\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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The increasing performance of computers over the last decade has stimulated the development of general-purpose computer vision algorithms. One of the major problems of computer vision is object recognition tasks, to which special attention is paid. This is due to the desire to create artificial intelligent systems. The first step toward any kind of intelligence is perception, followed by reasoning and action.
\nHuman perception is based on visual perception. Since intelligent artificial systems are primarily inspired by human perception and reasoning, we can conclude that visual perception is an important source of information for many potential systems.
\nRecently, there was a raising interest on eye tracking technology. This is mainly due to the industrial growth of many domains such as augmented reality, smart cars, and web applications’ testing for which a solid eye tracking technology is essential. Eye movement recognition, combined with other biometrics such as sound recognition, can enable a smooth interaction with virtual environments.
\nA good example of a smart system is the autonomous car. It perceives the surrounding world and the signs while adapting her behavior to changing situations. Such a car contains a lot of different sensors, which help to perceive the necessary information. The visual perception of the surrounding world is among the most important. It could be used to recognize pedestrians on the street, cars, animals, or even unspecified objects on the road, which could pose a potential threat to human life.
\nImproving and developing object recognition algorithms will help improve not only artificial intelligent systems but many other useful applications in today’s world. Other examples of application of this system can be extended to the tourist industry where applications of augmented reality (Figure 1) are becoming more and more popular especially after the widespread use of smartphones. In addition, the field of video surveillance is also a possible extension of object detection algorithms because of the need for quick and timely detection of different video scenes captured by cameras.
\nAugmented reality.
Indeed, scene comprehension includes many separable tasks ranging from object recognition to the categorization of scenes and events. Object detection is a complex discipline that can be divided into three main directions:
Image classification: The search for images in the majority of search engines is a typical case of image classification algorithms.
Object detection: The location of the object on the request is one of the desired information in many of the systems mentioned.
Segmentation of objects: Which pixels belong to which objects? It is more precisely compared to object detection for obvious reasons.
Object detection is a difficult task mainly because of possible changes in the appearance of the object due to different consequences. The design of the potential method must consider the possible difficulties:
Intra-class variations: An object type can have a large number of variations (Figure 2 illustrates different types of chairs). This can pose a problem by using specific features, which do not cover all possible object variations.
Luminance conditions: Variations in luminance conditions change the appearance of the object, mainly in color and reflection.
Point of view: The majority of objects in the images are in three dimensions. The images are only two dimensions, which means that we can only see a particular view of the given object. The same object may differ from other points of view, which we must also be aware of. Different views of the same object cause the invisibility of different features. Not all features are visible from a single point of view.
Scale: The size of the object may differ, and there is a desire to be able to detect what the object gives to any size or scale.
Location: It is much easier if you know where the desired object is. The situation differs if you have a prior knowledge of the location of the object and no information about it or if you know that the image contains only one object, located in the center of the image.
Orientation: Humans do not have obvious problems recognizing the same object with a different orientation, but many algorithms do. Invariance to this possibility is often crucial.
Occlusion and truncation: Occlusion from one object to another often causes a lot of inconvenience. Sometimes even humans do not see enough features of the object to recognize correctly. Truncation is the same problem when you do not see certain parts of the object, because they are out of the picture.
Footprint: The background is almost nonexistent; an image contains only one chair. This situation is not typical in a real world. When you take the image of an object, there are almost always many other objects in the background, in which the recognition algorithm is usually not interested. The scene is often very complex, and it is difficult to recognize the object/objects desired among other objects.
Out of context: Context is often used to increase the likelihood of certain categories of common occurrences. For example, cars and roads are often associated, but we cannot rely too much on context because sometimes it can be misleading.
Multiple instances: The image often contains several objects of the same category. Some algorithms can identify regions of different categories in the image, but they cannot identify individual instances of the same object category.
Pose: One of the biggest challenges is the invariant detection of the pose. Many objects change their appearance by changing their shape. For example, it is desirable to detect a person in any posture of their body [1].
Instance level recognition vs. object class recognition. It is necessary to realize the difference between these problems. It is obvious that different methods are needed to recognize the human face in general and the person who uses the face.
Image search results.
After analyzing the potential problems associated with recognition tasks, we believe that the direction to follow in imitating the human visual perception system is natural. The first moment of human comprehension of the image is a very general activity that analyzes the basic categories (buildings, men, cars, etc.). After getting the big picture, his attention focuses on the things that interest him. While focusing, humans observe objects of interest to enrich more details and see and recognize more features. A feature is a general term for describing a particular part of the object in order to enrich its appearance. A human has special predispositions on several objects (e.g., faces) and on situations (mainly of the danger and movement type) on which he is more sensitive to recognize. The typical situation is when you see someone away from you and you can recognize that it is a person. As you get closer, by focusing on this person, you are enriching and recognizing more and more elements that make it possible to distinguish whether he is a known person and to detect his name. Humans can do instance-level recognition as in the case presented, but they must first distinguish the object category to optimize the subsequent search.
