Common narrow therapeutic ındex drugs.
\r\n\tThis book chapter’s main theme will be focused on transmission dynamics, pathogenesis, mechanisms of host interaction and response, epigenetics and markers, molecular diagnosis, RNA interacting proteins, RNA binding proteins, advanced development of tools for diagnosis, possible development of concepts for vaccines and anti drugs for RNA viruses, immunological mechanisms, treatment, prevention and control.
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The name mollusc (mollusk) was derived from Latin word mollus meaning soft. This term was first used by Cuvier in 1798 to describe squids, cuttlefish and animals whose shells is reduced. After the arthropods the molluscs are the most successful of the animal phyla in terms of numbers of species. Considering the vast species of molluscs and the large number of fossil species, they are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms [1].
\nMolluscs live in very different habitats and are highly diverse especially in their ecological behaviors. The phylum consist 10 taxonomic classes, which two are entirely extinct. Among the existing classes, Cephalopods such as squid, cuttlefish and octopus, are among the most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates, and gastropods (snails and slugs) are the most numerous classes in this phylum [2].
\nMolluscs are highly successful animal group in terms of ecology and adaptation and they are found in all habitats ranging from deepest ocean to intertidal zone, freshwater and terrestrial lands where they occupy a wide range of habitats, but the highest diversity could be found in the sea in comparison with freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Between all classes in the phylum Mollusca, the most important class is gastropoda comprising more than 80% of all living Mollusca species. The species belonging to this class occurs in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Whereas bivalves occurs both in freshwater and marine environments, but there is not any species in terrestrial habitats. In the all classes of molluscs, 6 classes are exclusively marine species [3, 4].
\nMolluscs are consumed as a food source for humans, birds, fish, mammals and other invertebrates, and also play a key role in the recycling of nutrients, soil-generation and water filtration. They are good bio-indicators too, for environmental quality in all types of aquatic habitats [4, 5].
\nMolluscs have very different forms among the other animal phylums. Snails, slugs and other gastropods; clams, oysters, scallops and other bivalves; squid, cuttlefish, octopus and other cephalopods; and also lesser known subgroups have interesting diversities in structure, color and size [6]. The giant squid, which had not been observed alive in its adult form recently, is one of the largest invertebrates, with 10 m (33 ft.) long and 500 kg (1100 lb.) weighed [7].
\nMolluscs are an important food source for humans as mentioned earlier, but there is a risk about poisoning from toxins which can accumulate in certain molluscs under specific conditions. Besides, they are a good source of many luxury goods, such as pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye, and sea silk. Also, in ancient periods, their shells have also been used as money [4].
\nMollusca are very abundant and form an important trophic level in the aquatic food chain. A large number are filter feeders and hence, are important in nutrient recycling along with the other soil invertebrates. Numerous molluscs are important food source for humans such as Clams and Snails. Some gastropods are pest and damage crops or others hosts for some disease causing parasites such as lung worm which causes schistosomiasis and liver worm for fascioliasis in humans [3, 5].
\nIn addition to the wide usages of molluscs in food industry, shell decorations, dyes and medicines; determination, identification and extraction of their bioactive compounds and secondary metabolites have been an important scientific field of research recently. For instance, isolated natural products from molluscs and their structural analogues are particularly well represented in the anticancer compounds in clinical trials. These compounds and their different chemical structures could be change in each species [8, 9, 10].
\nThe marine environment is highly competitive and being able to produce fundamental compounds which have both industrial and medical applications. Based on the species number, molluscs are the second largest phylum in the marine environment. Their morphological and physiological features attract many investigators [11]. Among molluscs, gastropods have a particular role in commercial shell craft industry. A wide variety of species exists on land, fresh water and the sea. Marine gastropods form only a minor component of marine fishery resources. Many species are exported for the purposes of manufacturing ornaments, curious and various other artifacts of commercial value. Women and children collect this gastropods and bivalves from shallow estuaries for nutritional food. Shells and shell crafts of gastropods are the major economy for the local peoples in marine coasts. Marine bivalves and gastropods are also rich source of many biologically active compounds. Owing to their medicinal and industrial properties, several species are traditionally fished for food and shell [2].
\nMollusc species could be hazardous or pests. For example, blue-ringed octopus which is often fatal, and Octopus apollyon causes inflammations which can last for over a month. Toxic cone shells could kill or cause inflammations, while some times their venoms could become important tools in neurological research. Also, some snails and slugs are serious agricultural pests or dangerous vectors for transition parasitic diseases [10, 11].
\nThe different species from molluscs probably utilizes the neutral and total lipids during cold seasons in order to survive and stores them for hot seasons. The importance of stored lipids is for reproductive purposes. However, they have also been shown to provide energy during winter, when carbohydrate reserves are depleted. This indicates that the fatty acid compositions of animals, neutral lipids in particular, are dictated by their metabolic activities and components of their dietary lipids [12].
\nThe feeding habitats and diet composition are important factors that cause changes in the levels or type of the fatty acids in the different groups of molluscs. There are different feeding habits (such as filter feeder and detritus feeder) in the different groups of this phylum. Most of the lipids and considerable amounts of C20:5ω3 and C22:6ω3 acids are provided by diatoms and dinoflagellates, respectively. For example, diet composition of bivalves which are filter feeders, consist of dinoflagellates, bacteria and particulate organic material. It is found that diatoms have high levels of C20:5ω3 acid and low C22:6ω3 acid, but dinoflagellates have high concentrations of C22:6ω3 acid. Some species of molluscs are detritus feeder, and amounts of lipids, SFAs and MUFAs of 14–18 carbons are provided by detritus. Therefore, diet composition has the important role in the variation in the level and type of the fatty acids between different groups during four seasons of the year [13, 14, 15].
\nThe different metabolic processes play an important role in the changes of levels and type of the fatty acids, because there are significant differences in amount of consumed energy between different metabolic processes. Between all metabolic processes, reproductive cycles is the main process for consume of energy, and this process need high levels of energy (fatty acid). Therefore, there is probably an apparent relation between reproduction cycles and fatty acid profiles. In between all fatty acids same as C20:4ω6, is mostly associated with the reproductive enzymes and highest levels of this compound is consumed in spawning times and reproductive processes.
\nGrowth is one of the processes which needs high levels of energy too, and the energy levels (fatty acid) change in the different stages of the growth. The growth ratio is not similar for different organs and species, and different types of organs need different fatty acids level for growth. Among different organs, sexual organs such as gonads need high levels of fatty acids for growth, and the highest levels of energy are consumed for gonad growth. Therefore, metabolic ratio and followed energy level are varied in different processes, and it could be found that metabolic ratios are key roles in fatty acid amounts and their profiles [4, 5, 14].
\nThe decrease in the ∑PUFA level of neutral lipids of mollusks may probably due to transport of fatty acids to the reproductive organs responsible for gonad maturation. In the different species of mollusks, which the winter is reproductive time, the level of fatty acids in the winter is low, in comparison with other seasons [6, 7].
\nMany studies indicate that there are a positive correlation between fatty acids and temperature in the tissues of mollusks. Accumulation and increase in the amount of lipids especially PUFAs during summer and decrease in winter may be related to the adaptable regulation of the melting point of cellular lipids. Therefore, many researches are indicated that the amount of lipids in summer is higher than the winter, which returns to; (1) consume of lipid in the reproductive organs for gonad maturation and (2) the adaptable regulation of the melting point of cellular lipids. Finally, variations in the lipid levels in their tissues are related to environmental parameters (such as temperature, light and salinity), seasonal variations, feeding habitats, spawning time and reproductive processes, sexual development and growth metabolisms of molluscs [15, 16, 17].
