"design-and-manufacturing",numberOfPages:266,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29172b8e746a303c2c48f39292fd4c10",bookSignature:"Evren Yasa, Mohsen Mhadhbi and Eleonora Santecchia",publishedDate:"July 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9288.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:3056,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 28th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 27th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 15th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 15th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"219594",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Evren",middleName:null,surname:"Yasa",slug:"evren-yasa",fullName:"Evren Yasa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219594/images/9465_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Evren Yasa graduated with her degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Istanbul Technical University and completed\nher master degree at the University of British Columbia on\nvolumetric error modeling and compensation. She received her\nPh.D. degree with her thesis on “Combined Process of Selective\nLaser Melting and Selective Laser Erosion/Laser Re-melting” at\nthe Catholic University of Leuven, and won the “Emerald Outstanding Doctoral Study-Highly commended” award with her doctoral dissertation.\nAfter her Ph.D. study, she worked as a senior engineer at TEI, a GE-joint venture\ncompany specializing in manufacturing aero-engine parts, where she led Additive\nManufacturing projects. Later, she joined Eskisehir Osmangazi University as an\nassistant professor. Moreover, she has been working as an independent expert in\nlaser-based manufacturing on behalf of European Commission in FP7 and Horizon2020 projects.",institutionString:"Eskisehir Osmangazi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Eskişehir Osmangazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/228366/images/system/228366.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Mohsen Mhadhbi obtained his Ph.D. degree from the Faculty\nof Sciences of Sfax, Tunisia. He is currently Assistant Professor\nof Chemistry in the National Institute of Research and Physical-chemical Analysis, Tunisia. His research interests include\ninorganic chemistry, material engineering, intermetallics, and\npowder technology. He has published works in national and\ninternational impacted journals and books. He is a teacher in\ninorganic chemistry. He has supervised several researchers in materials science. He\nis a member of various scientific journals and associations and has been serving as\nan editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"National Institute of Research and Physical-Chemical Analysis",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Tunis El Manar University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"270298",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleonora",middleName:null,surname:"Santecchia",slug:"eleonora-santecchia",fullName:"Eleonora Santecchia",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270298/images/system/270298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Eleonora Santecchia (PhD) is Assistant Professor in Metallurgy at the Marche Polytechnic University (UNIVPM) located in Ancona, Italy. 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She is\nexperienced in microstructural characterization by scanning electron microscopy,\nenergy dispersive spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction techniques. 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Many studies have shown that stress disturbs homeostasis, which induces various disorders. A number of diseases and pathological conditions are related to the long-term adaptive response to stress, particularly under conditions of chronic stress when allostasis can shift from a healthy toward a pathological state [1]. Chronic stress induces behavioral, endocrine, and immune changes in animals [2, 3]. It is known that stress affects a rapid rise of plasma and tissue catecholamines, including the spleen [4]. Data from literature indicate that the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the major pathways involved in immune-neuroendocrine interactions. The regulation of immunity by sympathetic noradrenergic nerve fibers in the lymphoid organs has been demonstrated by the distribution of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) nerve fibers, by the presence of adrenoreceptors on the immune system cells, and by immunomodulatory role of noradrenaline (NA) [5]. For example, adrenaline (A) and NA produced by sympathetic nerves may modulate cellular function by acting on β-2 adrenergic receptors of B and Th1 cells [6]. In addition, catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes are expressed in the lymphoid organs [7], as well as in neutrophils and macrophages [8]. It is known that normal catecholaminergic turnover results from balance among synthesis, release, and reuptake of catecholamines. Because of the significant role of catecholamines in neuroendocrine-immune network in stress response, detection of regulatory mechanism for catecholamine synthesis, degradation, release, and reuptake in the spleen in conditions provoked by chronic stress is exceptionally relevant in stress biology, due to its potentially negative impact on immune functions and health. Effective management of stress depends on the ability to identify and quantify the effects of various stressors and determine if individual or combined stressors have distinct biological effects [9]. Animal models have contributed considerably to the current understanding of mechanisms underlying the role of stress in health and disease [10]. It is known that animal model of chronic stress isolation (CSI) produces increased concentrations of catecholamines in the plasma and decreased gene expression of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes in the spleen, which can modulate the immune function [11]. However, very little is known about the impact of long-term exercise on the catecholaminergic turnover and the antioxidant defense system in the spleen of chronically psychosocially stressed rats. Because of the potential therapeutic role of physical exercise, we investigated whether a combined animal model of chronic isolation and treadmill running in rats (CSITR) may be a good animal model for chronic stress research as well as the benefits of exercise on neuroendocrine and immune functions in stress conditions. Our CSITR animal model was achieved by exposing the individually housed rats to the daily treadmill running for a 12-week period. We opted for long-term daily treadmill running because the short intensive physical activity may induce oxidative stress, while it is not the case with sport-specific activity of longer duration [12]. In addition, we exposed the experimental animals to additional acute immobilization stress, because we wanted to examine whether daily treadmill running induced potentially positive adaptations of the splenic catecholaminergic turnover and antioxidant protection in stress conditions.
We investigated how long-term daily 20 min treadmill running affected the gene expression of key enzymes involved in catecholamine biosynthesis (TH, dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DBH) and phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT)), storage (vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) 2) and degradation (monoamine oxidase (MAO)), as well as the concentrations of catecholamines (NA and A) in the spleen of chronically psychosocially stressed adult rats. Transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) plays a major role in regulation of TH and DBH gene expression during exercise [13]. This chapter discusses the effect of physical exercise on the level of CREB mRNA in the spleen of chronically stressed rats. As the rise in catecholamine catabolism results in increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, we measured the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA), as well as gene expression and activity of the antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx)). Also, we examined how the additional acute immobilization stress changed the mentioned parameters. In the study, we presumed that physical exercise in chronically stressed rats may induce the potentially positive physiological adaptations of the splenic catecholaminergic turnover, as well as antioxidant protection and oxidative damage repair.
Detecting regulatory physiological mechanism by which physical activity changes catecholaminergic turnover and antioxidant defense system in the spleen in conditions provoked by chronic stress is important in the prevention of immune diseases caused by chronic stress. Also, these results may confirm whether CSITR could be a good animal model in the search for beneficial impact of exercise on neuroendocrine and immune functions in stress conditions.
Many authors have confirmed that animal models are essential to biological research. Chronic individual housing of rats, frequently termed “isolation stress,” represents a very strong psychosocial stress [3, 14], which can induce neuroendocrine changes [15] and increased activity of the antioxidant defense system [16, 17] in animals. Also, isolation stress affects different behavioral processes in animals. For example, social isolation led to a reduced duration of grooming and a prolonged latency period to the onset of grooming [18]. In addition, social interactions are an important source of human stress. Social isolation has deleterious effects on health and therefore is regarded as one of the most relevant causes of diseases in mammalian species [14]. For example, it is a risk factor for human depression [19].
Animal models of chronic social isolation (CSI) consisted of 11-week-old Wistar male rats that were subjected to social isolation, with a single animal per cage for 12 or 3 weeks [11, 15]. The visual and olfactory communication among the isolated rats was reduced to the minimal level.
It is known that exposure of an organism to a social isolation leads to the engagement of several hormonal and neurotransmitter systems in the stress response. Chronic social isolation of adult rat males produces a depletion of brain catecholamine stores but no changes in heart auricles and adrenal glands [15]. In addition, CSI of adult rat males decreases the gene expression of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes in the adrenal medulla [20] and increases concentrations of catecholamines in the plasma [11]. Also, CSI induces an increase in the gene expression of noradrenaline biosynthetic enzymes in stellate ganglia, which may be connected to the increased risk of cardiovascular diseases [21, 22]. In addition, the gene expression of splenic catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes is decreased after CSI. This might reduce catecholamine synthesis in the spleen and deplete the immunocompetent tissues of catecholamines which cause an impairment of immune response [11]. Key question in adaptive response to stress is how the addition stressor can elicit a variant or altered response depending on prior experience with the current or different stressor. A potentiation of the sympathoadrenal system activity in socially isolated rats upon exposure to novel acute stressors has been reported [23]. The additional acute immobilization does not affect the gene expression of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes in both auricles of long-term socially isolated rats. This suggests that the response to stress depends on prior experience with stressors [24]. Data from literature indicate a possible adaptation of catecholamine-synthesizing system at the level of gene expression in the heart auricles of chronically socially isolated rats exposed to acute immobilization stress [24]. However, protein levels of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes in both ventricles of socially isolated rats increased after additional acute stress [25]. With regard to the role of cardiac catecholamines in physiological and pathophysiological processes, it could be hypothesized that increased catecholamine synthesis in the ventricles after acute stress indicates sensitivity of the heart to subsequent stress [25].