\nBiometrics has been a concern for centuries. Proving one’s identity reliably was done using several techniques. From prehistory man knew the uniqueness of fingerprints, which meant that signatures by fingerprints were sufficient to prove the identity of an individual. Indeed, two centuries before Christ, the Emperor Ts-In-She authenticated certain sealed with the fingerprint.
\nAt the beginning of the nineteenth century, in France, Alphonse Bertillon launched the first steps of the scientific police. He proposed the first method of biometrics that can be described as a scientific approach: bertillonage allowed the identification of criminals through several physiological measures.
\nAt the beginning of the twentieth century, biometry was rediscovered by William James Herschel, an English officer who had the idea of having his subcontractors sign their fingerprints to find them easily in case of unhonored contracts. As a result, police departments have begun using fingerprints as a unique and reliable feature to identify an individual.
\nBiometrics is constantly growing especially in the field of secure identity documents such as the national identity card, passport, or driving license. This technology is running on new platforms, including chip cards based on the microprocessor.
\nThe biometric market has undergone a great development thanks to the great number of advancement and innovation that this field has experienced in recent decades. This development is increasing as a result of the security concerns of several countries, which has pushed investment in this area and the widespread use of biometric solutions in several social and legal fields.
\nAs shown by the statistics in Figure 3 between 2007 and 2015, there has been a considerable increase in the share of the private sector market due to the growing need for biometric solutions in this sector especially for smartphone and camera manufacturers.
\nDistribution of the global biometric market.
According to ABI Research [2], the global biometric market will break the $30 billion mark by 2021, 118% higher than the 2015 market. In this context, consumer electronics, and smartphones in particular, are boosting the biometric sector: it is expected to sell two billion onboard fingerprint sensors in 2021, for an average annual increase of 40% in 5 years.
\nA biometric system is a system that allows the recognition of a certain characteristic of an individual using mathematical algorithms and biometric data. There are several uses of biometric systems. There are systems that require enrollment upstream of users. Other identification systems do not require this phase.
Enrollment mode is a learning phase that aims to collect biometric information about who to identify. Several data acquisition campaigns can be carried out to ensure a certain robustness of the recognition system to temporal variations of the data. During this phase, the biometric characteristics of individuals are captured by a biometric sensor, and then represented in digital form (signatures), and finally stored in the database. The processing related to the enrollment has no time constraint, since it is performed “off-line.”
The verification or authentication mode is a “one-to-one” comparison, in which the system validates the identity of a person by comparing the biometric data entered with the biometric template of that person stored in the system’s database. In such a mode, the system must then answer the question related to the identity of the user. Currently the verification is carried out via a personal identification number, a user name, or a smart card.
The identification mode is a “one-to-N” comparison, in which the system recognizes an individual by matching it with one of the models in the database. The person may not be in the database. This mode consists of associating an identity with a person.
\nFigure 4 presents the architecture of a biometric system, which consists of the following elements:
The capture module that represents the entry point of the biometric system and consists in acquiring the biometric data in order to extract a digital representation. This representation is used later in the following phases.
The module of signal processing makes it possible to optimize the processing time and the digital representation acquired in the enrollment phase in order to optimize the processing time of the verification phase and the identification.
The storage module that contains the biometric templates of the system enrollees.
The matching module that compares the data extracted by the extraction module with the data of the registered models and determines the degree of similarity between the two biometric data.
The decision module that determines whether the similarity index returns through the matching module is sufficient to make a decision about the identity of an individual.
Biometric system architecture.
For the evaluation of the precision of a biometric system, which makes it possible to measure these performances, numerous attempts have been made on the system, and all the similarity scores are saved.
\nBy applying the variable score threshold to similarity scores, the pairs of false recognition rate (FRR) and false acceptance rate (FAR) can be calculated. The false recognition rate, or FRR, is the measure of the likelihood that the biometric system will incorrectly reject an access attempt by an authorized user. It is stated as the ratio of the number of false recognitions divided by the number of identification attempts. On the other hand, the false acceptance rate, or FAR, is the measure of the likelihood that the biometric system will incorrectly accept an access attempt by an unauthorized user. It is stated as the ratio of the number of false acceptances divided by the number of identification attempts.
\nThe results are presented either as such pairs, i.e., FRR at a certain level of FAR or as the graph in Figure 5. The rates can be expressed in several ways, for example, in percentages (1%), in fractions (1/100), in decimal format (0.01), or using powers of ten (\n
DET graph sample.
There are three modes of performance evaluations, which are technology, scenario, and operational evaluation. When evaluating biometric algorithms, technological evaluations are the most common and often the most feasible. Since this type of evaluation is done using saved samples, the results are reproducible, and the evaluation is not a tedious or complicated process.
Technological evaluation: Evaluation using recorded data, e.g., previously acquired fingerprints
Scenario evaluation: End-to-end evaluation of the system using a prototype or simulated environment
Operational evaluation: Evaluation in which the performance of a complete biometric system is determined in an application environment with a specific population
The biggest disadvantage of technological evaluations is that they do not necessarily reflect the final conditions of use of the system. For this reason, it is important to collect a set of samples of the conditions of use of the target system when preparing an assessment.