\nIn the total body lipids analyses of molluscs, fatty acids, phospholipids and neutral lipid fractions identified from different tissues. These fatty acids are mostly common in marine and freshwater mollusks. Also, odd-numbered fatty acids, such as C13:0, C15:0, C17:0, and C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids in body lipids of different species, were identified. As mentioned, temperature, food availability, metabolic and physiological activities can affect the lipid and fatty acids compositions of molluscs [6, 8].
\nMarine molluscs have become the focus of many chemical studies aimed at isolating and identifying novel natural products and secondary metabolites. As scant information is available on the chemistry of terrestrial and freshwater species, this review focuses on marines. Considering the chemical redundancy between species, at least 977 distinct compounds have been isolated from about 251 species in the annual reviews of marine natural products [6], which indicates different chemical diversities and related compounds derived from their biochemical pathways. These compounds could be isolated from a single species merely, or from the same family or genus [9]. Distribution histogram of species diversity reveals multiple metabolites, with a median number of two and a maximum of 58 compounds isolated from a single species [18, 19].
\nSearch results typically show small groups of structurally related compounds (analogues), regarding that the compounds vary in different habitats for the same species. For example, 25 compounds such as terpenes, nitrogenous aliphatic compounds, macrolides and fatty acid derivatives have been isolated from the sea hare
Its close related species
Clearly, all the secondary metabolite types are present in both gastropods and bivalves. Terpenes are dominated In Gastropods, while only three terpenes were identified in bivalves. Terpenes have been an important field of research in soft-bodied grazing gastropods, which they might gain these compounds from their diet for their own defense [5]. Sterols are dominated in bivalves partly because of their role in reproduction cycles, while they are rare in gastropods, taking into account that the large number of researches in bivalves is probably due to their importance in fisheries and aquaculture. Polyproprionates and alkaloids have been isolated from both classes, whereas aliphatic nitrogenous compounds are relatively uncommon in both [8].
\nThere are an extraordinary series of unusual compounds in marine invertebrates, many of them cause interesting biological properties. For instance, opisthobranchs and pulmonates, particularly are important due to their secondary metabolites, and the ecological role and biosynthesis of these compounds could be related to their diet such as microalgae and diatoms. Opisthobranchs which are unprotected with reduced or completely absent shells, have defensive strategies using different chemicals [12]. The selected sampling stations were along different ecosystems such as Indian, Chinese, Mediterranean, Australian and Atlantic coasts of Spain, and strongly indicate that the metabolism of the opisthobranchs is influenced by geographical location, ecosystem type and habitats. The feeding ecology and habitats of all molluscs species are very selective, so feeding metabolites possessed by related species are more similar, while those de novo biosynthesized are most identical in species belonging to the same family but with different geographically habitat. Also, some recent biosynthetic experiments possessed had been discussed [23, 24].
\nNatural products research aimed at the isolation and identification of novel secondary metabolites, has only been undertaken on a small proportion of molluscan species to date. The bioactivity of many molluscan traditional medicines is yet to be substantiated, but preliminary data available from bivalves, cephalpods and caenogastropods suggests that there is likely to be some chemical basis to their medical applications.
\nAll compounds which are produced by molluscs are varied because of environmental factors such as temperature, salinity and seasonally variations. Therefore, changes in environmental factors could cause variations in the chemical components. Therefore differences in chemical components need different conditions for production, for example fatty acids and amino acids are related to specific temperature and salinity. In conclusion, environmental factor changes in different seasons could be caused in decrease or increase level of compounds. Also, other biological factors such as food availability, metabolic and physiological activities can affect the compounds such as lipid and fatty acids composition of molluscs [13, 14, 15].
\nAmino acids are classified into essential amino acids (EAA) (cannot synthesized by humans) and non-essential amino acids (NEAA). In addition to oils and other hydrocarbon derivatives in the marine environment, the hydrocarbons synthesized by organisms occur normally in this environment. Aliphatic hydrocarbons are the principal group, and can occur in several species of marine as well as terrestrial plants and animals.
\nThere are different type of fatty acids such as ∑SFA, ∑MUFA, and ∑PUFA in the whole body of molluscs. There could be changes or variations in their levels of different groups in the different seasons. These differences might be based on temperature, feeding habitats, or metabolic demands [24, 25, 26].
\nThe triacylglycerol compounds store SFAs for energy purposes in different processes in body and they also may be interim PUFAs reservoir, which could be transferred to the structural lipids or directed to specific metabolic routes for function of different organs. In contrast, phospholipid compounds fractions of mollusks show considerably less seasonal variations to maintain structural exactness of the cell as compared to the store of saturated fatty acids to be used as a source of energy and store of PUFAs required for phospholipid synthesis to multiple membrane structures or to be integrated in several metabolic processes [25, 26].
\nMolluscs are sources of many important and different natural compounds such as amino acids, fatty acids, lipids, terpenes and steroids. Different types of fatty acids such as lipids, ∑SFA, ∑MUFA, and ∑PUFA, omega 6 to omega 3 and other compounds are produced by different classes of molluscs specially polyplacophora, gastropoda, cephalopoda and bivalves. Four classes are important, that they could produce about 600 natural compounds. The level of natural compounds between different species, organ and sexes are different, and many of biotic and abiotic factors can cause variations in those levels. Also, the process and metabolism are different for all compounds. Finally, amino acids, lipids and fatty acids, terpenes and steroids are important natural compounds that they could be produced [27, 28, 29].
\nLipids are major sources of metabolic energy and of essential materials for the formation of cell and tissue membranes, and they are important in the processes of egg productions. They are very important in the physiology and reproductive processes of marine animals and reflect the special biochemical and ecological conditions of the marine environment. Lipids also provide energy for growth during conditions of limited food supply, when carbohydrate levels (the main energetic reserve in molluscs) are low.
\nThe lipid composition can be affected by external (exogenous) factors, such as fluctuations in the environmental conditions and qualitative and/or quantitative changes in food availability, or by internal (endogenous) factors such as sexual maturation [28, 29, 30].
\nAccumulation and depletion of stored reserves in molluscs depends mainly on the stage of gonad development, environmental factors affecting metabolic activities and on the quantity and nutritional value of the food supply. Usually, the glycogen compound is the major energy source in species, while lipids are considered as the nutritive store source of the gonad organs. A high correlation between the gonad lipid content and the phase of the reproductive process cycle has been established in different species of bivalves and also prosobranch species.
\nSeasonal variations in lipid and fatty acid compositions have been reported for several marine molluscs and are generally related to the growth process and the maturation cycle: in the summer season and in the high temperature when the growth process takes place, receptacles of lipid compounds are build up and stored, and these are later consume for gametogenesis in the maturation cycle (often autumn or winter), normally are decreased during spawning process. However, the majority of these publications have focused on the class bivalve class, probably because of their major commercial importance and influence on the public health of people. Studies about biochemical compounds and their chemical structures, particularly fatty acid compounds in prosobranch gastropods, are strait [30].
\nLimpets are herbivore grazers which remove large quantities of unicellular microbes, algal germ lings and detritus, apparently unselectively, during feeding excursions around the home scar. As a consequence, there are considerable variations in their diets. There is a large amount of literature detailing about fatty acid compositions of a large number of species of marine algae. Availability and quality of algal lipids are very important in the nutrition, growth and development of aquatic animals such as marine fish larvae, shrimps and molluscs [28, 31, 32].
\nMolluscs phylum are of important aquatic invertebrates that the levels of the chemical compounds such as fatty acid components are higher in their tissues in comparison with other animals. They exhibit a range of lipid and fatty acid components in both freshwater and marine species and therefore fatty acid contents in mollusks are studied in many habitats, because of their importance in human’s life. Among the marine invertebrates, the molluscs are the potential source of bioactive substances. The bioactive compounds isolated from the gastropods are considered to have a role in the chemical defense of the animals against their predators. Molluscs in the oceans are common sight and are virtually untapped resource for the discovery of novel compounds [27, 29].