It could be concluded that animal model of chronic social isolation (CSI) in rats is a good animal model in the research of neuroendocrine and immune functions in stress conditions. Also, the described results indicate the potential application of CSI animal models in understanding of stress in humans.
Physical exercise produces modulation of neuroendocrine and immune functions [26] and increases the activity of the antioxidant defense system [27]. Long-term treadmill running in rats is forced exercise which has the propensity to induce both psychological and physical stress [28].
Long-term treadmill running animal model (TR) consists of 11-week-old Wistar male rats that are exposed to long-term treadmill running. Long-term treadmill running is achieved by the rats’ daily running on the treadmill for a period of 12 weeks. The treadmill running intensity is gradually increased from week to week and from the initial 10 min—10m/min up to 20 min—20m/min at 00 incline [22, 29, 30]. Animals are being exposed to treadmill training 5 days a week for 12 weeks [22].
Treadmill running may induce physiological adaptations, which can be reflected in increased plasma catecholamine concentration, as well as in the change of the synthesis of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes in rats [31]. It is a very strong stressor, which activates the sympathoadrenomedullary system and increases the synthesis of splenic PNMT protein catalyzing the conversion of NA to A, which both can modulate the immune functions [31]. It is known that cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension and heart failure, are often associated with sympathetic nervous system overreactivity [32, 33]. The increase of the noradrenaline biosynthetic enzyme expression in stellate ganglia, which causes the increase of plasma NA levels, due to chronic forced running, may play a role in the growing risk for cardiovascular diseases [22, 34].
It could be concluded that TR shows adaptations that are indicative of chronic stress and that this animal model in rats is good for the study of neuroendocrine and immune functions in stress conditions.
Data from literature confirm that exercise has been widely used in the last years with therapeutic and preventive purposes in a series of pathophysiological conditions. Exercise training reduces the risk of developing diseases related to chronic stress. For example, a physically active lifestyle is associated with decreased risks of coronary heart disease and high blood pressure [35]. In addition, in humans, regular exercise has a beneficial impact on depression [36]. It is known that the theory of “cross stressor adaptation hypothesis” suggests that exercise training, as a stressor on the body, may alter responsiveness to other types of stressors [37]. Mueller [38] suggests that exercise training appears to reduce sympathoexcitation to a variety of centrally mediated sympathoexcitatory stimuli. Reduction in sympathoexcitation may contribute, in part, to the reduced incidence of cardiovascular disease in physically active individuals [38]. In addition, physical activity prevents splenic NA depletion, or spillover, typically observed in sedentary rats following periods of intense sympathetic drive [39]. Also, physical activity may prevent stress-induced suppression of splenic immunity by reducing sympathetic drive to the spleen during stress [40, 41].
Treatment of chronic social isolation and long-term daily treadmill running (CSITR) consists of exposing the individually housed Wistar male rats to the daily treadmill running during 12 weeks [42].
Understanding the mechanisms by which CSITR training alters control of the SNS in health and disease could be important for developing new strategies in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Treadmill exercise leads to a decreased gene transcription of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes in stellate ganglia in stressful conditions. This may suggest the beneficial effects of treadmill exercise on cardiovascular system in stressed animals [22].
Immobilization is a standardized procedure frequently used as an additional acute stressor and is considered as one of the most intensive stressors that significantly changes gene expression [43]. It is known that immobilization results in well-characterized catecholamine responses [44]. In this model, animals were restrained in a prone position on a board for periods of 120 min [45]. The head was restricted from movement by a metal loop over the nose, and the feet were taped to raise supports with bandage tape [45].
It is known that the acute immobilization stressor (IMM) triggers an exaggerated elevation of the plasma catecholamines [42]. One of the key questions in adaptive response to stress is how the additional acute stressor can provoke a variant or altered response depending on prior experience with the current or a different stressor [43]. Additional acute immobilization increases plasma catecholamines in animals previously exposed to chronic social isolation (CSI+IMM) [46] and in animals previously exposed to long-term treadmill running (TR+IMM) [34]. This could mean that prior experience may condition physiological systems to “expect” a problem and, therefore, be more ready to respond to a novel additional acute stressor [43]. In addition, immobilization stress more significantly elevates TH and DBH protein levels in the stellate ganglia in rats previously exposed to long-term treadmill running (TR+IMM). Continuous accumulation of their proteins is an adaptation on applied stress regime [34]. Also, chronically stressed rats exposed to novel stressors exhibit exaggerated responses in gene expression of PNMT enzyme catalyzing conversion of NA to A [34]. The increased release of A from stellate ganglia during the additional acute immobilization in rats previously exposed to long-term treadmill running may be caused by the increased synthesis of PNMT. Increased levels of PNMT enzyme in stellate ganglia may have pathophysiological impact, especially on the cardiovascular system, since A is a powerful β2 adrenergic receptor agonist [34]. Also, the heterotypic novel additional acute immobilization stressor elevates the plasma catecholamines but not excessively in the animals previously exposed to CSITR [42]. This finding might be explained by the quality and especially by the intensity of the stressor used. The novel stressors elicit exaggerated responses in prestressed animals, when the novel stressor is of equal or greater intensity or duration and/or it is repeated [43]. Animals exposed to CSITR are already prepared to manage the new situation evoked by a novel stressor, and the exaggerated response is not necessary [42]. Animals exposed to CSITR treatment have statistically more significant expression of TH, DBH, and PNMT genes in the adrenal medulla after additional acute immobilization stress compared with the animals exposed to acute immobilization stress [42]. The increased catecholamine synthesis in the adrenal medulla of chronically stressed animals after additional acute stress is an important adaptive phenomenon of the sympathoadrenomedullary system in rats [43].
Data from literature indicate that chronic stress produces the activation of SNS and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In our previous study, we found that exposure of rats to daily treadmill running increased plasma concentrations of NA, A, and ACTH and decreased CORT concentration [34]. It is known that stress hormones via adrenergic and glucocorticoid receptors of immune cells inhibit secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interferon-y (INF-γ), while promoting the secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interleukin-13 (IL-13) [47]. Lasting stress exposure induces HPA “fatigue,” glucocorticoid resistance, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-Kb) activation, and negative feedback, which in turn promote the proinflammatory cytokines [47]. The increased proinflammatory cytokines ultimately cause inflammation, which may induce various diseases [47]. For example, the proinflammatory cytokines alter the metabolic processes of neurotransmitters [48], whose secretion suppression and the reuptake block activity play a role in the pathogenesis of depression [47].
During oxidative stress high concentrations of ROS modify nucleoside triphosphates which are incorporated into the DNA during DNA synthesis and may give rise to mutations. Mutations in the genes of regulatory enzymes, transporters, and receptors of the neurotransmitters in the central nervous system (CNS) have been associated with aggression [49].
Mutation in human MAO A gene is associated with impulsive aggression in male humans [50], juvenile delinquency [51], impulsivity [52], and female panic and depressive disorders [53, 54]. In addition, mutations in the TH and DA receptor 4 genes influence impulsivity [55, 56, 57], and polymorphism in the glutamate transporter (VGLUT) gene is significantly associated with increased “aggression to strangers” [58]. Polymorphism in the tryptophan hydroxylase (Tph2) gene as a causal factor in 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) deficiency is associated with depression [59].
Genetically modified mouse and rat models are used in the research of human diseases. It is known that the low activity of MAO A enzyme consequently increases catecholamine levels [49]. Reduced levels of the MAO A enzyme, as well as increased NA levels, were observed in aggressive men [49]. MAO A knockout mice showed increased aggression in adulthood [60]and for this reason were used in the research of behavioral disorders.