\nRegistered samples used in technology assessments are collected in databases. Data collection is performed using a group of volunteers, at least some of whom provide multiple acquisitions of the same biometric modality (e.g., the same finger) to have relevant attempts. To make collection efficient, samples of several objects can be collected from each volunteer, for example, every ten fingers. The characteristics of the database have a great impact on the results of an evaluation. As previously stated, with the exception of the capabilities of the biometric algorithm, the amount of available information can be used to characterize the objects.
\nTo be able to make an assertion about the FRR 1% @ FAR 1 / 1 000 000 (i.e., when the system operates in a mode where one out of one million impostor attempts is-falsely-considered a match, one percent of the genuine attempts would fail) it at least one million impostor attempts (user sticking perfectly to another person’s template). It is not difficult to understand that the uncertainty of such an assertion would be rather high. The result depends heavily on how the two most similar samples in the database are scored. When comparing and viewing a DET (detection error trade-off) graph, it is important to understand that the uncertainty is higher on the side of the edges of the image. The number of comparisons made is only an important factor affecting confidence. The key to getting better statistical significance is to make as many uncorrelated attempts as possible.
\nBiometric systems can be used in a large number of applications. For security reasons, biometrics can help make transactions, and everyday life is both safer and more practical. The following domains use biometric solutions to meet their respective needs:
Legal applications:
Justice and law enforcement: Biometric technology and law enforcement have a very long history, and many very important innovations in identity management have emerged from this beneficial relationship. Today, the biometrics applied by the police force is truly multimodal. Fingerprint, face, and voice recognitions play a unique role in improving public safety and keeping track of the people we are looking for.
Government applications:
Border control and airport: A key area of application for biometric technology is at the border. Biometric technology helps to automate the process of border crossing. Reliable and automated passenger screening initiatives and automated SAS help to facilitate international passenger travel experience while improving the efficiency of government agencies and keeping borders safer than ever before.
Healthcare: In the field of healthcare, biometrics introduces an enhanced model. Medical records are among the most valuable personal documents; doctors need to be able to access them quickly, and they need to be accurate. A lack of security and good accounting can make the difference between timely and accurate diagnosis and health fraud.
Commercial applications:
Security: As connectivity continues to spread around the world, it is clear that old security methods are simply not strong enough to protect what is most important. Fortunately, biometric technology is more accessible than ever, ready to provide added security and convenience for everything that needs to be protected, from a car door to the phone’s PIN.
Finance: Among the most popular applications of biometric technology, financial identification, verification, and authentication in commerce help make banking, purchasing, and account management safer and more convenient and responsible. In the financial area, biometric solutions help to ensure that a customer is the person he/she claims to be when accessing sensitive financial data by entering his/her unique biometric characteristics and comparing them to a model stored in a device or on a secure server. Banking solutions and the payment technologies available today use a wide range of biometric modalities: fingerprints, iris, voice, face, fingerprint, palm veins, behavior, and other types of biometric recognition are all used alone or combined in a multifactorial manner as a system, to lock accounts and serve against fraud.
Mobile: Mobile biometric solutions live at the intersection connectivity and identity. They integrate one or more biometric terms for authentication or identification purposes and take advantage of smartphones, tablets, other types of handhelds, wearable technology, and the Internet of things for versatile deployment capabilities. Thanks to the versatility brought by modern mobile technology, as well as the proliferation of mobile paradigms in the consumer, public, and private world, mobile biometrics is becoming more and more important.
Eye movements tracking applications:
Automotive industry: there is an established relationship between eye movement and attention. Thus, tracking the car driver’s eye movements can be very helpful in measuring the degree of sleepiness, tiredness, or drowsiness. The sleepiness of the driver can be detected by analyzing either blink duration and amplitude or the level of gaze activity [3].
Screen navigation: one of the most important applications for people with disabilities is screen navigation. Using cameras, the application can track a person’s eye movements in order to scroll a web page, write text, or perform actions by clicking on buttons on a computer or mobile devices. Therefore, this kind of application is gaining more attention recently due the rapid development and the growing need of new means of screen navigation especially on mobile devices platforms.
Aviation: the flight simulators track the pilot eye and head movement in order to analyze the pilot’s behavior under realistic circumstances. This simulator is capable of evaluating a pilot’s performance based on his eye movements combined with other information. It can be also used as an important training tool for new pilots in order to help them to look at the primary flight display (PFD) more regularly in order to monitor different airplane indicators.
Detection of dynamic forms is a very important research area that is rapidly evolving in the field of image processing. The goal is to recognize the shapes of objects in an image or in a sequence of images from the information relating to their shapes. In fact, shape is one of the most differentiating features in an image. However, the description and representation of an image remain a major challenge to perform the recognition task.
\nThe quality of a descriptor is represented by its intelligence and ability to distinguish the different forms in a reliable manner despite the geometric variations related to translation and rotation.
\nOn the other hand, a reliable descriptor must withstand the various changes that affect the shape of an object such as noise and distortion that can actually alter the shape and make the recognition task more complicated.
