\r\n\tIn the last decades, particular attention to this field has been paid to the coastal erosion problem all over the world. Indeed, the deployment of artificial reservoirs, modification of the runoff characteristics of internal areas, sand extraction from rivers, and harbor siltation, caused a decrease of sediment input on the coastal environments, and, therefore, a generalized deficit in the sediment budget. Often, dredging activities are required to collect sediment finalized to “soft” techniques to restore beaches or to move the sand trapped in the harbor (clean or contaminated). \r\n\tMoreover, the coastal protections induced hydrodynamics and morphodynamics modifications inducing sometimes strong variations to the sediment transport regime.
\r\n
\r\n\tHistorically, all these aspects are related to specific research areas ranging from engineering, geology, geomorphology, biology, etc, but it is difficult to find a comprehensive overview of these topics.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book is intended to collect original works and review concerning numerical and experimental investigation, theoretical works, methodological approaches, and any other technique that allow giving the actual state-of-the-art in the field of sediment transport.
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Piezoelectricity is a quality of material asymmetry that leads to the conversion of electric signals into physical deformation and conversely physical deformation into electric signal. An applied pressure causes movement of the dipole moment within the material, and a flow of charges if crystals are aligned [1]. This makes piezoelectricity useful for a variety of industry purposes, particularly those related to vibrational generation and actuation. Commercialized applications for piezoelectricity include timekeeping using quartz resonance, microphones, radio antenna oscillators, speakers, hydrophones, and fuel injection [2, 3]. More experimental technology includes energy harvesting and electronic sensing [2]. The most commonly used ceramic piezoelectric material is lead zirconium titanate (PZT), because its physical properties can be tailored by composition, it has a high piezoelectric coefficient, and it is cheap to manufacture [4]. The most common piezoelectric polymer, used for its large strain value, is polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and its copolymers, such as P(VDF-TrFE) [5, 6, 7, 8]. A wide variety of composites and nanostructure materials have also been developed and can be fabricated as thin films, discs, or stacked sheets [2, 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
\n
In the case of biomedical engineering, many conventional means of using piezoelectric devices are not applicable because of the structure of biological systems. Issues such as size limitations, biological compatibility, and flexibility have led to investigation into polymer, composite, nanostructured, and lead-free piezoelectric materials. One way to develop biomedical devices is to look at the piezoelectric structures inside the body and how they can be emulated to develop piezoelectric medical technology. In the first section of this book, we discuss piezoelectric materials present in the body. Then we describe how piezoelectric materials can be used for diagnosing illnesses and providing medical treatment. Our purpose is to inform the readers of challenges and different approaches applicable to developing a wide variety of medical technology.
\n
\n
\n
2. Biological piezoelectric materials
\n
There are many reviews which cover subsections of biological piezoelectric materials; these reviews explain topics such as piezoelectricity in bone [14] or biopolymers [15]. However, we seek to present a broader overview of the topic and how it can be used to develop technology. Much of the original work on discovering piezoelectricity in the body was done by Eiichi Fukada [15, 16, 17, 18]. His work showed the presence of piezoelectricity in bone, aorta, muscles, tendons, and intestines [15, 16, 17, 18]. Since that time, many further studies have contributed to the overall knowledge of the body’s piezoelectric characteristics, their origins, and how they can be applied in medical science.
\n
The organic piezoelectric effects in the human body are attributed to the lack of symmetry in most biological molecules, which may make piezoelectricity a fundamental biological property [19]. In particular, proteins seem to drive the piezoelectric qualities of most organs. The basic building blocks of proteins within the human body are amino acids. These make up molecules such as collagen, keratin, and elastin which are highly prevalent in the organs examined by Fukada and other researchers [15, 16, 17, 18]. Amino acids in pure form have their own piezoelectric properties due to the presence of dipoles derived from the polar side groups seen in Figure 1. It is the reorientation and change in dipole moments in biological macromolecules under stress that gives them piezoelectric properties [20, 21]. At least 15 amino acids, mostly the “L” form, exhibit piezoelectric properties; however, γ-glycine and DL-alanine are the strongest amino acid piezoelectrics [22]. Most racemic, or DL mixtures of amino acids do not show piezoelectric properties because their crystal forms are centrosymmetric [23].
\n
Figure 1.
The general structure of amino acids. Reprinted and altered from Ref. [24].