\nMarine molluscs are excellent sources of nutritionally important compounds, such as fatty acids, amino acids and sterols. Fatty acids are essential for life, due to their key role as a good source of energy, membrane constituents, as well as metabolic and signaling mediators. In recent years, poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been recognized as a good remedy for cardiovascular diseases. Marine organisms consume diets rich in n-3 PUFAs and the lipids of the animals can contain up to 50% unsaturated fatty acids, with five or six double bonds, including 22:6 n-3 and 20:5 n-3 [18, 19].
\nThe term sterol refers to a compound with a fused cyclopentano phenanthrene ring with a 3-hydroxyl moiety. Early studies of gastropod sterols indicated cholesterol as the principal sterol of all species. Most species only one or two types of sterols present. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein molecules. They cause metabolites in the homeostasis of an organisms, due to their role as the regulation of several cellular processes and also as precursors of other molecules, such as hormones and nitrogenous bases. Lipid compositions and storage strategy in molluscs, particularly of bivalves and gastropods, have been studied since lipids constitute a major fraction of molluscan tissues. Almost all the data included in their lipid studies, concern the entire organism and only a few reports on the tissue distribution of fatty acids are available [24, 26, 28, 29].
\nThe lipid in the gill tissue in the marine molluscs has important role for regulate of ions such as Na. In the marine animals, the primary site of Na uptake is gills. In addition to being the initially site of an ion transport, gills also captive food, have roles in gas exchanges and act as a brooding chamber for the larval glochidia in females species. Thus, gills activate in many different functions, regarding that their related importance may vary during the year. From the lipids, C20:4ω6 acid is an active substrate for prostaglandin productions involved in regulating Na uptake and it has relatively high contents in gill lipids. Therefore, high level of C20:4ω6 acid in the gill is probably related to prostaglandin synthesizing in the gills to regulate Na uptake. Finally the accumulation of C20:4ω6 acid in the gills was related to physiological activities in the organs [22, 30, 31, 32, 33].
\nFatty acids are organic compounds consist of hydrocarbon chains with terminal carboxyl groups. The fatty acid chains in sea foods differ from vegetables in length. In the presence of Omega-3 fatty acids, prostaglandins actions on epinephrine is diminished and thus constriction or narrowing of blood vessels is prevented. Therefore, marine Mollusca have been regarded as a good source of lipid compounds, and lipids are proper energy sources for animals and nutritive foodstuff for human diets [34].
\nNormally, the omega 6 to omega 3 ratio has moderate amounts in natural food sources, especially in marine foods. In aquatic creatures, omega 6 to omega 3 ratio in the tissues of molluscs is significantly higher in comparison with others. Also, the omega 6 to omega 3 ratio vary between different organs and different species, as well as marine and freshwater species. There are significant differences in the omega 6 to omega 3 ratio in the gills, foot, mantle and whole body tissues of molluscs species, respectively [12, 14, 35].
\nDifferent species of the marine molluscs are generally rich in fatty acid compounds of ω3 (especially C18:3ω3, C20:5ω3 and C22:6ω3). The mussels species in freshwater, however, include a greater proportion of fatty acids compounds of ω6 (especially C18:2ω6 and C20:4ω6). The Σω6/Σω3 ratios is 2:4 in freshwater mussels, but the marine species have ratios of 0.1:1.0 [12].
\nObesity disease which is a complex condition along with organs dysregulations and molecular pathways, such as adipose organ, liver, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, central nervous system (CNS), and genetics. The role of the CNS in this disease needs more attention as obesity rates rise and relating treatments might fail. Since hypothalamus system has long been recognized in the regulation of appetite and food intake, the role of the CNS systems were examined as well as environmental impacts on energy balance. Furthermore, the omega-3 fatty acids have an important role in this disease and in the prevention and management of obesity [3, 4, 6].
\nThe omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) compounds are very important and essential fatty acids that must be derived from the diet compositions. Since omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) compounds need endogenous enzymes for omega desaturation and there are no endogenous enzymes for omega desaturation in human and other mammals, these compounds cannot be made by man or other mammals and could be made particularly by Mollusca species. Modern agricultural western diets contain excessive concentrations of omega-6 PUFAs but very low concentrations of omega-3 PUFAs, leading to an unhealthy omega-6/omega-3 ratio of 20:1, instead of 1:1 proper for evolution process in the humans [9, 10].
\nThus, an unbalanced omega-6/omega-3 ratio in favor of omega-6 PUFAs is highly prothrombotic and proinflammatory, which contributes to the prevalence of atherosclerosis, obesity, and diabetes. In fact, regular and balance of the omega-6/omega-3 ratio have positive effects for of these diseases and is the important factor for improve of these diseases (obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis and cancer) [23, 24, 26, 30].
\nAs mentioned earlier, omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids compounds cannot be made and convert in humans and other mammalian cells, therefore, they cannot made enzyme for omega-3 desaturase and so they lack converting enzyme, omega-3 desaturase. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids compounds are not interconvertible, and they are metabolically compounds and functionally distinct. Also they have important opposing physiological influences, therefore, omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids balance in the diet is very important for better function and body protection [6, 7]. When fish consume by humans or predators, the EPA and DHA from the diet composition partially replace the omega-6 fatty acids, especially AA, in the skin and membranes of almost all body cells, but specifically in the membranes of platelets, erythrocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, and liver cells. The parent compounds for eicosanoid formation, are AA and EPA fatty acids. Because of high levels of omega-6 in the diet, the eicosanoid metabolic products from AA, especially prostaglandins, thromboxane, leukotriene, hydroxyl fatty acids, and lipoids, are formed in larger amounts than those derived from omega-3 fatty acids, especially EPA [32]. The eicosanoids from AA are biologically active in very small concentrations and, if they are formed in high levels, they contribute to the formation of thrombus and atheroma; allergic and inflammatory disorders, particularly in susceptible people; and proliferation of cells. Thus, a diet composition rich in omega-6 fatty acids shifts the physiological state to prothrombotic, proinflammatory, and proaggregatory effects with increases in blood viscosity, vasospasm, and vasoconstriction and cell proliferation. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids balance is a physiological state that is less inflammatory in terms of prostaglandin, gene expression and leukotriene metabolism activity, and interleukin-1 (IL-1) production [28, 29, 30, 31].
\nNovel agricultural technologies, by changing animal feeds for better and short term productions, have decreased the omega-3 fatty acid contents in many foods such as meats, eggs, and even fish. Foods from edible wild plants contain a good balance of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. For instance,
High omega-6/omega-3 ratios cause some disorders such as increasing in the end cannabinoid signaling and related mediators, which could lead to change inflammatory state, energy homeostasis, and mood. In animal experiments a high omega-6 acid intake leads to decreased insulin sensitivity in muscle and promotes fat accumulation in adipose tissues. Nutritional approaches with dietary omega-3 fatty acids reverse the dysregulation of this system, improve insulin sensitivity and control body fat [5, 7].
\nEnd cannabinoids are lipids, derived from the omega-6 AA. Their concentrations are regulated by (1) dietary intake of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids; and (2) by the activity of biosynthetic and catabolic enzymes involved in the end cannabinoid pathway, which is an important parameter in regulation of appetite and metabolism. The end cannabinoid system is involved in preservation of energy balance and sustained hyperactivity of the end cannabinoid system which result obesity. Finally, omega 6 to omega 3 ratio is important factor in regulation metabolism and enzyme activities, and is important factor in control and improve of the nervous system diseases and genetics [9, 10, 13, 14].