\nThe form representation and description techniques can be generally split into two main classes of methods: contour-based methods and region-based methods. This ranking depends on how the shape features are extracted: from only the outline or the entire region of the shape. For each category, the different approaches are divided into global approaches and local (structural) approaches. This subclassification is based on the representation of the form that depends on the whole form or parts of the form (primitives). These approaches can also be distinguished according to the spatial or transform processing space, in which the shape characteristics are calculated. Global methods are not always robust against occlusions and image noise. In addition, they require an entire and correct segmentation of objects in the images. In general, the segmentation process results in partitioning objects into regions or contour parts that do not necessarily correspond to whole objects.
\nThe contour-based approaches only exploit the boundary of the object for the characterization of the form by ignoring its inner content. The most commonly used representation in contour-based recognition methods is the signature of the form [4]. For a given form, the signature is essentially a representation based on the parameters 1D of the contour of shape. This can be done using a scalar value of the radial distance, angle, curvature, or velocity function. Let us note here that the signature of an entire form (closed curve) is often a periodic function; this will not be the case of a part of form (open curve) for which the two ends are not contiguous. Outline-based descriptors include Fourier descriptors [5, 6], the wavelet descriptors [7, 8], the multi-scale curvature [9], the shape context [10], the contour moments [11], and the symbol chain [12, 13]. Since these descriptors are calculated using only the pixels of the contour, the computational complexity is low, and their characteristic vectors are generally compact.
\nIn region-based approaches, all pixels of the object are considered for characterization of the shape. This type of methods aims to exploit not only the information of the shape boundary but also that of the inner region of the form. The majority of region-based methods use moment descriptors to describe shapes such as Zernike moments [14], Legendre moments [15], or invariant geometric moments [16]. Other methods include grid descriptors [17] or shape matrix [18]. Since the region-based descriptor makes use of all the pixels constituting the shape, it can effectively describe various forms in a single descriptor. However, the size of the region-based features is usually large. This descriptor leads to a computing time that remains considerable.
\nIt remains to emphasize that the description of the forms based on the contour is considered more relevant than that based on the region because the shape of an object is essentially distinguished by the border. In most cases, the central part of the object does not contribute much to pattern recognition [13].
\nIn this chapter, we presented different biometric techniques used in the industrial world as well as their performances.
\nWe started with an overview of biometric systems as well as an overview of biometrics. Then we presented the different issues and challenges related to implementation of such systems.
\nAfter that, we presented a performance evaluation of different biometric systems given the issues and challenges previously stated. Then we presented an overview of some important biometric elements such as the databases and the degree of confidence. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of different domains of application of several biometric techniques was presented with a focus on eye movement tracking techniques.
\nFinally, the different approaches of recognition of dynamic and planar shapes were discussed in the last paragraph.
\nWe have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Forest is a conditional renewable resource which can be regenerated but needs a certain period of time to maintain its sustainable functioning. In India, the forest resources have been found to be depleting at a pace which is much high [1]. Rapid industrialization, urbanization and over-exploitation have resulted not only in decline but also in permanent loss of forest cover to an alarming rate [2]. The major driver behind all these factors is the uncontrolled population growth of humans which leads to the dramatic increase in the demand for wood and forest products. The over-exploitation of forest resources has taken place beyond the sustained yields to fulfil the needs of humans, thus bringing a change in the net forest cover [2, 3]. With the current rate of population explosion, the world population could be expected to increase from 7.6 billion to about 10 billion in the next 30 to 35 years [4]. The growing demand for food can be expected to rise by 50% in the given period, and it is a matter of serious concern. Rational utilization and proper management of the forest resources are the most viable ways to prevent mass destruction of forests and large-scale species extinction. It is necessary to find the links between the growing demands and meeting the demands in a sustainable manner. The scope of future studies must focus on the solution to establish this link by incorporating the principles of forestry, restoration ecology and natural resource economics.
Deforestation occurs when a land initially dominated by naturally occurring tree species is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has defined deforestation as
The value of forest is simple to understand but sometimes tough to quantify. The various values of the forest have been shown in Figure 1. Forest has a major contribution on the global economy and supports livelihood of the majority of rural populations in the world [7]. The direct uses of forest are most easy to quantify as it is directly related to economic returns. The indirect use and option value although play a major role in defining the valuation of the forest resources are seldom quantified and are being intangible in nature [8]. There is also a no-use value of the forest resources which considers leaving the current forest intact as a heritage for the future generation and for satisfaction and happiness of the current population. But, these eco-centric views alone cannot suffice the support for a change in policy and land use pattern. There are some other important values of forests that are difficult to quantify. One of the major roles that forests play is that it acts as a major carbon sink [9, 10, 11]. Plants utilize carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis and store it in the form of carbohydrates, and these carbohydrates reach the soil as dead organic matter and contribute to soil carbon sink. When forests are cleared, less CO2 is absorbed by plants, and atmospheric CO2 concentration increases with the passage of time due to unavailable sink. Also, there is a marked reduction in soil organic carbon with the loss of vegetation cover, thereby affecting the productivity of the ecosystem. Productivity is believed to be an indicator of carbon assimilation capacity, and hence the more productive the forests are, the more carbon it stores [12, 13, 14]. The tropical forests are among the most productive as well as the most threatened ecosystem in present time with the maximum rate of deforestation. Thus, it is imperative to control the rate of deforestation in order to avoid the adversities associated with it.