Eleven-week-old Wistar male rats were maintained under standard laboratory conditions with water and food ad libitum and kept three to four per cage [25]. The care was taken to minimize the pain and discomfort of the animals according to the recommendations of the Ethical Committee of the Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences [25], Belgrade, Serbia, which follows the guidelines of the registered “Serbian Society for the Use of Animals in Research and Education.” Animals were divided into four groups in accordance with our previous protocol [42]. The control group (n = 10) was not exposed to stress. The animals in CSITR group (n = 10) were exposed to chronic combined social isolation and treadmill running. CSITR was achieved by exposing the individually housed rats to the daily treadmill running during 12 weeks [42]. Chronically stressed animals were exposed to treadmill training ran on the treadmill 5 days a week for 12 weeks [22]. During that period, the exercise time was increased from 10 min to 20 min/day and treadmill speed gradually increased from 10 to 20 m/min by the end of the second week, without incline [22]. The animals ran according to the protocol for 10 additional weeks (20 min/day at a speed of 20 m/min, 5 days a week) [22]. The treadmill training protocol used in our studies involved a gradual increase in running intensity and is commonly used in the similar studies [29, 30]. Animals were exposed to a low-intensity treadmill training [31], which is in accordance with the protocol of Erdem et al. [30] who suggested that low exercise intensity is a key factor in the effect of submaximal endurance training on adrenomedullary catecholamine biosynthesis. During the exercise, we monitored the animals continuously. In IMM group (n = 10), the animals were exposed to acute stress immobilization, for a period of 2 hours [42]. Immobilization stress was elicited as described by Kvetnansky and Mikulaj [44]. In CSITR+IMM group (n = 10), the animals were exposed to CSITR during 12 weeks, and after CSITR, these animals were exposed to additional acute IMM stress for 2 hours [42]. The animals were sacrificed 3 hours after the acute immobilization. Data from literature show that 3 hours after the acute immobilization, changes in gene expression of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes in the peripheral tissues are expected [43, 61]. To confirm the presence of oxidative stress in chronically stressed animals, we have introduced a CSI group. CSI group (n = 10) consisted of animals exposed to treatment of chronic social isolation for a period of 12 weeks. The rats were individually housed. The visual and olfactory communication among the isolated rats was reduced to the minimal level. In this group we measured the concentration malondialdehyde (MDA) in the spleen. Measurement of MDA is widely used as an indicator of lipid peroxidation. Increased levels of lipid peroxidation products have been associated with a variety of chronic diseases. The spleens were rapidly dissected and frozen. To avoid potentially confounding acute effects of exercise, animals were sacrificed 48 hours after the last training session, which is in accordance with protocol of Gavrilović et al. [31].
Total RNAs were isolated from 0.08 g spleen tissues by using TRIZOL reagent (Invitrogen, USA) as described previously by Gavrilović et al. [31]. Reverse transcription was performed using Ready-To-Go You-Prime First-Strand Bead (Amersham Biosciences, UK) and pd (N)6 Random Hexamer (Amersham Biosciences, UK) primer according to the manufacturer’s protocol, which is in accordance with protocol of Gavrilović et al. [31].
TH, DBH, PNMT, CREB, VMAT2, CuZn SOD (SOD1), Mn SOD (SOD2), CAT, and GPx mRNA levels were quantified by quantitative real-time RT-PCR as described previously by Gavrilović et al. [42]. TaqMan PCR assays were carried out using Assay-on-Demand Gene Expression Products (Applied Biosystems, USA) for TH (Rn00562500_m1), DBH (Rn00565819_m1), PNMT (Rn01495589_g1), CREB (Rn01441386_g1), VMAT2 (Rn00564688_m1), SOD1 (Rn00566938_m1), SOD2 (Rn00690587_g1), CAT (Rn00560930_m1), and GPx (Rn00577994_g1). The reference gene (endogenous control) was included in each analysis to correct the differences in the inter-assay amplification efficiency, and all transcripts were normalized to cyclophilin A (Rn00690933_m1) expression [31]. The results are reported as a fold change relative to the calibrator and normalized to cyclophilin A as previously described [31].
The spleens were homogenized in 0.05 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.65). Subsequently, the protein concentration was determined using bicinchoninic acid (BCA) method (Thermo Scientific Pierce, USA), described by Stich [62].
The TH, DBH, and PNMT proteins were assayed by Western blot analysis as described previously by Gavrilović et al. [42]. Antibodies used for quantification of proteins were for TH the monoclonal primary antibody against mouse TH (monoclonal antibody against TH from mouse-mouse hybrid cells, clone 2/40/15, dilution 1:5000, Chemicon International, USA); for DBH the anti-dopamine-ß hydroxylase (N-terminal) antibody, sheep (dilution 1:5000, Sigma, USA); for PNMT the polyclonal ant-PNMT primary antibody, rabbit (dilutation 1:1000, Protos Biotech Corporation, USA); and for β-actin the rabbit polyclonal anti-β-actin (ab8227, dilutation 1:5000, Abcam, USA) [31]. After that, the membranes were incubated in the secondary antimouse, anti-rabbit (dilution 1:5000, Amersham ECL™ Western Blotting Analysis System, UK) and anti-sheep (dilution 1:5000, Calbiochem, Germany) antibodies conjugated to horseradish peroxidase [31]. A secondary antibody was then visualized by the Western blotting enhanced chemiluminescent detection system (ECL, Amersham Biosciences, UK) [31]. The result was expressed in arbitrary units normalized in relation to β actin, which is in accordance with protocol of Gavrilović et al. [31].
Spleen tissues were homogenized in 0.01 N HCl in the presence of EDTA and sodium metabisulfite. Catecholamine concentration in spleen fractions was determined using 3-CAT Research ELISA kits (Labor Diagnostica Nord, Nordhorn, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Absorbance was determined at 450 nm using a microplate reader (Stat Fax 2100). Concentrations were normalized to 1 g of tissues in homogenate. Values were expressed as ng of catecholamine per g of tissues.
Determination of MAO A and MAO B activity was performed using the Amplex Red Monoamine Oxidase Assay (A12214, Molecular Probes, USA), described by Zhou and Panchuk-Voloshina [63]. This assay is based on the detection of H2O2 in a horseradish peroxidase-coupled reaction using N-acetyl-3, 7-dihydroxyphenoxazine (Amplex Red), a highly sensitive and stable probe for H2O2. Fluorescence was measured with a fluorometer using excitation at 560 ± 10 nm and fluorescence detection at 590 ± 10 nm. Monoamine oxidase activity was expressed as U/mg of protein.
Malondialdehyde concentration in the spleen fractions was determined using Spectrophotometric Assay for Malondialdehyde BIOXYTECH® MDA-586 (OXIS Health Products, Inc., USA) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The MDA-586 method is based on the reaction of a chromogenic reagent, N-methyl-2-phenylindole, with MDA at 45°C. Malondialdehyde concentration was expressed as μM/mg of protein.
SOD, CAT, GPx, and GR activities were determined using methods previously described by Stojiljković et al. [64]. Determination of total SOD activity was performed using Oxis Bioxytech SOD-525 Assay (Oxis International, Inc., Portland, OR, USA). CAT activity was determined by the method of Beutler [59], and GPx activity was assessed using the Oxis Bioxytech GPx-340 Assay (Oxis International, Inc., Portland, OR, USA). The final result for enzyme activity was expressed as units per milligram of protein (U/mg).
The data are presented as means ± S.E.M. Differences of gene expression (mRNA and protein levels) of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes (TH, DBH, and PNMT); levels of CREB, VMAT 2, SOD 1, SOD 2, CAT, and GPx mRNA; concentration of NA, A, and MDA; as well as enzyme activities (MAO A, MAO B, total SOD, CAT, and GPx) in the spleen were analyzed by one-way ANOVA. The effects of CSITR and IMM compared to control animals, as well as the effects of CSITR+IMM compared to CSITR, were tested by Tukey post-hoc test. Statistical significance was accepted at p < 0.05.
Correlations of mRNA levels, protein levels, hormone levels, and enzyme activity were analyzed by the Pearson test, using the Sigma Plot v10.0 (with SigmaStat integration).
The animals exposed to CSITR showed a decreased level of TH mRNA by 22% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 1a), DBH mRNA by 11% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 1b), PNMT mRNA by 29% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 1c), CREB mRNA by 69% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 1d), and increased levels of VMAT 2 mRNA by 100% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 1e) and PNMT protein by 19% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 2c), whereas levels of TH and DBH protein (Figure 2a and b) were unchanged compared with the controls.