\nEnvironmental and biological parameters could change the amount and structure of natural compounds (fatty acids, amino acids and steroids). The environmental and biological factors could change in the different seasons, therefore, seasonal changes have the main role in the variations in the amount and structure of natural compounds. Studies of seasonal variations in biochemical contents of organisms explain how environment, biology, ecology and physiology can affect the compositions. As such, seasonal variations in the biochemistry of phylum Mollusca are known to be related to the complex interaction of both biological parameters (reproduction, growth, food type, food bioavailability, sex, tissue variance), and environmental parameters (temperature, salinity of water and pH) [21, 23, 24].
\nObservations the close correlations between temperature in the aquatic environment and different compounds in the tissues of Mollusca, could be explained by varying the level of metabolisms in different temperatures, which could change in the amount of biocompounds in the tissues of animals. Also, salinity of water and pH has effect on the variations in the compounds such as fatty acids. The accumulation of fatty acids in the different tissues of organisms vary in different salinity and pH. Also, the accumulation of fatty acids in the different level of salinity and pH are not similar for different organs, and fatty acid profiles and their amounts in gill tissue for example, has more variations in the different salinities [4, 6].
\nLevels of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates (glycogen) have been shown to fluctuate with food availability. Food abundance allows for the accumulation of proteins and lipids in the tissues of the different species such as bivalves and gastropods. There are correlations between food type source and biocompounds structure, which increase in the food availability in the aquatic environment could result increasing the amount of the biocompounds in the tissues of the different species of Mollusca. When food availability levels are high in the environment the level of biocompounds are higher in comparison with other situations [17, 20]. The reproductive cycle and time spawning have the key role in the variation of chemistry compounds especially fatty acids, because of the high levels of energy needs for spawning processes and the high level of fatty acids consumed in this process [31, 32].
\nLipids generally increase during the course of gametogenesis and decrease upon release of gametes. For proteins, diverging trends have been observed throughout gametogenesis and spawning. During gametogenesis, protein content was found to increase, decrease or even remain stable. During spawning, levels of protein were found to increase or decrease. Differences in food availability and water temperature conditions may partially explain the observed discrepancies since these factors are known to influence protein accumulation [1, 2].
\nFocusing on proteins and lipids, compounds involved in most biochemical and physiological processes of any organism is therefore useful for the recognition of ecological and physiological changes. Indeed, differences in seasonal trends have been observed among both AAs and FAs. More commonly reported, is the different behavior exhibited among free AAs in relation to salinity and that exhibited among FAs in relation to temperature. The biochemical composition of an organism is determined by endogenous (e.g., gametogenesis, maturation, spawning) and exogenous (e.g., food availability, salinity, temperature) processes. The temporal tests in the field of biochemical compounds permit intercrossing along with chronological and other variables allowing researchers to gain knowledge about ecology and physiology of an organism and also understanding how the surrounding ecosystem may affect [8, 9, 12].
\nThere are significant differences between tissues and their activities for accumulation of amount and structure of natural compounds, and different tissues based on their activities can be accumulated fatty acids, amino acids and other compounds. Therefore, the level of compounds in the tissues are related to their activities. Some tissues such as gonad have highest level of biocompounds in comparison with the other tissues, due to this fact that gonad must have high level of energy for reproductive and spawning process. Since, gonad consume high amount of energy for this process, reproductive and spawning processes need high levels of energy. Also, gills need high energy levels for their metabolism, and so the high levels of fatty acids can be accumulate in this tissue [15, 16].
\nSex types in the mollusca could affect variations in the concentrations and structures of natural compounds, because the biological factors are different between male and female animals and therefore changes in biological factors could cause variations in the compounds. One of the important factors in female animals is reproductive or spawning process, which could result variations during consuming of compounds. Since this process needs high energy, almost more energy levels are consumed in the reproductive cycles. Therefore, decreasing in energy levels of female species are observed. Also, other factors such as metabolism ratio vary between different sexes, therefore, level of compounds change between sex types [17].
\nFinally, according to many studies conclusions biotic and abiotic factors have effective results on variations of natural compounds. Throughout abiotic and environmental factors; temperature, salinity and pH, and in biotic factors; growth, reproduction cycle, food availability, sex type, tissue variances and functions, have the most important effects on the variations of natural compounds concentration and structure of lipids, fatty acids, amino acids and steroids.
\nAlthough lacking a consensus definition, the concurrent use of two or more medications is described polypharmacy [1]. However, in many researches investigating the use of multiple medications and their effects, the concurrent use of 5 or more drugs is defined as “polypharmacy” [2, 3, 4]. The concurrent use of 2 or 3 medications does not cause a significant problem if they are chosen correctly, but the use of 4 or more medications carries a significant risk. Although polypharmacy is seen in all age groups, it is more common with increasing age. Nearly half of the older people use at least 1 drug even though it is not necessary [5, 6]. One of the most important causes for the increase in the number of medications used in the elderly is the coexistence of more than one chronic disease.
Increase in the number of medications used may cause many health problems. As the metabolism and elimination of drugs will be affected by the decrease in kidney and liver functions with increasing age, the older people are more susceptible to the negative effects of polypharmacy. In addition, with increasing age, the onset of amnesia, decreased visual acuity, and the onset of physical disabilities cause the elderly, who already use many drugs, to make mistakes in the use of drugs. As a result, the elderly are more likely to encounter many health problems caused by the use of multiple drugs. Therefore, polypharmacy is accepted as one of the geriatric syndromes.
Apart from increasing age and the presence of chronic disease, other risk factors for polypharmacy are listed below [7, 8]:
Follow-up of patients by more than one physician and lack of communication between physicians
Patients’ drug expectations for their illness
Medical guidelines specific to diseases, not to patients
Pharmaceutical advertisements
Recent hospitalization
Over-the-counter drug sales
Prescribing medication for symptoms rather than diagnosis
Failure to adequately explain the medication changes to the patients by the doctors
Residing in long-term care facilities
Prescription cascade (addition of new medications to counter adverse drug reactions or drug side effects. For example, addition of an antitussive agent to relieve cough caused by angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, or addition of an antihypertensive due to increased blood pressure with NSAID use.
The increase in the number of medications used may result many negative consequences for patients and health system. For example, overall, 30% of hospital admissions are related in some way to medications in people aged over 65 years and half of these could be prevented [9]. Also, with increasing age, compliance to drug usage declines due to increase in the number of the drugs used, the beginning of memory loss, weakness of vision and the onset of physical incapabilities. The most common health problems reported in the elderly people associated with polypharmacy are listed below [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]:
Increase risk of:
Drug interactions
Advers drug events
Morbidity and mortality
Physical and cognitive dysfunction
Falls and associated harms (hip fracture, etc)
Prescribing cascade
Increase in use of the health care system and hospitalizations
Decreased compliance to medication use
Increased treatment cost
Increased need of residing in long-term care facilities
As can be seen above, most of the problems caused by polypharmacy can be prevented. Visits for prescribing the medications used regularly, health maintanece and control visits are the convenient opportunities for physicians to evaluate drug interactions. In addition, while making a differential diagnosis for a new complaint or symptom, polypharmacy and drug interactions, should be evaluated and kept in mind that changes in the patient’s condition may be associated with drug interactions or an adverse effect of a medication.
Although polypharmacy is referred to prescribed medications, the number of over-the-counter and herbal/dietary supplements used should be also considered. It should be noted that beside the all medications used by the patient, over-the-counter drugs with dietary or herbal supplements should be evaluated in terms of interactions. For example, garlic or
Even not recommended by a physician, elderly people self-medicate more than the other age groups. This leads to an increased risk of adverse events and side effects. For example, the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, which are used common nonprescription, may lead to hypertension, decreased effect of the antihypertensives or a gastrointestinal bleeding.