Different values of forests ecosystems
The value and functions of forests are immense and diverse. Similarly, the impacts of deforestation are global and commune the whole forest community. One of the major constraints in understanding the true impact of desertification on forests is the inadequacy and imprecise form of data.
The effect of large-scale deforestation is global, but it is necessary to assess its impacts on microclimate, regional climate and global climate to form a holistic understanding of mechanism [15]. The association of deforestation with the increased CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and changes in the mass balances and surface energy can result in climate change at the local and global level [16]. The change in land use pattern especially the clearing of forest cover affects both hydrometeorological and global CO2 concentrations leading to more warming as CO2 readily absorbs infrared radiation [17]. Clearing tree cover and vegetation leads to increase in albedo of the region as bare soil reflects more solar radiation than vegetation, which again is a factor for altering regional radiation flux [15, 18]. One of the noticeable changes in regional climates occurs when the cloud formation shifts to higher elevations from lowland plains as a result of deforestation in the later area [19]. In a global scale, deforestation leads to warmer and drier weather due to the synergistic effect of reduced evapotranspiration, increased albedo and CO2 concentration that triggers desertification, loss in biodiversity and melting of polar ice caps, ultimately leading to food insecurity. All these effects are successors of extremes in climate variation that are produced by the large-scale reduction in forest cover [20]. The estimated quantity of CO2 added to the atmosphere due to deforestation in the tropics is roughly two billion tonnes [21]. It is interesting to note that the CO2 emissions due to clearing of forest will almost be equivalent to 25% of what is added to the atmosphere due to anthropogenic emissions [22]. The shift in climate is somehow correlated to reducing forest cover. Further researches can clearly define the mechanisms and pathways by which these shifts are progressing and how they can be mitigated.
The global water cycle depends on the amount and distribution of precipitation for which one of the influencing factors is evapotranspiration [23]. There is a direct effect on drinking water on the basis of quality and quantity, fisheries and aquatic habitats, occurrence of flood and drought, life of dams on account of increase siltation and agriculture due to poor quality irrigation and crop yield [24, 25]. It must be recognized that the protective role of forests is operative and has a major impact on urban water resources [26]. Forests play an important role in maintaining the watersheds [27]. The degraded or degrading watersheds can be recovered by forestation, but once the forest or vegetation cover is lost, the watershed becomes vulnerable to erosion. This erosion leads to siltation in the downstream areas and consequently reduces the depth of river bed increasing the chances of flood. There are two main effects of deforestation that increase the chances of flooding. One is by reducing the tree fountain effect, i.e. interception and moisture uptake by the trees would cease after deforestation reducing the moisture holding capacity of soil that leads to greater runoff and erosion. And other is by the process of soil compaction and poor soil structure that will lead to reduced organic matter content of soil devoid of vegetation cover [28]. There are severe long-term effects on soil as a cause of deforestation. During slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation, an area of forests clears and exposes the bare soil to weather extremes of high solar insolation and heavy rainfall [29]. In the absence of the forest cover and organic matter, soil could not accommodate heavy precipitation, and the fertile layers of soil used to be easily washed away ultimately reduces the long-term productivity. The effect on soil is dependent on the interrelation and synergistic effect of evapotranspiration and infiltration that are directly altered due to loss in vegetation cover [23].
Deforestation directly increases erosion and siltation rates. There is an increased risk of flooding in Yangtze River basin in China and the major river basins in East Asia and the Amazonian basin [23, 30]. The slopes and terrains are more vulnerable to such situations. There are formations of shallow gullies which may be accounted for the concentrated flow of runoff that prevails due to long-term erosion. Cultivation and ploughing along the slopes cause rapid erosion in the areas with less vegetation cover [31]. In the Loess Plateau, the slopes of steepness greater than 15° showed shallow gully erosion as a result of cultivation activities [32]. The availability of dead vegetation can reduce the surface runoff from the early season rain and check soil erosion [33]. It is necessary to sustain the forest and vegetation cover to maintain the soil productivity and water quality of both the surface and underground sources.
Forests are very rich in biodiversity and store a vast gene pool, and the majority of species occur in the tropical forests. It consists of two-thirds of all known species and 65% of 10,000 species that are recognized as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [34]. The biodiversity could be regarded as an important asset that is necessary to conserve for future utilization. The World Health Organization states that the traditional people, almost 80% of them, rely on the local biodiversity for traditional medicines. A loss in the biodiversity may directly affect their health care and well-being [35]. Another most noticeable impact of deforestation is the increasing human-wildlife conflict. The decreasing forest cover is limiting the habitats of many species due to which is forcing them to intrude with human welfare [36]. There are increasing instances of invasion and animal killing. The northern margin of West Bengal, India, forms a significant portion of the Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot. The area has observed heavy fragmentation in the last decade, and as a result, there was a huge loss in the agricultural crop and both human and elephant life due to conflicts. There are reports of mortality of 20 elephants and 50 persons annually from this area [37]. It is also estimated that if deforestation in the Himalayas continue at the current rate, the dense forest cover (>40% canopy cover) will be restricted to 10% of land area in the Indian Himalayas by 2100. This may lead to a significant loss of 366 endemic plants and 35 endemic vertebrates [38]. The loss in biodiversity is of global concern irrespective of regional and local importance. Conserving the forest and an increase in forest cover certainly find a positive correlation with the increase and sustenance of biodiversity. Conversion of forest land to agricultural fields and other land use could be a threat to major loss in biological diversity in the near future.