Effects of CSITR and CSITR+IMM models on tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) [a], dopamine-ß-hydroxylase (DBH) [b], phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) [c], cAMP response element binding (CREB) [d], and vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) [e] mRNA levels in the spleen. Data are shown as mean ± SEM of 10 rats. Symbols: +p < 0.05, ++p < 0.01 CSITR animals compared to control animals (Tukey test) and ##p < 0.01 CSITR+IMM animals compared to CSITR animals (Tukey test).
Effects of CSITR and CSITR+IMM models on tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) [a], dopamine-ß-hydroxylase (DBH) [b], and phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) [c] protein levels in the spleen. Data are shown as mean ± SEM of 10 rats. Symbols: +p < 0.05 CSITR animals compared to control animals (Tukey test) and #p < 0.05 CSITR+IMM animals compared to CSITR animals (Tukey test).
IMM stress does not change significantly gene expression of catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes (Figures 1a–c and 2a–c) and levels of VMAT 2 mRNA (Figure 1e) 3 hours after immobilization. However, the additional exposure of CSITR animals to acute immobilization stress led to increased levels of PNMT protein by 33% (p < 0.05, Tukey test Figure 2c) and VMAT 2 mRNA by 100% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 1e) 3 hours after immobilization.
CSITR significantly increased the spleen concentrations of NA by 160% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 3a) and A by 140% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 3b), compared with control animals. The significant positive correlation was found between the levels of PNMT protein and A concentration in the spleen of animals exposed to CSITR (Pearson R = 0.631, p < 0.05, Figure 4a).
Effects of CSITR and CSITR+IMM models on the concentration of noradrenaline (NA) [a] and adrenaline (A) [b] in the spleen. Data are shown as mean ± SEM of 10 rats. Symbols: ++p < 0.01 CSITR animals compared to control animals (Tukey test); **p < 0.01 IMM animals compared to control animals (Tukey test); and #p < 0.05 CSITR+IMM animals compared to CSITR animals (Tukey test).
The correlation between PNMT protein level and concentrations of A and NA in the spleen of animals exposed to chronic social isolation and daily treadmill running, as well as of animals exposed to additional acute 2h immobilization stress after chronic social isolation and daily treadmill running (Pearson). (a) The correlation in the levels of PNMT protein and A concentrations in the spleen of animals exposed to CSITR (Pearson). (b) The correlation in the levels of PNMT protein and A concentrations in the spleen of animals exposed to CSITR+IMM (Pearson). (c) The correlation between NA and A concentrations in the spleen of animals exposed to CSITR+IMM (Pearson).
The exposure of the control animals to acute immobilization stress significantly increased NA concentration by 250% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 3a) and A concentration by 240% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 3b), whereas the additional acute immobilization of CSITR animals decreased NA concentration by 17% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 3a) and increased A concentration by 15% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 3b) 3 hours after immobilization. The significant positive correlation was found between the levels of PNMT protein and A concentration in the spleen of animals exposed to CSITR+IMM (Pearson R = 0.721, p < 0.05, Figure 4b). However, the significant negative correlation was found between the levels of NA concentration and A concentration in the spleen of animals exposed to CSITR+IMM (Pearson R = −0.661, p < 0.05, Figure 4c).
The animals exposed to CSITR showed a decreased enzyme activity of MAO B by 34% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 5b), whereas enzyme activity of MAO A (Figure 5a) was unchanged, compared with control animals.
Effects of CSITR and CSITR+IMM models on the enzyme activity of the monoamine oxidase A (MAO A) [a] and monoamine oxidase B (MAO B) [b] in the spleen. Data are shown as mean ± SEM of 10 rats. Symbols: +p < 0.05 CSITR animals compared to control animals (Tukey test), ***p < 0.001 IMM animals compared to control animals (Tukey test), and ##p < 0.01 CSITR+IMM animals compared to CSITR animals (Tukey test).
IMM stress significantly increased the enzyme activities of MAO A by 1000% (p < 0.001, Tukey test, Figure 5a) and MAO B by 376% (p < 0.001, Tukey test, Figure 5b) 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization. The additional acute immobilization of CSITR animals increased enzyme activities of MAO A by 116% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 5a) and MAO B by 107% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 5b) 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization.
Chronic social isolation (CSI) significantly increased concentrations of MDA by 21% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 6) compared with control animals. The animals exposed to CSITR showed unchanged levels of MDA compared with control animals (Figure 6).
Effects of CSITR and CSITR+IMM models on the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the spleen. Data are shown as mean ± SEM of 10 rats. Symbols: +p < 0.05 CSI animals compared to control animals (Tukey test), *p < 0.05 IMM animals compared to control animals (Tukey test), §§p < 0.01 CSI+IMM animals compared to CSI animals, and #p < 0.05 CSITR+IMM animals compared to CSITR animals (Tukey test).
The exposure of the control animals to acute immobilization stress significantly increased MDA concentration by 26% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 6), whereas the additional acute immobilization of CSI animals increased MDA concentration by 50% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 6) 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization. Also, the additional acute immobilization of CSITR animals increased MDA concentration by 16% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 6) 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization.
The animals exposed to CSITR showed unchanged levels of SOD 1 and SOD 2 mRNA (Figure 7a and b), as well as significantly increased levels of CAT mRNA by 50% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 7c) and GPx mRNA by 150% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 7d) compared with control animals. However, CSITR treatment significantly decreased the enzyme activities of total SOD by 36% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 8a) and GPx by 30% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 8c) compared with control animals, whereas CAT activity remained unchanged (Figure 8b).
Effects of CSITR and CSITR+IMM models on CuZn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) [a], Mn superoxide dismutase (SOD2) [b], catalase (CAT) [c], and glutathione peroxidase GPx [d] mRNA levels in the spleen. Data are shown as mean ± S.E.M. of 10 rats. Symbols: +p < 0.05, ++p < 0.01 CSITR animals compared to control animals (Tukey test), *p < 0.05 IMM animals compared to control animals (Tukey test), and #p < 0.05, ##p < 0.01 CSITR+IMM animals compared to CSITR animals (Tukey test).
Effects of CSITR and CSITR+IMM models on total superoxide dismutase (SOD) [a], catalase (CAT) [b], and glutathione peroxidase GPx [c] enzyme activity in the spleen. Data are shown as mean ± SEM of 10 rats. Symbols: +p < 0.05 CSITR animals compared to control animals (Tukey test), **p < 0.01 IMM animals compared to control animals (Tukey test), and #p < 0.05, ##p < 0.01 CSITR+IMM animals compared to CSITR animals (Tukey test).
IMM stress does not change mRNA levels of SOD 1, SOD 2, and CAT (Figure 7a–c) as well as enzyme activity of total SOD and CAT (Figure 8a and b) 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization. However, IMM treatment significantly increased mRNA levels of GPx by 20% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 7d) as well as enzyme activity of GPx by 135% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 8c) 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization. The additional acute immobilization of CSITR animals increased mRNA levels of SOD 1 by 37% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 7a), SOD 2 by 115% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 7b), CAT by 57% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 7c), and GPx by 18% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 7d) as well as enzyme activities of total SOD by 68% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 8a), CAT by 13% (p < 0.05, Tukey test, Figure 8b), and GPx by 576% (p < 0.01, Tukey test, Figure 8c) 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization.