There are many web-based applications developed for the physicians to control drug interactions. The addresses of some free applications that can be easily used on smartphones and tablets are listed below:
Probably most of the medications used by the patients were prescribed and clinically indicated. However, some medications may be unnecessary or cause harm over time due to physiological changes occur with aging or added health problems. These physiological changes that occur with aging affect the sensitivity of drugs mainly by causing changes in the pharmacokinetics of the drug. Pharmacodynamic changes also play a role, although to a lesser extent. The changes in the number and sensitivity of the receptors due to aging or some diseases that occur with aging, and the change of post-receptor events are the main reasons for the changes in pharmacodynamic responses of the medications. In general, these changes cause the effect of the drug to occur more or less and the emergence of drug toxicity and adverse drug reactions. Because of all these changes, the beneficial effects of drug use and the potential harmful effects of drug use should be evaluated together. The decrease in body functions, which occurs with aging is not the same in people of the same age. Therefore, the concept of “
Another problem encountered with the polypharmacy in the elderly is the use of narrow therapeutic index drugs. As a result of interaction of these drugs with other drugs the therapeutic dose can be easily increased to the toxic dose due to reduction in metabolism, increase in absorption or decrease in elimination. So, the medications with narrow therapeutic index may cause death even use in therapeutic doses. Small changes in the dosage of narrow therapeutic index drugs can lead to significant changes in pharmacodynamic response, particularly in elderly patients with comorbidities or using multiple medications. Therefore, recognizing the narrow therapeutic index drugs is very important issue in terms of preventing serious problems. Narrow therapeutic index drugs commonly used are shown in Table 1.
|
Common narrow therapeutic ındex drugs.
In the light of these information, each visit of an elderly patient should be considered as an opportunity to evaluate the unnecessary use or harms of the prescribed or nonprescribed medications. Studies showed that reducing the number of medications has many positive outcomes in older people such as decrease in the risk of falls, improvement in cognition, and improvement in patients’ global health status [21, 22, 23]. Moreover, approxymately, over half of the people over 70 years of age medicines could be discontinued [24].
In some cases, it is necessary to use multiple drugs for therapeutic purposes at once. For example, concomitant use of aspirin, beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors and lipid-lowering drugs is inevitable in cardiovascular diseases. For this reason, what needs to be done is to try to keep the number of drugs as few as possible by making a risk–benefit assessment by considering the personal treatment goals [25, 26].
In addition to the unnecessary and excessive use of drugs in the elderly, another important problem is that some drugs are not prescribed by physicians or are not used by patients, even though they are necessary. For example, it has been reported that only half of the patients take an anticoagulant in atrial fibrillation, although the guidelines suggest. It has also been reported that inhaled anticholinergic bronchodilators in COPD, SSRIs in depression, ACE inhibitors in the presence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension are not prescribed although necessary [27]. The other medications that are often underprescribed in the elderly include those used to Alzheimer disease, pain (eg, opioids), heart failure, post-MI (β-blockers), glaucoma, and incontinence. In addition to the medications, vaccines are not prescribed as recommended.
Deprescribing, the process of tapering, withdrawing, discontinuing, or stopping medications, is important in reducing polypharmacy, adverse drug effects, inappropriate or ineffective medication use, and costs [28]. The first step in deprescription is the identifing the patients with risk. To identifying the patients with risk, a comprehensive geriatric assessment should be necessery. Comprehensive geriatric assessment is a systematic evaluation of older people by a multidisciplinary health professionals to determine the medical, psychological and functional capabilities and develop a coordinated and integrated personalized follow up plan. Comprehensive geriatric assessment of the elderly patient in primary care should include multimorbidity, cognitive changes, functional status changes, frailty, risk of falling, medication nonadherence, polypharmacy, transitions in care setting, unexplained weight loss, and family concerns for safety [29]. Although comprehensive geriatric assessment expected to be performed by a multidisciplinary health professionals, family physicians have a central role in comprehensive geriatric assessment and coordinating the care. Comprehensive geriatric assessment can be performed in over time with regularly scheduled visits in primary care. During each visit, it should be targeted at least one domain and evaluation of polypharmacy risk and polypharmacy related problems prioritized. Periodic evaluation of a patient’s drug regimen and risk of polypharmacy and adverse drug events is an essential component of comprehensive geriatric assessment. Patients need to be specifically told to bring all of the over-the-counter products, ointments, vitamins, ophthalmic preparations, or herbal medicines, used by them to the visit.
It should be aimed to reduce the number of drugs, particularly in those use 7 or more drugs, a history of adverse drug reactions or falls, develope confusion or lethargy as a new symptom, worsen general health status, transfered to nursing homes, have multiple care providers or cared by more than one institutions. Anticipation of polypharmacy and inappropriate drug use is a part of deprescription process. Approximately one-fifth of the drugs used in elderly people are inappropriate drugs [30].
To reduce the number of medications used in older patients, Beers Criteria, Screening Tool of Older Person’s Potentially Inappropriate Prescriptions (STOPP), Screening Tool to Alert to Right Treatment (START) and The Medication Appropriateness Index-MAI can be used by the physicians [18, 19, 20]. The STOPP/START guideline contributes to the recognition of potentially inappropriate drugs for use in elderly patients and to drug selection in common diseases with evidence-based recommendations. The Beers Criteria is a guide to identify the inappropriate drugs that should be avoided in the elderly. The criteria include three categories: those that should always be avoided (regardless of disease or condition (eg, diphenhidramine, benzodiazepines); those that are potentially inappropriate in older adults with particular health conditions or syndromes; and those that should be used with caution (eg, carbamazepines, SSRIs) [19]. Medical Appropriateness Index, contributes to the evaluation of each medications in terms of indication, efficacy, appropriate dose and correct use, drug interactions, presence of medications with similar effect, appropriate treatment duration and cost [20].
It can be predicted that polypharmacy and unnecessary drugs may be used by the patients recently discharged from the hospital. It is known that medications used temporarily during hospitalization are also continued to use after discharge by the patients. Therefore, after discharge from the hospital, medications used by the patients should be reviewed. Additionally, increasing age, female gender, higher levels of education, cognitive dysfunction, general poor health, having cardiovascular disease, hypertension, asthma, diabetes or using high-risk drugs (antithrombotic agents, insulin, oral hypoglycaemic agents, cardiovascular and central nervous system drugs, anticolinergics) are the risks for polypharmacy and adverse drug events.
After the risk identification, the physician should prepare the patient and their closers to deprescribing. Asking the elderly and caregivers, which medications they prefer to use, and getting their opinion will make it easier for the physician. Because the passion of the elderly to some drugs can be an obstacle in the process of deprescribing, and the insistent attitude of the physician to discontinue the drug may reduce the trust to the doctor. Moreover, learning the patients’ and caregivers’ preferences are the first step of shared decision making process, that be very important in patient centered approachment in primary care.
Prioritization of the medicines to cease or doses to reduce is the second step of deprescription [31, 32]. For this, it should be checked the medications in terms of there is still a valid indication and benefit, presence of adverse drug reactions or new symptoms and risky drugs eg. anticholinergic and sedating drugs.
If there is a medication that is not preferred by the patient among the medications considered for discontinuation, deprescription can be started by discontinuing this medication.
If any adverse drug reaction or new symptom are suspected, the suspected drug should be discontinued first, and the next target medication to discotinue should be anticholinergic and sadative drugs. Because elderly patients are particularly susceptible of anticholinergic and sedating drugs advers effects. Adverse effects associated with anticholinergic use in older adults include memory impairment, confusion, hallucinations, dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, nausea, urinary retention, impaired sweating, and tachycardia [33, 34]. Moreover, it was reported an association between anticholinergic use and risk of community acquired pneumonia [35]. Presence of these symptoms should be a warning to the physician. Some examples of anticholinergic drugs are shown in Table 2.
|
Anticholinergic drugs.
Discontinuation of the drugs with similar effects is another step in reducing the number of drugs. Then, the presence of drugs that can be used in combination among the drugs used should be reviewed, and if possible, the number of drugs should be reduced by prescribing the medications in combination.