\n
Other biological piezoelectric materials include polymeric L-lactic acid, DNA, and the M13 bacteriophage [25, 26, 27]. Like amino acids, the piezoelectric properties of lactic acid come from the carbon–oxygen double bond [25]. DNA’s piezoelectric properties originate from internal rotation of the dipoles created by phosphate groups; however, they were primarily observed at lower water content, which makes the bonds holding the DNA helix together weaker [27]. This demonstrates the importance of bonding, structure, and experimental conditions when determining piezoelectric properties. The M13 bacteriophage’s piezoelectric effect is caused by extruding proteins and it can be fabricated into thin films that exhibit strengths of 7.8 pm/V [26].
\n
Like the bacteriophage, many organs contain macromolecules which give them piezoelectric properties. Organs with piezoelectric properties can be viewed as amorphous organic material containing structured fibers which give them their piezoelectric properties [19, 28]. Often these fibrils will grow in a helix shape, preventing them from having centrosymmetric symmetry [29]. The overall strength of the piezoelectric effect will depend on the ordering, quantity or composition of these fibers. Bones and tendons have hexagonal symmetry and contain the following piezoelectric constant dij in the form of Eq. (1) [30]. In this tensor, the “i” subscript represents direction of electric field displacement and the “j” subscript represents the mechanical deformation associated with it [31].
Molecular structure within the organ changes the organ’s overall piezoelectric nature. For example, examination of the epidermis, horny layer, and dermis of the skin revealed that each layer had its own piezoelectric coefficient, the highest being the horny layer. The dermis had a less ordered collagen layer; the horny layer had parallel keratin filaments, and the epidermis α helical keratin tonofibrils [28]. The structure of the keratin horny layer simplified its ability to produce piezoelectric tensors, giving them the form of Eq. (2). The values of piezoelectric coefficients varied based on temperature; however, the highest were seen in the horny layer, on the order of 0.1–0.2 pC/N. The lack of consistency in these measurements is due to the variety in how the molecules were ordered in each sample [28].
Similarly, piezoresponse force measurements (PFM) studies of collagen proved that collagen is the main source of piezoelectricity in the bone and reveal different ordering of collagen fibers results in different piezoresponses, as seen in Figure 2 [32]. In collagen, there are alternating sections of overlap and gap regions. The collagen fibers are arranged in a staggered way that result in the gap region having one less microfiber. In addition, the molecules in the gap region have less uniform symmetry, and therefore that region does not have as high of a piezoresponse [32]. These two studies indicate the piezoelectric response is not merely dependent on the molecular structure, but the structure of the entire organ. Table 1 gives a description of organs with tested piezoelectric properties and their attributed molecule.
\n
Figure 2.
The images show (a) the topology of the collagen and (b) the piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) image where the collagen can be distinguished from the surrounding tissues and how the gap and overlap regions differ in piezoelectric response. Reprinted from Minary-Jolandan and Yu [32] with permission from ACS Publications.
Tissues with piezoelectric properties and driving source of piezoelectricity.
\n
Despite many measurements, it is sometimes difficult for the scientific community to come to a consensus on the exact nature and relevance of in situ piezoelectric characteristics. For example, in the case of bone, two groups found contradicting results on the dependency of piezoelectricity in terms of hydration [14, 37]. Some studies on the aorta indicate that it has piezoelectric properties, though results were varied. Two studies, taken over forty years apart showed different orders of magnitude for the studied properties [17, 38]. A lab attempting to verify either of these studies found that there was no piezoelectric response from the aorta [39].
\n
Historically, piezoelectric potentials were thought to explain Wolff’s Law, the fact that bone is strong in areas that are subject to greater amounts of stress [40]. However, later research proved streaming potentials, fluid and ions driven by mechanical loading, may have a greater impact in determining bone properties [41]. However, Ahn et al. suggest that piezoelectricity could generate charges that affect the screening potential and the two work in conjunction to promote bone development, a concept which requires experimental testing to verify [40]. Furthermore, the generation of electric fields has been shown to increase bone healing during fracture [42, 43].