It is known that chronic social isolation induces a reduction of gene expression of noradrenaline biosynthetic enzymes in the spleen [11]. Since the data from literature confirm that the treadmill running stimulates concomitantly peripheral catecholamine secretion and central noradrenergic activity, i.e., NA turnover and release [65], it was tentative to expect that treadmill running would change the splenic catecholamine synthesis of chronically psychosocially stressed rats. However, the results presented in this chapter show that the treadmill running does not lead to further modulation of gene expression of splenic noradrenaline biosynthetic enzymes (TH and DBH) and that reduced level of CREB mRNA coincides with the reduced TH and DBH mRNA levels of chronically psychosocially stressed rats. Also, the treadmill running does not change levels of splenic TH and DBH protein of chronically stressed rats. This finding indicates the decrease of de novo synthesis of NA in the spleen and that the CREB plays a major role in regulating the expression of TH and DBH genes during treadmill running, which is in accordance with the reports of Erdös et al. [13]. Therefore, the treadmill exercise does not affect the synthesis of splenic NA biosynthetic enzymes of chronically stressed rats. Although levels of splenic noradrenaline biosynthetic enzymes are unchanged, concentration of NA in the spleen of chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise is increased. This finding indicates exogenous source of NA in the spleen of chronically stressed rats exposed to daily exercise. These findings strengthen the idea that the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) participates in the NA response to CSITR, which is in accordance with results of Blandino et al. [66], who have confirmed that the noradrenergic system plays an integral role in modulations of splenic IL-1 beta response to stress. In addition, exposure of chronically stressed rats to daily treadmill running reduces PNMT mRNA level. However, CSITR treatment leads to continuous accumulation of PNMT protein catalyzing the conversion of NA to A, suggesting the possibility of the conversion of sympathetic neurotransmitter NA to A in the spleen (Figure 4a). This is indicated by significant positive correlation between the levels of PNMT protein and A in the spleen. It is known that catecholamine via adrenergic receptors induces modulation of many immune functions like splenic cytokine production [4]. Moreover, catecholamines might be stored into vesicles by VMAT or degraded by MAO and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) [67]. Expression of VMAT, which plays an important role in the transport of newly synthesized catecholamines into vesicles, positively correlated with norepinephrine levels in both T and B cells which might suggest increased capacity for intracellular catecholamine production [68]. Endogenous catecholamines can modulate function of lymphocytes themselves by a paracrine and autocrine pathway [69]. O’Donnell et al. [70] found that increase of catecholamine levels coincided with reduction of splenic B and NK cells and a concomitant increase in T cells. As reported in this chapter, the treadmill running increases splenic VMAT 2 gene expression, and that increased level of VMAT 2 mRNA coincides with the increased splenic NA and A levels of chronically psychosocially stressed adult rats. A high splenic VMAT 2 transcript level suggests increased capacity of the splenic catecholamines. Therefore, exercise induces accumulation of catecholamines in the spleen of chronically stressed rats, indicating higher readiness of catecholaminergic system to a novel stressor (Figure 1e). Brown et al. [71] found that endogenous catecholamines might further initiate intracellular oxidation and apoptosis. However, daily treadmill running does not change enzyme activity of MAO A and decreases enzyme activity of MAO B in the spleen of chronically stressed rats (Figure 5). Decreased or unchanged enzyme activities of MAOs indicate that daily treadmill running decreases catecholamine degradation of chronically stressed rats. Therefore, these results indicate that the treadmill running induces accumulation of the splenic catecholamines and that the SNS probably plays a major role in accumulation of the splenic catecholamines in chronically stressed rats.
Chronic social isolation significantly increases concentrations of MDA in the spleen (Figure 6). The literature data confirm that exercise training has beneficial effects on oxidative stress and antioxidant defense systems in multiple organs [72]. Meguid et al. [73] showed a significant decrease in serum level of malondialdehyde (MDA) in Down syndrome individuals after treadmill exercise for 3 months. Exposure of chronically stressed rats to daily treadmill running induces return of MDA concentration in the spleen to basal level (Figure 6). This confirms that the chronic exercise training induces adaptations that decrease stress-induced oxidative stress. It is in line with the reports of Belviranli et al. [74], who observed that chronic exercise has protective role because the decreased oxidative damage is associated with improved aerobic metabolism induced by physical training.
The decreased oxidative stress resulting from chronic training may originate from the elevated antioxidant system [75]. Powers et al. [76] observed that different combinations of intensity (low, moderate, and high) and duration (30, 60, and 90 min/day) produced different effects on the regulation of the antioxidant enzymes SOD, CAT, and GPx in the left ventricle. Exposure of chronically stressed rats to daily treadmill running induces an increase in CAT and GPx mRNA levels, while SOD1 and SOD2 mRNA levels remain unchanged (Figure 7). It is known that the adaptive response of the antioxidant system is specific to either the type of tissue or the different antioxidant systems involved [77, 78]. Ordonez et al. [79] found that a 12-week exercise significantly increased erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase activity which resulted in reduced oxidative damage. Sprint training caused an increase in the cardiac activity of glutathione redox cycle-related enzymes (GPx and GR) without inducing any changes in glutathione S-transferases (GST) and SOD activities or glutathione (GSH) levels in the myocardium [80]. It is important to notice that in CSITR the level of CAT activity remains unchanged, whereas total SOD and GPx activities are decreased (Figure 8). After 12 weeks of training process, changes in mRNA levels of antioxidant enzymes are not consistent with the changes in enzyme activities in the spleen of chronically stressed rats. Discrepancies between mRNA levels and activities may be related to differences in mRNA stability or translational efficiency [81]. García-López et al. [82] suspect that it is possible that the expressions of antioxidant enzymes mRNA were initially upregulated and then downregulated. In addition, regulation of expression might act on individual mRNAs to block their translation and thereby lead to their degradation [82]. Therefore, message degradation may be the primary target of regulation of expression [82]. Discrepancies between mRNA levels and activities of MnSOD may be in a kinase/phosphatase signal transduction pathway that may exert a fine control over posttranscriptional regulation of MnSOD expression [83]. In addition, CAT may be inactivated by its substrate, hydrogen peroxide, due to formation of complex II or complex III of CAT at high peroxide concentrations [84]. Nilakantan et al. [85] found that NO or NO-derived products inhibit both CAT and GPx enzyme activities. The results presented in this chapter confirm that daily treadmill running induces high splenic antioxidant enzyme transcript levels probably for immediate translation whenever necessary in chronically stressed rats, which is in accordance with the results of García-López et al. [82]. A high splenic CAT and GPx transcript levels suggest that exercise could induce the antioxidant defense system to become more ready to a novel stressor.
To confirm whether exercise is optimal stimulus to regulate expression levels of splenic catecholamines and antioxidant enzymes and whether the exposure of chronically stressed rats to daily treadmill running induces potentially positive adaptations of the splenic catecholamines and antioxidant protection, this chapter discusses the effects of additional acute immobilization stress. Detection of regulatory mechanism for catecholamine metabolism and antioxidant protection in the spleen in conditions provoked by the additional acute immobilization of chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise is exceptionally relevant in stress biology, because of the significant role of catecholamines and oxidative stress in modulation of immune function. The acute immobilization (IMM) and additional acute immobilization (CSITR+IMM) do not affect the synthesis of splenic noradrenaline biosynthetic enzymes (TH and DBH) 3 hours after a termination of immobilization stimulus (Figure 2). Also, acute immobilization (IMM) does not change the level of PNMT mRNA and PNMT protein 3 hours after the termination of immobilization stimulus (Figure 2). Wong et al. [86] reported that PNMT protein and enzyme activity changes require additional time of approximately 18–20 hours to reach maximum stimulated levels. Three hours after the additional acute immobilization (CSITR+IMM), the increased synthesis of splenic PNMT protein (Figure 2) affects the increase of A (Figure 3) in the spleen of chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise. These data raise the possibility that 3 hours after additional acute stress, the spleen only converts sympathetic neurotransmitter NA to A of chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise. This is confirmed by the significant positive correlation between the levels of PNMT protein and A (Figure 4b), as well as negative correlation between the levels of NA and A in the spleen (Figure 4c). The acute immobilization (IMM) triggers an exaggerated elevation of splenic catecholamines, while the additional acute immobilization (CSITR+IMM) elevates only splenic A in chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise. This data confirm that the chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise show high readiness to convert sympathetic neurotransmitter NA to A. In addition, significantly elevated levels of VMAT 2 mRNA 3 hours after additional acute immobilization in chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise were found (Figure 1). Chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercises have statistically less significant activation of MAO enzymes after additional acute immobilization compared with the animals exposed only to acute immobilization stress (Figure 5). These results confirm that the additional acute immobilization (CSITR+IMM) reveals high readiness of chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise for the accumulation of splenic A.