Forests contribute to the world economy in terms of timber production and other forest produces. There are different contributions of forest as a means of direct employment in forestry services and other value-added contributions as recreation and aesthetics. The loss of tropical forest cover annually may account for about 45 billion US dollars [39]. The destruction of forest eliminates the sources of economic gain directly obtained and also eliminates the potential gain from the resources that the forest sustains as biodiversity, soil and water. Also, the destruction of forest increases the negative externalities in the form of increasing CO2 concentration, risk of flood and human-wildlife conflict [40]. The proximity of settlements to protected areas further intensifies the chances of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). It is reported that settled households face high risk of HWC due to their close proximity of the Kanha National Park in Central India [41]. Deforestation has its social influence in the form of long-term effect. Development is a serious concern for indigenous community as it certainly leads to a change or shift of their culture and tradition. The cultural and religious aspects of the community are seldom preserved amid infrastructural advancement that leads to land and social conflict [42]. In a study of household survey from rural areas of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh state of India, it was found that the poorest of the local community gained about 30% of their living from forest produce which was claimed to be even higher than the returns from agriculture. Also, forest provides an option as safety net during the period of crisis in rural areas [43]. Various ecological services provided by the forests have been lost due to deforestation which in turn has immediate effects on the local communities dependent on these services for their daily needs. The inclusive approach for the sustainable management of forest resource is a vital consideration that considers economy as a subset of the society which in itself is a subset of the environment. Such considerations can help sustaining the constantly declining forest cover and its long-term impacts.
The forest cover was found to be increased by ca. 1% for the year 2017 which is 21.54% of the total geographic area when compared to that of forest cover status in 2015 which is a positive sign towards the constant efforts that are being put in to protect the forest (Figure 2). This positive change in the forest cover is mainly attributed to the conservation and management practices that include afforestation activities, participation of local peoples for better protection measures in plantation areas and traditional forest areas, expansion of trees outside forest, etc. Also, with this increase in the forest cover, the country has procured 8th position among the top 10 countries reporting the greatest annual forest area gain. Although there has been an increase in the total forest cover in India, still there are certain regions within the country that has sought a reduction in the same (Figure 3). The main reasons attributed for this reduction are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. [44]. A transition in the various forest cover classes has also occurred over the past. The present status of forest cover (%) of India belonging to various forest cover classes has been shown in Figure 4. It has been found that there is a reduction in the moderately dense forest and an increment in the open forest depicting degradation of forest cover to some extent. Changes within the forest cover classes result in decrease in the production capacity, thereby leading to forest degradation [45]. Control and regular check of these activities can help in strengthening the conservatory efforts of forest protection. This is the necessity of the present time to conserve the forests in order to sustain the vital ecosystems and the major carbon sink to combat the effects of global climate change and ultimately maintain the environmental balance.
Forest cover status in India for the last 30 years (1987 to 2017).
MODIS-based land use/land cover map of India for the year (a) 2001 and (b) 2017.
Forest cover (%) of India for the year 2017 (Source: [
Forests are an invaluable resource that is being subjected to so many threats. In order to protect our forests, it is very much necessary to understand the reasons behind their destruction. Differentiating the agents and causes of deforestation will enable in understanding the same [36]. Several disturbances within the forest directly or indirectly contribute in destruction of the forest. This can be interpreted from the results obtained while surveying in different forest patches in India.
Arunachal Pradesh is one of the states that has more than 75% forest cover and has the maximum very dense forest cover type [44]. The state is highly diverse in terms of climate as well as forest cover with tropical, sub-tropical, temperate and alpine forests having higher NDVI (≥7.0) [46]. However, the pressure on forest resources is consistently increasing with the rise in population, development activities, large number of wood-based industries and unsustainable land use practices resulting in their degradation [47]. This has also resulted in decrease in the forest cover of the state [44]. Several disturbances were being observed during the field survey in the forests of Arunachal Pradesh during 2007 to 2010. The major disturbances that were found include lopping, cut stumps, litter collection, soil removal, grazing, fire, NTFP collection and fuelwood collection (Figure 5). Of these, fuelwood collection was found to be the most recurrent activity followed by grazing. Generally, fuelwood collection has not been considered as the major cause of deforestation but leads to the same in certain regions with reduced forest area such as in the Philippines, Thailand and parts of Central America [36]. Forest fire has also been observed as an occasional event in certain parts of Arunachal Pradesh. Fires are generally used as a tool in clearing the forest for shifting cultivation which is one of the major agricultural practices performed in the state. Fires when used responsibly act as a valuable tool in managing forest and agriculture, but when abused, it can lead to deforestation [48, 49]. Other disturbances that can be an indicator of deforestation include NTFP collection and presence of cut stumps in certain forests. Forests of the state are highly diverse in endemic as well as nonendemic species, which need intensive monitoring and management to conserve the species-rich ecosystems from ever increasing anthropogenic pressure and changing climatic conditions [50].