Physicians should assess whether treatment goals have changed for the patient at each visit. In updated guidelines, treatment goals may change based on new evidence or depending on the patient’s age or other intervening disease. For example, after recognizing that strict targeting for hemoglobin A1c and blood pressure values was harmful in the elderly, the guidelines were updated on this issue [36, 37]. In addition to goals of care, the patients’ life expectancy also considered in deprescription process. The patient’s life expectancy may have been decrease by an intervening cancer or other serious illness. In this case, some medications that are expected to show their effects in long term (eg statins), can be discontinued. Clinicians should decide to discontinuation process by individualized treatment goals in line with current guidelines.
It is known that non-pharmacological treatments are even more effective than drug treatment in several chronic diseases. Therefore, while prescribing, non-pharmacologic treatment options should always be considered first [26]. If the patient can apply non-pharmacologic options, it will be easier to reduce the number of drugs. For example, in many patients, hypertension can be controlled only by sodium restriction or weight loss. In diabetes mellitus patients the number and dose of the medications can be reduced by low glycemic index diet and exercise.
The steps of deprescription process was shown in Table 3.
|
The steps of deprescription.
If it is not possible to cease of medications, it should be considered whether it is possible to reduce their dose. Because, many adverse drug reactions are dose-related. While prescribing it is important to use the minimal dose required to obtain clinical benefit.
A comprehensive geriatric assessment should be necessery to detect the risk of polypharmacy, polypharmacy related problems, possibility to reduce the number of medications and anticipate the consequences of withdrawal. Although consern of withdrawal reactions may be a barrier to deprescription, withdrawal reactions are seen rare when discontinuation is carried slowly and carefully [38].
While reducing the number of drugs, it is very important that some drugs should be discontinued by tapering over time. Anticonvulsants, benzodiazepines, corticosteroids, antidepressants, beta blockers, levodopa, opiates, proton pump inhibitors, and gabapentin are the examples of drugs that should not be stopped abruptly. Abrupt discontinuation of these drugs may cause withdrawal syndrome and a rebound effect.
Only stop or reduce one medicine at a time.
Possible problems that may occur in case of discontinuation of the drug should be anticipated.
Drug interactions should also be considered while reducing the number of drugs. For example, when using warfarin with omeprazole, discontinuation of omeprazole, the INR may decrease because omeprazole had been inhibiting the metabolism of warfarin.
In cases where it cannot be decided which medication should be discontinued, a collaboration with other physicians following the patient should be established.
The necessity of drug discontinuation should be explained to the patient and their closers with an appropriate communication language.
Effort should be made to improve communication in transition of the patients between health care centers or caregivers. Sharing the medication lists used by the patients or planned to withdrawal, between health providers at the time of care transition may be help to prevent adverse drug events.
After the drug is withdrawal, warning messages about the discontinuation of the medications should be given to the patients in writing, a follow-up appointment should be planned, and should be informed about when to consult a doctor [39].
Patients and their closers should be informed about the monitoring of blood parameters that may change after drug withdrawal.
While trying to prevent polypharmacy and polypharmacy-related problems in elderly patients and to reduce unnecessary and inappropriate drug use, care should be taken not to discontinue the drugs that the patient really needs. START criteria is developed to help the identify potential prescribing omissions in older patients can be used in this regard [18].
If treatment is indicated, the current regimen with a higher probability of adverse effects can be replaced with a safer alternative medication. As an example, acetaminophen instead of NSAID.
The patient’s condition and goals of care changed over time are the key principles to be considered in deprescription. A comprehensive geriatric assessment should be necessery to detect the risk of polypharmacy, polypharmacy related problems, possibility to reduce the number of medications and anticipate the consequences of withdrawal. Avoiding from over-prescribing and inappropriate medications in older patients is the key step to prevent negative health problems due to polypharmacy. It should be kept in mind that in addition to over-prescribing, under-prescribing appropriate medications is also of concern in older patients. Therefore, a balance is required between over- and under-prescribing.
It should be kept in mind that reducing the number of drugs in the elderly patients in accordance with the evidence based guidelines can be carried without any serious problems and this situation can improve the health parameters of the older patients. In conclusion, prevention of polypharmacy and withdrawing unneccesary and inappropriate medications may be the best clinical decision in older patients.
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Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11331",title:"Secondary Metabolites",subtitle:"Trends and Reviews",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6274f42d5441e537c5fa744bc84523",slug:"secondary-metabolites-trends-and-reviews",bookSignature:"Ramasamy Vijayakumar and Suresh Selvapuram Sudalaimuthu Raja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"176044",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Vijayakumar",slug:"ramasamy-vijayakumar",fullName:"Ramasamy Vijayakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10820",title:"Data Clustering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"086d299ffd05aacd2311c3ca4ebf0d3a",slug:"data-clustering",bookSignature:"Niansheng Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"221831",title:"Prof.",name:"Niansheng",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"niansheng-tang",fullName:"Niansheng Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care",subtitle:"An Important Issue of the Modern Society",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a0ceb9ced4598aea3f3723f6dc4ea04",slug:"oral-health-care-an-important-issue-of-the-modern-society",bookSignature:"Lavinia Cosmina Ardelean and Laura Cristina Rusu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"180569",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",middleName:null,surname:"Ardelean",slug:"lavinia-ardelean",fullName:"Lavinia Ardelean"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11139",title:"Geochemistry and Mineral Resources",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"928cebbdce21d9b3f081267b24f12dfb",slug:"geochemistry-and-mineral-resources",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"August 17th 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"37",title:"Genetic Engineering",slug:"genetic-engineering",parent:{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:64,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitations:40,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"37",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7595",title:"Genetic Engineering",subtitle:"A Glimpse of Techniques and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b24a0b287498c66d818f2cb9e296485a",slug:"genetic-engineering-a-glimpse-of-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farrukh Jamal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7595.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38621",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farrukh",middleName:null,surname:"Jamal",slug:"farrukh-jamal",fullName:"Farrukh Jamal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5445",title:"Genetic Engineering",subtitle:"An Insight into the Strategies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4be137c94f062f23503590140ddca96b",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farrukh Jamal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5445.