Additionally, it was proven that 3 hours after the acute immobilization, concentration of splenic MDA increased, which is in accordance with the reports of Belviranli et al. [74], who showed that the acute stress triggers oxidative stress. The acute immobilization (IMM) does not change either the levels of SOD 1, SOD 2, and CAT mRNA (Figure 7) or the total SOD and CAT enzyme activity (Figure 8) in the spleen 3 hours after a termination of immobilization stimulus. This finding is in line with the reports of Pajović et al. [16], who confirm that the acute immobilization does not change the levels of SOD enzyme activity. The increased oxidative stress produces inhibitory effects on CAT and SOD activity, which is evident from decreased enzyme activity of CAT and SOD (Figure 8) and increased concentration of MDA (Figure 6). These results are in accordance with the reports of Haider et al. [87] who showed that increased oxidative stress produced inhibitory effects on CAT activity. However, the acute immobilization (IMM) increases only the levels of mRNA and enzyme activity of GPx (Figures 7 and 8), but that increase was not sufficient to reduce oxidative stress. These results, together with the above mentioned data, confirm that acute immobilization induces oxidative stress. In addition, elevated levels of MDA 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization in chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise are observed (Figure 6). However, additional acute immobilization (CSITR+IMM) induces an increase of SOD 1, SOD 2, CAT, and GPx mRNA (Figure 7), as well as total SOD, CAT, and GPx enzyme activity (Figure 8) 3 hours after the cessation of immobilization in chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise. These data suggest high readiness of splenic antioxidant enzymes to repair or prevent damage by reactive oxygen species in chronically stressed animals exposed to daily exercise after additional acute immobilization stress. This could mean that exercise may condition physiological systems to “expect” a problem and, therefore, be more ready to respond to a novel additional acute stressor by increased antioxidant protection. The readiness of the chronically stressed organism exposed to exercise to respond to a heterotypic stressor by an exaggerated expression of splenic antioxidant enzymes is an important adaptive phenomenon of the antioxidant defense system. Therefore, these results confirm that exercise have an important protective role in the splenic antioxidant defense system.
The exposure of chronically stressed rats to daily exercise induces the increase in the synthesis of splenic PNMT protein catalyzing the conversion of sympathetic neurotransmitter NA to A. In addition, the increased levels of splenic VMAT 2 mRNA and decreased/unchanged MAO enzyme activity suggest that daily exercise leads to accumulation of splenic catecholamines in chronically stressed rats. The accumulation of the splenic catecholamines provoked by exercises may have an important impact on the immune-neuroendocrine interactions in stress conditions. The return of the splenic MDA concentrations to basal levels confirms that exercise may decrease stress-induced oxidative stress, while the increased splenic antioxidant enzyme (CAT and GPx) transcript levels suggest that exercise could induce the antioxidant defense system to become more ready to a novel stressor, which indicates that exercises may repair oxidative damage in chronically stressed rats. Moreover, it can be concluded that exposure of chronically stressed rats to daily exercise causes high splenic antioxidant enzyme transcript levels and catecholamine levels and that the exercise can be beneficial, inducing an adaptive response to possibly other stressors that may be encountered later.
The remarkable anatomical and physiological similarities between humans and animals, particularly mammals, have prompted researchers to investigate a large range of mechanisms and assess novel therapies in animal models before applying their discoveries to humans [88]. Our combined model of chronic social isolation and long-term daily treadmill running may be a good animal model in the research of the preventive role of exercise on neuroendocrine and immune functions in stress conditions, suggesting the potential application of CSITR animal model in understanding of human stress, as well as the potential therapeutic role of exercise in human diseases.
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia, Contract No.III 41027 and No.III 41022.
The authors report no conflict of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper.
Today, information has become the main component of what we produce, do, buy, and consume. Having an economic value in almost all products and services that meet the needs of today’s societies, it has been now obligatory for individuals and organizations to obtain information technologies and to actively use them in both work and social life domains. Hence, in the current information age, where information is seen as power, this situation has made it imperative for organizations to become increasingly information-based and to benefit from information technologies in many processes and activities.
The intensive use of information technologies in many functions and processes has also required some changes in organizations [1]. This is due to the fact that information technologies, unlike traditional technologies, do not only change the technical fields but also affect the communication channels, decision-making functions and mechanisms, control, etc. [2]. Consequently, one of the most striking developments is on organizational structures that are becoming increasingly flattened and horizontal. Relatedly, information technologies have begun to take over the role of middle management, which supports decision-making processes of senior management and has reduced the importance of this level [3, 4, 5]. Similarly, while information technologies enable managers to obtain faster, more accurate, and more information [6, 7, 8], it also provides lower-level managers with more information about the general situation of the organization, the nature of current problems, and important organizational matters [9, 10, 11, 12].
Moreover, information technologies also have an important potential in determining whether organizations have a mechanical or an organic structure [13]. Within the mechanical organizational structures, people do not have much autonomy, and behaviors expected from employees are being careful and obedience to upper authority and respect for traditions. In such organizations, predictability, consistency, and stability are desirable phenomena. In contrast, people in organic structures have more freedom in shaping and controlling their activities, and being enthusiastic, creative, and taking risks have important places among the desired behaviors [14].
Accordingly, information technologies begin to influence the cultural values of the organization over time, through these transformations they create on organizational structures, processes, and operations. In other words, the fact that organizational structures are mechanical or organic causes the formation of diverse cultural values in organizations [15]. Therefore, the desired cultural values in mechanical organizations are quite different from those in organic structures [1, 16, 17]. In this context, this chapter deals with the influences of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations along with the reflections of the use of these technologies on organizational structures and their functioning.
When we look at studies on the relations between organizational culture and information technologies, we generally see the studies on the effects of culture on technology adaptation or use [18, 19, 20, 21], as well as on the effects of certain specific information technologies and applications (e.g., e-mail use, group support practices, etc.) on some aspects of any organizational culture [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. However, the number of studies that consider the use of information technologies as a “whole” and that address “why” and “how” its effects on organizational culture occurred is still limited. And so, this chapter aims to examine and discuss the overall effects of the usage and intensity of information technologies established in organizations on the cultural life within.
In this context, the chapter plan is as follows: Firstly, the basic concepts related to information and information technologies are included. Emphasis is placed on the meaning differences between knowledge and information, and their connections to information technologies are tried to be explained briefly. Secondly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure are given particular attention. The reason for this is that as a system of values, beliefs, assumptions, and practices [32], organizational culture encompasses many features closely related to structures of organizations. Thirdly, possible links between organizational structure and organizational culture are included. Fourthly, important theoretical approaches and studies on the relationships between information technologies and organizational culture are provided. Finally, by deepening a bit more and by emphasizing key points, some important arguments are discussed.
In the literature, the concepts of information and knowledge are sometimes expressed by a single term, “information.” However, although the concepts of knowledge and information are intertwined, they are two different concepts that have different meanings and describe different phenomena. The reason for this is that knowledge is also included in the concept of information as it is transformed into a commodity when it begins to be processed, stored, and shared by information technologies.
Becoming the basic elements of today’s economic, social, and cultural systems, information is obtained in a certain hierarchy. The images are at the beginning of the process, and the process is completed with a hierarchical staging in the form of data, information, and knowledge, respectively [33]. Image is located in the first step of the process. Humans copy the picture of any object and event they previously perceived by sensory organs. When faced with a similar phenomenon in the later stages of life, these pictures in the mind are redesigned. We call these pictures of realities occurring in the human mind as images [33]. The next stage, the data, contains symbols that represent events and their properties. For this reason, data are expressed as figures and/or facts without content and interpretation [34]. Information that constitutes the next stage of the process and is mixed with knowledge and used interchangeably is expressed as a reporting of one system’s own status to another system [33]. In information, associated data are combined for a specific purpose. Therefore, we can explain information as meaningful data [35]. Knowledge, on the other hand, is defined as personalized information that allows people to fully and accurately grasp what is happening around them and manifests itself in the form of thoughts, insights, intuition, ideas, lessons learned, practices, and experiences [36]. According to Kautz and Thaysen [37] who stated that knowledge is found only in the people’s minds, knowledge is, therefore, a subjective formation. In other words, knowledge is the form of information enriched with interpretation, analysis, and context [38]. However, here, it should be emphasized again by highlighting a very important issue that knowledge is also accepted as information when this knowledge begins to be processed, stored, shared, and used over information technologies. Therefore, after this, when talking about information, one should consider not only the information created by the data brought together in a meaningful way but also the knowledge shared and used over information technologies.
On the other hand, information technologies, used as the most important tool of generating value today, are defined as the technologies that enable processes such as recording and storing data, producing information through certain operational processes, and accessing, storing, and transmitting this produced information effectively and efficiently [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. The term information technologies is used to cover computer and electronic communication technologies, as they are now inseparably intertwined in literature and everyday use and are generally used in this way [47]. In this context, data processing systems, management information systems (MIS), office automation systems, executive support systems, expert systems, intranet and extranet, electronic mail (e-mail), group applications (groupware), database management systems, decision support systems, artificial intelligence, and telecommunication systems can be given as examples of information technologies [33, 48, 49].