\n
Despite the variety of results concerning piezoelectric qualities of the body, they do help in understanding the body’s mechanics and how we can develop solutions for human problems. Even if the exact purpose for piezoelectric properties in the body is not known, they still can be used for developing biomedical solutions on both microscopic and macroscopic levels. For example, knowing that amino acids and macromolecules composed of them have piezoelectric properties has inspired the use of biomaterials for human sensors [44]. Using peptides to build piezoelectric sensors eliminates the need for developing other biocompatible materials. For example, the knowledge of previously mentioned virus, M13, led to the alignment of its phages into nanopillars for enhanced piezoelectric properties [45]. The outer hair cell is another structure that piezoelectric properties can be attributed to. Disruption of the cell’s electrical potential alters its length; conversely, compression of the cell alters its membrane potential [46]. The motions of the outer hair cell alter how the organ of Corti vibrates, and changes how the inner hairs receive stimulation [36]. Recently, the development of a piezoelectric cochlear implant to mimic the conversion of sound vibration into an electrical signal has been undertaken and will be covered in a later section of this review [47]. Biological structures can serve as examples for the development of piezoelectric structures and biocompatible piezoelectric materials.
\n
In addition, the knowledge of piezoelectric properties can help in disease detection or injury analysis. With the knowledge that piezoelectric tissue properties are determined by proteins, diseases that affect the amount or distribution of these proteins can be detected by piezoelectric sensors. One group proposed that the electromechanical coupling factor, controlled by collagen, could aid in detecting breast cancer [35]. A similar idea was presented for the detection of atherosclerosis in the aorta, however as mentioned in a prior paragraph the validity of the aorta’s piezoelectric nature is still under debate [48]. In this paper, they claimed the PFM amplitude increased as a function of advancing atherosclerosis and could help with early detection of the disease.
\n
Finally, once the effect of piezoelectricity on the body have been studied, piezoelectric materials can be used to promote disease healing. Though the exact reason for piezoelectric qualities have not been fully discovered, studies into bone related injuries have revealed that induced electrical fields can accelerate bone repair and promote the growth of neurons [49, 50]. Because of this, increasing the piezoelectric properties of a synthetic bone material has potential to increase the speed of osteoconduction and subsequently bone repair [51]. Lead free ceramics can be used in conjunction with synthetic bone; however, these materials have problems with ion diffusion which can be controlled by embedding in a ceramic or polymer matrix [50]. In terms of regenerating damaged bone or cartilage, a piezoelectric scaffold may provide the necessary stimulation for cell regrowth, and diminish the need for other growth factors [43]. Typically, scaffolds are made out of polymers, such as PVDF, and can also promote the growth of neurons and wound healing [50].
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\n
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3. Piezoelectric medical devices
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Many biomedical piezoelectric applications exceed the aforementioned purposes of mimicking or employing biological piezoelectric phenomena. In some cases, the choice of material depends mostly on the strength of the piezoelectric effect and the cost of the material. PZT (lead zirconium titanate) and quartz are common piezoelectric materials used in industry. PZT is cheaper, has higher piezoelectric coupling coefficients, and can be manipulated by changing the composition. Quartz, however, is more stable and has consistent properties over a broader temperature range [4]. Developing implants or technology involving direct human contact has more constraints. Ceramics, like quartz, barium titanate, and potassium sodium niobate, are more biocompatible because they do not contain lead [50]. In addition, many biomedical devices require higher flexibility than ceramics can provide, due to the dynamic nature of human motion. Biocompatible polymers include most biological materials and PVDF copolymers. So far, polymer applications of PVDF have included, but are not limited to, biomechanical energy harvesting systems, sensors, and wound scaffolds [50, 52]. The piezoelectric coefficient of the beta phase of PVDF is listed in Eq. (3) [53].
Piezoelectric materials can be employed in monitoring many bodily signals because they convert mechanical energy into an electrical signal. They are especially applicable to monitoring dynamic pressure changes; many human vital signs consist of rhythmic activities like the heartbeat or breathing. Lower pressure systems from (1 Pa-10 kPa) include sound waves and tactile sensing. In the higher end of that range are intraocular pressure and cranial pressure. Higher-pressure systems (10 kPa–100 kPa) correspond to blood pressure measurements and some bodily movements. Piezoelectric sensors can be tailored by structure or material to match the pressure range of the desired quality [54]. Implanted or wearable medical sensors have greater applicability, as the Internet of Things becomes more fully developed. A medical professional or computer algorithm can monitor a patient for early warning signs that may have been missed between scheduled check-ups through their implanted device [55]. Table 2 lists some literature studies of piezoelectric sensors and their tested applications.
Examples of piezoelectric sensors and their applications.
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The variety of applications for piezoelectric sensors in the biomedical industry is promising, however much of this technology is still in the research and development phase. Before reaching the market, these devices need to have scalable manufacturing and guaranteed quality for every device [52].