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38621",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farrukh",middleName:null,surname:"Jamal",slug:"farrukh-jamal",fullName:"Farrukh Jamal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"69522",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89702",title:"Polymeric Nanocomposite-Based Agriculture Delivery System: Emerging Technology for Agriculture",slug:"polymeric-nanocomposite-based-agriculture-delivery-system-emerging-technology-for-agriculture",totalDownloads:1153,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The increasing global population has forced the agricultural area to enhance the yield of crop, thereby fulfilling the requirements of people. The advancement has led to synthesis of nanomaterials with different size, shapes, and biocompatibility aspects towards specific applications like agriculture. Several nanomaterials such as metal, metal oxide, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), graphene, and its derivatives have shown potential ability for augmenting the yield of crops and protect crops against pathogens. However, these nanomaterials required smart delivery system that might easily deliver the nanofertilizers in a controlled manner. In this context, the incorporation of nanotechnology and polymer science might be developing newer technology with minimal usage and maximum effectiveness for improvement of crops. The incorporation of nanomaterials in polymeric composites offers newer approaches for agricultural delivery system that might provide various advantages such as higher stability, solubility, uniform distribution, and controlled release. Moreover, nanomaterials have potential ability for advancement in the genetic engineering. Herein, we discuss the role of nanomaterials in the growth of the plant, polymeric nanocomposite materials for agriculture delivery system with the advancement in the genetic engineering, and future prospects of these polymeric-nanocomposite materials in agriculture.",book:{id:"7595",slug:"genetic-engineering-a-glimpse-of-techniques-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - A Glimpse of Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Mohammad Ashfaq, Neetu Talreja, Divya Chuahan and Werayut Srituravanich",authors:[{id:"287393",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ashfaq",slug:"mohammad-ashfaq",fullName:"Mohammad Ashfaq"},{id:"288295",title:"Dr.",name:"Neetu",middleName:null,surname:"Talreja",slug:"neetu-talreja",fullName:"Neetu Talreja"},{id:"288296",title:"Dr.",name:"Divya",middleName:null,surname:"Chuahan",slug:"divya-chuahan",fullName:"Divya Chuahan"},{id:"288297",title:"Dr.",name:"Werayut",middleName:null,surname:"Srituravanich",slug:"werayut-srituravanich",fullName:"Werayut Srituravanich"}]},{id:"53234",doi:"10.5772/66818",title:"Plant Genome Editing and its Applications in Cereals",slug:"plant-genome-editing-and-its-applications-in-cereals",totalDownloads:2284,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Recently developed methods for genome editing, representing a major breakthrough in the field of genetic engineering, will enable researchers to produce transgenic plants in a more convenient and safer way. Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are triggered by synthetic nucleases that later induce DNA repair mechanisms known as nonhomologous-end joining (NHEJ) or homology-directed repair (HDR) in the presence of a donor DNA. Gene targeting (GT) was earlier demonstrated in rice and maize genomes by exploiting several genes (Acetohydroxyacid synthase, waxy, ALS, OS11N3 etc.), while zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) were used to modify IPK1 gene in maize. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR-CAS) system has been shown to be efficient for targeted mutagenesis in wheat that has a hexaploid complex genome, rice, maize, and recently in barley. The CRISPR system is considered as advantageous over previous approaches due to its easy use and efficiency, however, needs to be improved for high off-target effects.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Dan M. Weinthal and Filiz Gürel",authors:[{id:"186029",title:"Prof.",name:"Filiz",middleName:null,surname:"Gürel",slug:"filiz-gurel",fullName:"Filiz Gürel"},{id:"189301",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Weinthal",slug:"dan-weinthal",fullName:"Dan Weinthal"}]},{id:"53330",doi:"10.5772/66717",title:"Genetic Modification of Stem Cells in Diabetes and Obesity",slug:"genetic-modification-of-stem-cells-in-diabetes-and-obesity",totalDownloads:1784,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Genetic modification, or gene transfer, represents a method of treatment for several diseases. It has been used extensively in the context of cardiovascular diseases; however, its role in the context of metabolic diseases, such as diabetes and obesity, has remained largely unexplored. In this chapter, we will review the use of adult stem cells, focusing on endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), in the context of diabetes. We have highlighted the use of viral vectors, particularly DNA viruses, as a tool for genetic modification to help stem cells survive and resist apoptosis in a hyperglycemic environment. We then discuss genetic modification of EPCs and MSCs to treat complications of diabetes and obesity. Although there are several unanswered questions in the field of metabolic diseases, the future application of gene transfer technology along with genetic modification of stem cells prior to the therapy holds significant therapeutic promise.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Cleyton C. Domingues, Nabanita Kundu, Fiona J. Dore and\nSabyasachi Sen",authors:[{id:"190377",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sabyasachi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"sabyasachi-sen",fullName:"Sabyasachi Sen"},{id:"195299",title:"Dr.",name:"Cleyton",middleName:null,surname:"Domingues",slug:"cleyton-domingues",fullName:"Cleyton Domingues"},{id:"195300",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabanita",middleName:null,surname:"Kundu",slug:"nabanita-kundu",fullName:"Nabanita Kundu"},{id:"195301",title:"BSc.",name:"Fiona",middleName:null,surname:"Dore",slug:"fiona-dore",fullName:"Fiona Dore"}]},{id:"52786",doi:"10.5772/66059",title:"A New Plant Breeding Technique Using ALSV Vectors to Shorten the Breeding Periods of Fruit Trees",slug:"a-new-plant-breeding-technique-using-alsv-vectors-to-shorten-the-breeding-periods-of-fruit-trees",totalDownloads:2158,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Fruit trees have a long juvenile phase. For example, the juvenile phase of apple lasts for 6–12 years and is a serious constraint for creating new varieties by breeding based on crossing and selection. In this chapter, we report a novel technology using the apple latent spherical virus (ALSV) vector to accelerate flowering time and life cycle in apple and pear seedlings. Inoculation of apple and pear cotyledons immediately after germination with ALSV-AtFT/MdTFL1 concurrently expressing Arabidopsis FLOWERING LOCUS T (AtFT) gene and suppressing apple TERMINAL FLOWER 1-1 (MdTFL1-1) gene can shorten the period from seeding to flowering to 1.5–3 months after germination and generation times in order to obtain next-generation seeds in 1 year or less. Most next-generation seedlings obtained from ALSV vector–infected plants were free of the virus. We also developed a method for eliminating ALSV vectors from infected apple and pear plants by only high-temperature treatment. A method combining the promotion of flowering in apple and pear by ALSV vector with an ALSV elimination technique is expected to see future application as a new plant breeding technique that can significantly shorten the breeding periods of apple and pear.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Noriko Yamagishi and Nobuyuki Yoshikawa",authors:[{id:"18191",title:"Dr.",name:"Nobuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshikawa",slug:"nobuyuki-yoshikawa",fullName:"Nobuyuki Yoshikawa"},{id:"195533",title:"Dr.",name:"Norioko",middleName:null,surname:"Yamagishi",slug:"norioko-yamagishi",fullName:"Norioko Yamagishi"}]},{id:"65771",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84419",title:"Prospects for the Production of Recombinant Therapeutic Proteins and Peptides in Plants: Special Focus on Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme Inhibitory (ACEI) Peptides",slug:"prospects-for-the-production-of-recombinant-therapeutic-proteins-and-peptides-in-plants-special-focu",totalDownloads:1675,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Molecular pharming is a cost-effective, scalable, and safe system to produce high-quality and biologically active recombinant therapeutic proteins. Thus, plants are emerging alternative platform for the production of pharmaceutically relevant proteins such as vaccines, antibodies, antibody derivatives, and some serum-derived proteins. Additionally, plants have also been used to produce bioactive and immunogenic peptides. The efficacy, selectivity, specificity, and low toxicity make them particularly well-suited therapeutic agents for various indications, for instance, cardiovascular and infectious diseases, immunological disorders, and cancer. In the broad range of known bioactive peptides, angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory (ACEI) peptides derived from food proteins have attracted particular attention for their ability to prevent hypertension. So far, several ACEI peptides have been identified in food proteins, mainly in milk, eggs, and plants. The industrial production of ACEI peptides is based on enzymatic proteolysis of whole food proteins, which leads to the release of small bioactive peptides with ACE-inhibitory activity. The problems associated to such procedures, namely, cost and loss of functional properties, have demonstrated the need to develop more straightforward methods to produce ACEI peptides. One viable hypothesis, discussed in this chapter, is to genetically engineer crop plants to produce and deliver antihypertensive peptides.",book:{id:"7595",slug:"genetic-engineering-a-glimpse-of-techniques-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - A Glimpse of Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Carolina Gomes, Filipe Oliveira, Sandra Isabel Vieira and Ana Sofia Duque",authors:[{id:"165802",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Duque",slug:"ana-sofia-duque",fullName:"Ana Sofia Duque"},{id:"269041",title:"MSc.