Major disturbances in the forests of Arunachal Pradesh.
Madhya Pradesh is among one of the states of India which is endowed with rich and diverse forests and comprises the largest forest cover in the country [44]. This is mainly because of the efforts that the state has put in to conserve and harness this invaluable resource through innovative measures like community participation and decentralization (MP) [51]. Even after these continuous efforts, there are certain regions within the state where the occurrence of several types of disturbances in the forest has been found. The common disturbances that were being observed during the field survey (2017–2019) include fire, grazing, fuelwood collection, forage removal, litter collection, NTFP collection, lopping, thatch collection, root collection, soil removal, etc. (Figure 6). Among all these fire has been found as the major recurrent type of disturbance in the forests of Madhya Pradesh. Other major disturbances were grazing followed by fuelwood collection. Since every type of deforestation is not intentional but some which are the results of amalgamation of anthropogenic and natural factors like wildfires and subsequent overgrazing can prevent the growth of young trees [52] and thus eventually degrade the quality and productivity of the forest.
Major disturbances in the forests of Madhya Pradesh.
The name of the state ‘Jharkhand’ itself connotes ‘area of land covered with forests’ and has been exhibiting a unique relation with forests since time immemorial [53]. During the forest cover assessment [44], a net increase of 29 sq. km in the forest cover has been observed in the state which is mainly because of the plantation and conservation efforts within recorded forest areas. Although, there was an increment of 314 sq. km in the forest cover within the recorded forest areas, because of the felling of trees outside the forests area, its effect on forest cover has been offset. Also, several types of disturbances can be seen within the forest areas during the field survey (2016–2018), and the major disturbances were fuelwood collection, grazing, forage removal, lopping, cut stumps, thatch collection, root collection, soil removal, litter collection and NTFPs collection (Figure 7). Most of these disturbances were occasional in nature. Although these disturbances are not that recurrent, a regular check is necessary in order to prevent the forests from degrading and in achieving a sustainable forest cover. The forest management strategies should focus on the increasing demands of different timber and non-timber forest produce to conserve the plant diversity of the natural forests of the state [54].
Major disturbances in the forests of Jharkhand.
Forest management and protection by the local communities is an age-old practice in India which can be traced back to the protective nature of the Bishnoi Community of Rajasthan towards the local forest and animals as the black buck. The idea of community-based forest management emerged in an administrative level in the 1970s and 1980s. The declaration of the Government of India in June 1990 marked the establishment of Joint Forest Communities in different India states as per the National Forest Policy of 1988. The Earth Summit of 1992 provided with a clear objective of Sustainable Forest Management to which India responded in a positive way. From an increase in the forest cover, non-timber forest product (NTFP) to conservation of native flora and fauna, a whole new realm of forest management strategy by the collaboration of forest departments and local communities aided in decelerating the degradation of natural forest in India [55]. The Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is equivalent to an informal contract in which the local communities are allowed to consume a portion of harvest and NTFP if they protect and conserve it for 5–10 years. In India there is no legal authority of the local community on the forest resource where as in other countries as in Nepal the Community Forest User Groups (CFUG) are registered under their Forest Act, 1993 [56]. It is the positive effort of the local communities of India that the area under Joint Forest Management increased from 22,017,583 ha to 2,144,000 ha in March 2006 with 106,482 recognized Joint Forest Management committees countrywide [57].
Deforestation is a major environmental challenge which has been persistent from the past, and the situation is more worsened at present. Therefore, there is an urgent need to focus on the mitigative measures in order to prevent the distressing effects of deforestation in the near future. In order to alleviate the problem of deforestation, the strategies should be based on the underlying causes of the same. Also, the strategies for mitigating the problem of deforestation require its effective implementation that needs the recognition of the roles of national, state and municipal governments along with the pro-active role of the civil society and private society [36]. The continuous increase in the human population especially in the developing countries has resulted in enhanced pressure on the forests for human settlements and other land use practices. A reduction in the growth rate of human population plays a crucial role in reducing the practice of deforestation [36]. Alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture can be adopted as a strategy to mitigate the deforestation by boosting the agricultural and forestry productions for the shifting cultivators ([58, 59]). The sustainable alternatives for slash-and-burn cultivation will assist the poor farmers in leading a better life without destroying additional forests [60]. Public policies and laws with greater security, accessibility to the minimal inputs required to maintain or enhance food production and an opportunity to the cultivators to market their products will aid in the sustainability of shifting cultivation systems [61].