Towards the end of the twentieth century, the rapid changes with the impact of developments in information technologies led to the emergence of customer satisfaction-based, learning, knowledge-based, and constantly changing organizations [50]. The fact that organizations have become considerably information-based and benefit from information technologies intensively in their activities and processes has made also the changes in their organizational structures mandatory [1]. Accordingly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure will be summarized under the subtitles of differentiation, centralization, and standardization/formalization, which are the three main components of organizational structure [15].
Differentiation within an organization occurs in three ways: Specialization/division of labor, horizontal and vertical differentiation, and hierarchy and size [15]. Specialization refers to the amount of different expertise or types of work [51, 52]. Specialization generally increases the number of subunits and makes it harder to understand the larger structure that people contribute to with their skills and expertise [53]. Information technologies have the potential to reduce this tendency by providing more access to information and experts at this point. In this way, access to information resources provides synergy [54].
Vertical and horizontal differentiation refers to the amount of hierarchical levels in an organization [55]. Information technologies, with the support of problem solving and decision-making, lead to the emergence of more flattened organizational structures as they require fewer levels within the hierarchy [56]. Since information technologies give employees in lower positions more autonomy to harmonize their activities, this can allow them to find and try better methods while performing their work. In this context, we can increasingly see that organizational structures have become horizontal and strengthened and that virtual organizations have begun to emerge as the most cost-effective structure [17].
In terms of hierarchy and size, Heinze and Stuart [4] argue that the mid-level management staff is unnecessary, increases bureaucracy, reduces efficiency, and has no function in organizations any more. Since most of the tasks performed by mid-level executives can be fulfilled by computers, both less costly and faster, information technology has begun to take over the role of mid-level management, which supports the decision-making process of senior management [5]. Sharing the same opinion, Fulk and DeSanctis [57] also stated that the largely witnessed situation in modern organizational designs is the reduction of intermediate-level managers and administrative support.
Centralization points to the extent to which decision-making power within an organization is scattered or centered [58]. Due to increasing local and global competition, many companies have started to leave their strategic decision-making task further down the organization to benefit from the expert people with more precise and timely local knowledge [10]. Information technologies affect these efforts directly in two ways. Firstly, information technologies increase local knowledge by contributing to obtaining closer information about market trends, opportunities, and customers. Secondly, information technologies can create synergies for organizations because, thanks to information technologies, communication and coordination between distributed decision makers, central planners, and senior managers can be realized more effectively and efficiently [59].
However, whether information technologies will lead to centralization or decentralization is a very controversial question. Regarding centralization, it enables managers to acquire faster, more accurate, and more information, reduces uncertainty, and allows them to make decisions that they cannot make before [6, 7, 8]. Conversely, by the use of other forms of information technologies (e.g., electronic bulletin boards), decentralization provides more information to lower- and mid-level managers about the general situation of the organization and the nature of current matters and problems [9, 10, 11, 12]. Raymond et al. [60] argued that because information technologies facilitate the use and transmission of information by all levels and units in the organization, it enables top management, which is the decision authority, to be disabled in certain areas and the decentralization of control. Thach and Woodman [61] maintained that this is due to the fact that as a result of sharing information at lower levels with the help of information technologies, this power of senior management has decreased to a certain extent, and the knowledge and participation of the staff in organizational matters have increased.
The literature shows that information technologies allow both centralization and decentralization. Researchers are in the agreement that information technologies make it possible for organizational managers to leave their decision-making power to a large part of the hierarchical levels without compromising the quality and timeliness of the decision [62, 63]. Keen [64] combined the concepts of centralization and decentralization and used the term “federated organization” in which organizations do not have to choose either because information technologies simultaneously allow centralization-decentralization [64, 65].
Formalization is the process of detailing how activities are coordinated for organizational purposes in order for employees and organizational units to respond routinely to recurring situations [51, 66]. Formalization involves rules, instructions, shared values, and norms [67]. In fact, formalization is based on the objective of more efficiency and less uncertainty [13].
Information technologies provide the ability to reduce the negative effects of formalization by facilitating the documenting and retrieving of information on organizational occurrences and endeavors that make behaviors and processes more consistent through formalization [63]. The more information technologies assist in reducing search times and preventing downtime, the more the administrative cost of formalization decreases and the productivity increases, which ultimately benefits the path to innovation [68].
Different organizational structures lead to the development of different cultural values [15]. The fact that the structure which an organization has established to control its activities and is defined as a formal system consisting of duties and authority relations is mechanical or organic causes the emergence of completely different cultural values, rules, and norms [69]. While mechanical structures are vertical, highly centralized, and almost everything in them are standardized, organic structures are horizontal, decentralized, and based on mutual adaptation [14]. People feel relatively less autonomous in vertical and centralized organizations, and being careful, obeying the upper authority, and respecting traditions are among the desired behaviors. Therefore, in a mechanical organizational structure, there are cultural values where predictability and stability are important [69]. In contrast, in horizontal and decentralized organizations, people can freely choose their own activities and control them. Creativity, courage, and risk-taking are given importance as desired behaviors. Therefore, organic structures contribute to the formation of cultures that value innovation and flexibility [15].
Organizational structure is also important for the development of cultural values that support integration and coordination. In a structure with stable task and role relations, sharing of rules and norms is more since there will be no communication problems and the information flow will be fast [70]. In organizations where the sharing of cultural values, norms, and rules is at a high level, the level of performance also increases [15]. Particularly in team or matrix structures where face-to-face communication is intense, the sharing of these cultural values and common reactions to the problems develop more rapidly [9].
Whether an organization is centralized or not causes different cultural values to emerge. In decentralized structures, authority is divided into subordinate levels, and an environment is created for the formation of cultural values in which creativity and innovation are rewarded [13]. Employees are allowed to use the organization’s resources and work in projects that they want, by spending some of their time in these projects, thus contributing to the production of innovative and creative products and services [15]. The structures of such organizations constitute the cultural values that give their employees the message “as long as it is in the interest of the organization, it is okay to do things in an innovative and the way you want.”
Conversely, in some organizations, it may be more important for employees not to decide on their own and all activities to be followed and controlled by their superiors. In such cases, a centralized structure is preferred to create cultural values that will ensure accountability and obedience [71]. Through norms and rules, all employees are expected to behave honestly and consistently and inform their superiors about wrongs or mistakes, because this is the only acceptable form of behavior within these structures [72].
Since working on the factors that determine the consequences of the adoption and use of information technologies, researchers have focused on people’s beliefs, values, assumptions, and codes of conduct. As a result, they have given names to this research field such as “socio-technical systems,” “social system,” “social structure,” and most recently “culture” [73]. For example, Markus and Robey [23] using “social elements” and Barley [26] using “social system” or “social structure” tried to explain this phenomenon. When examined more closely, it is seen that the details that these authors emphasize while depicting the case are the assumptions, beliefs, and values that exist in common among the group members, and this corresponds to the definition of organizational culture.
Research examining the relationships between information technologies and values, beliefs, and norms belonging to a particular group has gone through certain stages and used rich and complex research models to explain the relationships in each of these stages [74]. In the first studies on information technology applications, it has been suggested that information technologies cause changes in various organizational phenomena including structural features and thus have certain effects on organizations [74]. For instance, in some studies on adoption of groupware software, several researchers have used this deterministic approach to describe how groupware use affects communication and collaboration among employees and their productivity [27, 28]. These studies assume that certain results will certainly emerge after the adoption of information technologies, without considering the motives or activities that shape the use of information technologies by managers and employees. Like much more deterministic studies, these authors often assumed that information technologies would have predetermined influences on the adoption of information technologies, regardless of the environment in which information technologies were applied, how they were applied, and the users’ specific behaviors and particular purposes.
The second group of views concerning the relationships between organizational culture and information technologies includes the fact that information technologies are seen as a tool that can be used for any change that managers desire to make in organizational practices [22]. In studies in this approach, researchers believe that there is a wide range of possibilities to identify changes in organizational culture, structure, processes, and performance [22, 75]. Researchers from this tradition presume that with the right choice of information technologies and appropriate system design, managers can achieve whatever goals they desire.