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"carolina-gomes",fullName:"Carolina Gomes"},{id:"269043",title:"MSc.",name:"Filipe",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"filipe-oliveira",fullName:"Filipe Oliveira"},{id:"269045",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"sandra-vieira",fullName:"Sandra Vieira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70299",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction",totalDownloads:1297,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an efficient and one of the most common methods used in biological sciences for in vitro multiplication of a target DNA molecule. The technique has significantly contributed in changing and developing different fields of biological sciences since 1980s. PCR has a vital role in supporting the processes involved in genetic engineering, particularly the cloning of DNA fragments used to modify the genomes of microorganisms, animals, and plants. Consequently, the technique has numerous applications in fundamental and applied research in medicine agriculture, environment, and bio-industry. The main focus of this chapter is to describe briefly the principles, methodology, various types, and applications of PCR in different fields. Besides, different components of PCR, trouble shooting during the execution, and limitations of the techniques are also outlined.",book:{id:"7595",slug:"genetic-engineering-a-glimpse-of-techniques-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - A Glimpse of Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Shaheen Shahzad, Mohammad Afzal, Shomaila Sikandar and Imran Afzal",authors:[{id:"256829",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr. Shaheen",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"dr.-shaheen-shahzad",fullName:"Dr. Shaheen Shahzad"},{id:"256836",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Afzal",slug:"mohammad-afzal",fullName:"Mohammad Afzal"},{id:"258439",title:"Dr.",name:"Shomaila",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"shomaila-sikandar",fullName:"Shomaila Sikandar"},{id:"262021",title:"Dr.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Afzal",slug:"imran-afzal",fullName:"Imran Afzal"}]},{id:"53149",title:"Gene Revolution in Agriculture: 20 Years of Controversy",slug:"gene-revolution-in-agriculture-20-years-of-controversy",totalDownloads:1908,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the spirit of the general debate over genetically modified (GM) food which is not slowing down, we wanted to answer some questions, such as: Is Gene Revolution an answer to world hunger? Do GM crops with more complex transformation contribute to the enrichment of multinationals? Why U.S. increases food aids? To this end, we firstly describe the diffusion of GM crops around the world during the previous 20 years. Starting from 1996, we present global progress with adoption of biotech crops, its distribution in developed and developing countries, global area by trait, adoption rate and global value of biotech crops. The findings reveal 10 countries, four crops, and two traits domination. The findings of this study clarify the failure of transgenic technology to eradicate hunger. In addition, the results have shown statistically significant correlation between stacked trait and global market value of biotech crops as well as between raising production of biotech crops in U.S. and an increase in U.S. food aid through World Food Program (WFP).",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Tatjana Brankov, Koviljko Lovre, Bozidar Popovic and Vladimir\nBozovic",authors:[{id:"188943",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:"Papic",surname:"Brankov",slug:"tatjana-brankov",fullName:"Tatjana Brankov"},{id:"194370",title:"Prof.",name:"Koviljko",middleName:null,surname:"Lovre",slug:"koviljko-lovre",fullName:"Koviljko Lovre"},{id:"194371",title:"Prof.",name:"Bozidar",middleName:null,surname:"Popovic",slug:"bozidar-popovic",fullName:"Bozidar Popovic"},{id:"194372",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Bozovic",slug:"vladimir-bozovic",fullName:"Vladimir Bozovic"}]},{id:"69522",title:"Polymeric Nanocomposite-Based Agriculture Delivery System: Emerging Technology for Agriculture",slug:"polymeric-nanocomposite-based-agriculture-delivery-system-emerging-technology-for-agriculture",totalDownloads:1152,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The increasing global population has forced the agricultural area to enhance the yield of crop, thereby fulfilling the requirements of people. The advancement has led to synthesis of nanomaterials with different size, shapes, and biocompatibility aspects towards specific applications like agriculture. Several nanomaterials such as metal, metal oxide, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), graphene, and its derivatives have shown potential ability for augmenting the yield of crops and protect crops against pathogens. However, these nanomaterials required smart delivery system that might easily deliver the nanofertilizers in a controlled manner. In this context, the incorporation of nanotechnology and polymer science might be developing newer technology with minimal usage and maximum effectiveness for improvement of crops. The incorporation of nanomaterials in polymeric composites offers newer approaches for agricultural delivery system that might provide various advantages such as higher stability, solubility, uniform distribution, and controlled release. Moreover, nanomaterials have potential ability for advancement in the genetic engineering. Herein, we discuss the role of nanomaterials in the growth of the plant, polymeric nanocomposite materials for agriculture delivery system with the advancement in the genetic engineering, and future prospects of these polymeric-nanocomposite materials in agriculture.",book:{id:"7595",slug:"genetic-engineering-a-glimpse-of-techniques-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - A Glimpse of Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Mohammad Ashfaq, Neetu Talreja, Divya Chuahan and Werayut Srituravanich",authors:[{id:"287393",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ashfaq",slug:"mohammad-ashfaq",fullName:"Mohammad Ashfaq"},{id:"288295",title:"Dr.",name:"Neetu",middleName:null,surname:"Talreja",slug:"neetu-talreja",fullName:"Neetu Talreja"},{id:"288296",title:"Dr.",name:"Divya",middleName:null,surname:"Chuahan",slug:"divya-chuahan",fullName:"Divya Chuahan"},{id:"288297",title:"Dr.",name:"Werayut",middleName:null,surname:"Srituravanich",slug:"werayut-srituravanich",fullName:"Werayut Srituravanich"}]},{id:"53371",title:"New Approaches to Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Gene Transfer to Plants",slug:"new-approaches-to-agrobacterium-tumefaciens-mediated-gene-transfer-to-plants",totalDownloads:3298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a plant pathogen, is commonly used as a vector for the introduction of foreign genes into plants and consequent regeneration of transgenic plants. A. tumefaciens naturally infects the wound sites in dicotyledonous plants and induces diseases known as crown gall. The bacterium has a large plasmid that induces tumor induction, and for this reason, it was named tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid. The expression of T-DNA genes of Ti-plasmid in plant cells causes the formation of tumors at the infection site. The molecular basis of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is the stable integration of a DNA sequence (T-DNA) from Ti (tumor-inducing) plasmid of A. tumefaciens into the plant genome. A. tumefaciens-mediated transformation has some advantages compared with direct gene transfer methods such as integration of low copy number of T-DNA into plant genome, stable gene expression, and transformation of large size DNA segments. That is why manipulations of the plant, bacteria and physical conditions have been applied to increase the virulence of bacteria and to increase the transformation efficiency. Preculturing explants before inoculation, modification of temperature and medium pH, addition chemicals to inoculation medium such as acetosyringone, changing bacterial density, and co-cultivation period, and vacuum infiltration have been reported to increase transformation. In this chapter, four new transformation protocols that can be used to increase the transformation efficiency via A. tumefaciens in most plant species are described.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Mustafa Yildiz, Murat Aycan and Sunjung Park",authors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"},{id:"188656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Aycan",slug:"murat-aycan",fullName:"Murat Aycan"}]},{id:"65771",title:"Prospects for the Production of Recombinant Therapeutic Proteins and Peptides in Plants: Special Focus on Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme Inhibitory (ACEI) Peptides",slug:"prospects-for-the-production-of-recombinant-therapeutic-proteins-and-peptides-in-plants-special-focu",totalDownloads:1672,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Molecular pharming is a cost-effective, scalable, and safe system to produce high-quality and biologically active recombinant therapeutic proteins. Thus, plants are emerging alternative platform for the production of pharmaceutically relevant proteins such as vaccines, antibodies, antibody derivatives, and some serum-derived proteins. Additionally, plants have also been used to produce bioactive and immunogenic peptides. The efficacy, selectivity, specificity, and low toxicity make them particularly well-suited therapeutic agents for various indications, for instance, cardiovascular and infectious diseases, immunological disorders, and cancer. In the broad range of known bioactive peptides, angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory (ACEI) peptides derived from food proteins have attracted particular attention for their ability to prevent hypertension. So far, several ACEI peptides have been identified in food proteins, mainly in milk, eggs, and plants. The industrial production of ACEI peptides is based on enzymatic proteolysis of whole food proteins, which leads to the release of small bioactive peptides with ACE-inhibitory activity. The problems associated to such procedures, namely, cost and loss of functional properties, have demonstrated the need to develop more straightforward methods to produce ACEI peptides. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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