Another strategy that can be applied to control the rate of deforestation is through the adoption of sustainable agroforestry, sustainable logging, agro-pastoral production systems, etc. [62]. The sustainable forest management practices can be promoted only if it is ecologically, economically and socially sustainable [36]. Agroforestry has been considered as one of the methods to curb deforestation which in turn aid in reduction of CO2 emissions and mitigation of climate change effect [63, 64]. The adoption of agroforestry practices has resulted in an increase in the income of agroforestry adopters as compared to that of non-agroforestry adopters and has also contributed towards improving soil fertility, reducing deforestation and conserving soil and water [65]. The provision of protected areas is one of the key steps towards an attempt to reduce deforestation which is generally motivated through biodiversity conservation [34]. Also, the global endeavours to reduce tropical deforestation are dependent heavily on the establishment of protected areas. It has been found that protection reduced deforestation as approximately 10% of the protected forests would have been deforested if they would have not been protected [66]. Tropical protected areas reduced deforestation which was liable for around one-tenth of total anthropogenic carbon emissions, thus playing a significant role in mitigating the effects of climate change and protecting biodiversity and ecosystem services [67]. Similarly, a total loss of 15.4% in the unprotected mangrove cover was compensated by the 15.7% rise in the protected mangrove cover (protected by government as per Ramsar Convention) which resulted in a net increase of 13.3% in mangrove cover across India in the last 25 years [68]. Implementation of forest certification can be among one of the strategies to control deforestation around the world. Forest certification is a process through which the producers identify their products in the marketplace and receive greater market accessibility and higher prices for their products by fulfilling certain stringent sustainable forestry standards [69]. Certification has played an important role in protecting Penten forests from 1986 to 2007, and the certified forests experience 20 times less deforestation than non-certified areas [70]. Thus, certification of forest can play a major role in controlling deforestation since the timber certification was found to be negatively related with deforestation, i.e. the increase in the certification process has resulted in a declination in the deforestation rate [71].
The Government of India has been continuously putting significant efforts in terms of conserving the forest resources. They have not only taken measures to conserve the present forest cover but also have initiated several measures to increase the forests and tree cover of the country. Both the national and state governments are jointly responsible for the sustainable management of the forest resources in India. Various steps, rules and laws have been brought and implemented in order to conserve the forest cover of India. Some of these rules and laws are [72]:
The Indian Forest Act, 1927: The act is an amalgamation of laws relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produces. It defines the procedures for declaring an area of a reserved forest, a protected forest or a village forest by the state government. With the amendment in the Act in 2012, it also prohibited the fresh clearances in forests and setting fire in a reserved forest.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (with an amendment in 1988): The main purpose of the proposition of this act was to conserve the forests and to look into the matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. With the implementation of this act, a prior approval of the Central Government is required for any sort of diversion of forest areas for the non-forestry purposes.
[73]: The establishment of the National Forest Policy was also among one of the steps taken by the Government of India in order to ensure compensatory afforestation, essential environmental safeguards, sustainable utilization, maintenance, restoration and enhancement of forest areas.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: The wildlife protection act was enacted basically to protect wild animals, birds and plants and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto with a view to ensure the ecological and environmental security of the country.
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006: The act was framed with the purpose to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land in forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights could not be recorded. These recognized rights of the forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers include the responsibilities and authority for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance which in turn aid in strengthening the conservation regime of the forests while ensuring livelihood and food security of the forest dwellings scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.
Apart from these laws, the Government of India has also established Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, whose primary work is to gather and evaluate the country’s forest wealth through a nationwide survey to measure forest areas [74]. This in turn aids in determining the factors and drivers behind the loss or gain in forest cover of any particular region in India. Another council, i.e. the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), was established by the Government of India in 2009 as a National Advisory Council under the chairmanship of the Union Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for the monitoring, technical assistance and evaluation of compensatory afforestation activities. This was particularly meant to promote afforestation and regeneration activities as a way of compensating for forest land diverted to non-forest uses [75]. Certain scheme such as Integrated Forest Protection Scheme (IFPS) was being formulated by the government to save the forests from fire. The scheme was designed by combining the forest fire protection and management technique along with forest conservation. Various other missions and programmes such as the National Mission for a Green India (NMGI) and National Afforestation Programme (NAP) were also being launched by the Government of India where the main aim of NMGI was to improve the quality of five million hectares of degraded forests and to bring another five million hectares of non-forest areas under forest cover through social and farm forestry. On the other hand, the NAP was launched with the objective to develop the forest resources with people’s participation, with a focus on improving the livelihood of the forest-fringe communities, especially the poor [75].
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has been optimistic in strengthening the role of women in conservation of forest at local community levels since long. The National Forest Policy [73], for the first time, acknowledged the necessity of including woman members in forestry schemes. The Joint Forest Management Policy of 1990 mandated woman representatives not less than 40% in general body and 50% in executive body of the local forestry institutions like the JFM committee. Later in 2002, the Biodiversity Authority of India reframing the local biodiversity management committee structure mandated the reservation of one-third of its members as women. Thus, this understanding of the role of women in the local-level conservation measures and implementation of related rules has aided in improving the management of forest in rural regions of the country [76].
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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\\n\\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\\n\\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
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\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\n\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\n\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\n\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\n\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\n\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\n\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\n\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
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