These works were mostly adopted in the 1980s and reflect a perspective that managers think can manipulate organizational culture in the way they want. Often called “management and control,” “a functional or instrumental approach” to organizational culture, this methodology has caused serious debate in the literature [76]. This approach attributes great powers to the management level in this regard, which conflicts with anthropologists’ views that culture cannot be consciously controlled and goes much deeper to understand it [76]. Robey and Azevido [77] also do not accept the rational thought on the assumption that culture can be manipulated directly in this way.
Studies with this rational perspective in the information technology literature assume that managers can use information technologies as a leverage to make changes in the norms of behavior, strategy, structure, and performance among members within the organization. For example, in studies on group support systems (GSS), we find managers’ beliefs that they can use collaborative technologies to create a more cooperative organizational culture. This perspective was not accepted by Karsten [78] and some experimental research on GSS [30, 79]. Organizational necessity is no longer accepted, as it is viewed by information technology researchers as an overly simple approach [23, 80].
Researchers who take another approach suggest that information technologies and organizational culture can interact with each other to produce various results [22, 23]. These results can be in the form of adoption and effective use of information technologies (if there is a harmony between organizational culture and information technologies) or user reluctance, refusal, or sabotage (if no fit). Researchers who have been working on information systems since the 1980s have focused on understanding information technology features and functionality that cause effective or problematic information technology applications and the interaction between users’ values, assumptions, and other elements of organizational culture. In this regard, Romm et al. [81] argued that many forms of information technologies comprise cultural assumptions embedded within themselves and these assumptions may conflict with existing values of a particular organization. The authors argued that these embedded assumptions present information technologies as a “cultural boundary” and that a cultural analysis should be made to predict compliance or incompatibility. The authors in this approach warn managers to think of organizational culture as a binding limitation in information technology applications. In a warning by Pliskin et al. [76], managers are advised not to try to change the culture of the organization. Regarding this issue, Orlikowski [30] cites Lotus Notes (a group software) application at Alpha Corporation, a consultancy company. In this example, this system, which was established by the CEO of the company only with the benefits to be obtained, did not create the expected effects, became unsuccessful, and disappointed due to reasons such as no cultural analysis and inadequate training. Employees responded to the use of Notes with resistance and refrained from using it. The reason for this was that the employees in this organization, which had a competitive culture where information was seen as a power, avoided sharing information with others. As a result, this incompatibility between the collaborative culture that Notes had in itself and the competitive culture of the organization in question had failed this application of information technologies.
In a different approach, it is stated that information technologies and culture are not fixed and they are more flexible in terms of change [23, 75]. Managers in this approach may set specific goals for the use of information technologies, but actual results of the use of information technologies are not deterministic, and results cannot be predicted or controlled even under the best conditions [23]. The effects of information technologies are not deterministic because technology has interpretable flexibility considering that it can have different meanings for different employees. Similar technology can be interpreted in a different way by distinct people, based on certain assumptions, beliefs, and values. Robey and coauthors [24, 25], for instance, showed that it would be an empty attempt for organizational managers to try to intentionally manipulate the effects of these technologies, since there are many ways that diverse employees can configure a particular technology in different social environments.
Gopal and Prasad [31] also achieved similar results in their work on group support system (GSS), claiming that for researchers seeking fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors, this would be an impossible goal to pursue. Conversely, the results of using information technologies depend on the symbolic meanings that information technologies have for a particular user. This work of Gopal and Prasad [31] expresses similar results with the work of Barley [26] and Robey and Sahay [25]. The authors stated that the symbolic meanings of certain technologies for users affect their perceptions of information technologies and their specific behaviors.
In the light of the above-mentioned approaches, arguments, and important studies in the literature, it will be useful to discuss some important points by deepening a little more and by emphasizing the key features related to the concepts of information, information technologies, and organizational culture.
First, organizational culture is a complex phenomenon that develops and changes in a historical process [32, 82, 83]. Thus, although it might seem like a plain and simple concept, organizational culture includes many subdimensions and processes. When considered as a complex pattern of these interactions of many factors with each other, it is also a difficult process to identify the direct and indirect effects of information technologies on organizational culture within this cluster of relationships and interactions. Moreover, culture is not a phenomenon that changes and develops in a short time and is therefore open to manipulations of managers. On the contrary, from this point of view, it is not possible to easily achieve control over cultural changes, and it is necessary to go much deeper [76]. So, it is not rational to expect that the rapid developments and changes in information technologies will cause changes in cultural characteristics at the same speed. In this sense, it could be inaccurate to seek direct relationships between two phenomena in question, whose rates of change are quite different.
Second, for cultural changes, there must also be changes in the basic assumptions, beliefs, and values on which the culture is built [84]. It would be misleading to expect little or intensive use of information technologies to cause changes in these rooted assumptions. For the desired changes in these basic assumptions, beliefs, and values, it is necessary to design the structure accordingly, to recruit employees who are qualified for the targeted culture, and to set ethical values and property rights to employees in accordance with this culture [15]. In this sense, information technologies may only catalyze the contribution of organizational structure to organizational culture.
Third, there are many and different types of hardware and software that fall under the scope of information technologies. It is not logical to accept all of them as homogeneous technologies in all aspects (with the same functions and features, similar usage areas, standard conditions they are applied, similar intentions, and behaviors of all users), and it can be, therefore, misleading to carry out research under a single “IT” concept from this perspective. The reason for this is that, as stated in the sections above, cultural features of each information technology application or product embedded in it might be different. The interactions between the cultural characteristics of the environment in which information technologies are applied and the unique cultural contents of information technologies may cause different results on the culture of the organization.
Fourth, contrary to what is believed, some of cultural features that we anticipate to support information technology applications and products may be interpreted otherwise by diverse people contingent on different assumptions, beliefs, and values. In fact, Robey et al. [24, 25] showed that managers cannot control the effects of these technologies, since different users can configure a particular technology in numerous ways in different social environments. Also, Gopal and Prasad [31] argued that this would be an impossible achievement for researchers looking for fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors.
Fifth, information technologies were defined above as technologies that enable processing, storage, and sharing of information. The key concept in this definition is “knowledge-based” information and not the technology itself. Therefore, what makes information technologies essential and important is the information itself. According to the definition of knowledge, the most significant characteristic that differentiates it from information is its being a product of the human mind [37]. Because knowledge is the interpretation of information and expresses the value produced from it, qualifying information technologies as good-bad, useful-useless, and necessary-unnecessary can be a meaningless evaluation. So, the basic thing that creates value-added for organizations is not the technology used but the information itself, which is processed, stored, and shared on this technology. In this context, even if it is the latest, most advanced, and most expensive technology in the world, if the organization does not have a qualified human resource capable of producing knowledge that will create value-added, an appropriate organizational structure and culture that will activate this creative potential, and a management approach, all investments in these technologies will also be wasted.
This chapter has aimed to examine the impacts of information technologies on organizations’ cultures, and for this purpose, a special emphasis is given to the concept of “organizational structure” within the theoretical framework presented above. The most important reason for this is that relevant literature shows that organizational culture and organizational structure are in a very close relationship. Indeed, when the question items in the Denison organizational culture scale [85], which is the most frequently used in the literature, are examined, it is possible to see that most of these items point to many features of organizational structure concerning centralization, formalization, and differentiation dimensions. Therefore, it is a very rational approach to expect that information technologies can have direct and indirect effects on organizational cultures based on the influences of information technologies on structures of organizations. However, it should be underlined that different and controversial approaches and findings in the literature mentioned above on the relations between information technologies and organizational culture generate question marks in the minds as well.
In this regard, it is already quite difficult to draw a clear picture of the impacts of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations. The number of studies on the subject in the literature is still very limited. Accordingly, it is necessary to underline the great need for interdisciplinary studies in this field. But still, this study argues that the main factor that determines the actual impact and value of information technologies, which have become an integral part of human life in today’s world, is the information itself rather than technology, and it should be kept in mind that information technologies can only function as a means or tool in this knowledge-based social, economic, and cultural life. In other words, the determinant of the benefits, meaning, and importance of information technologies might be the conditions created by organizational factors such as cultural environment and organizational structure where knowledge is created, developed, and used and human resources have become the most important capital element and source of wealth.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
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\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
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