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3.1.1. Developing synthetic skin
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A specific application for piezoelectric pressure sensing is synthetic skin. As a bare minimum, synthetic skin should provide the magnitude of contact force and approximate location of contact with the sensitivity of normal skin [53]. For humans, mechanoreceptors have a range from 3 to 400 Hz, and a spatial resolution of 1–2 mm [67]. Ideally, it would also provide information about temperature changes or humidity [68]. Human skin itself acts as a vibrational sensor; it is structured to amplify tactile stimulation [69]. Piezoelectric force transducers offer a solution to quantifying and locating contact forces [53]. The use of polymers for synthetic skin is popular because of their similarity in texture and flexibility to human skin [70]. Polymers can be molded to emulate human characteristics, such as fingerprints to enhance their sensitivity [69]. Processing techniques, such as electrospinning, can increase response by aligning the molecular dipoles [25]. In a similar way, using hybrid materials or structuring ceramics and polymers can yield higher piezoelectric properties [71, 72].
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Though there are many materials, which can be used for this purpose, most are structured in arrays. A unit in the array will send an electrical signal describing the characteristic of the force. In prosthetics, the electric signal will arrive at a location which still can perceive tactile senses [53]. One of the problems with arrays is interference between signals, otherwise known as crosstalk. During crosstalk, neighboring units are affected by the unit undergoing force and send their own signal. This can lead to an ill-defined contact region, which can be fixed using the installation of transistors or through triangulation of the signal [53, 68].
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\n
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3.1.2. Biological quartz microbalance
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One other interesting application of piezoelectric sensors is the detection of disease or odor through a change in chemical composition of a sensor. The quartz microbalance is used for a variety of purposes, such as gas detection [73], composition analysis, and chirality classification [74]. It can also sense changes in liquid density or viscosity [75]. This method relies on mass changes in a coating film around the crystal. Quartz microbalances generally operate in a 5–10 MHz range; the accumulation of mass can be quantified by the Sauerbrey equation (Eq. (4)) [75, 76]. An increase in mass indicates a decrease in the frequency of quartz vibration [76]. When this mass becomes too great (>2%) this relationship becomes inaccurate, and a better approximation is needed [74]. In this type of sensor, biological molecules are imbedded or attached to piezoelectric materials. This technology can also be used for detection of bacteria and biomolecules.
The detection of bacteria or biomolecules usually involves the incorporation of a biomolecule in an exterior film. One method of detecting glucose uses the enzyme hexokinase embedded in a polymer matrix. The glucose binds to the enzymes at a rate proportional to its concentration in solution [77]. In another glucose detection system, the frequency of the quartz was increased. The sensor was coated with dextran and Concanavalin A. The dextran preferentially binds to the glucose, therefore the presence of glucose causes the release of Concanavalin A. Glucose has a lower molecular weight, and therefore the frequency increased with its detachment. This method of glucose detection is advantageous because it does not involve the use of enzymes; however has a lower detection range [78]. The quartz microbalance may also be applicable to developing bioelectronic olfactory replacements. It has been used to detect hazardous odorants such as diacetyl, which can cause damage to the lung if inhaled, and could be used to measure other odors [79]. Unfortunately, some of the quartz microbalance equipment is bulky and requires complicated molecules as indicators. One of the olfactory biosensors is 14 mm in diameter [80]. If the synthetic nose to be used for many compounds, the size may be too large to be practical. In addition, sensors based on biomolecules, such as the glucose have problems with biological stability [78]. These problems need to be fixed before they can be viewed as commercially viable.
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3.1.3. Cochlear implants
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The destruction of inner ear cells results in severe hearing loss and is most commonly treated by cochlear implants. Though the current technology allows for recovery from deafness, it is incompatible with water and has very high-power requirements [81]. Piezoelectric materials can be used for creating an artificial basilar membrane (ABM). The membrane performs mechanical frequency selectivity for the cochlea. Varying physical rigidity and thickness of the basilar membrane allows it to perform its duty, and likewise piezoelectric materials can filter out frequency based on their physical properties [82]. Ceramics, such as PZT or AlN films, can be fabricated in beam or cantilever arrays with lengths corresponding with different resonance frequencies [81, 83]. Alternatively, devices based on PVDF or P(VDF-TrFE) membranes have been fabricated [47, 83, 84, 85]. The typical range of human hearing is 20 Hz–20 kHz. The fabricated PVDF membrane was able to detect signals in the 100 Hz–10 kHz range, which encompasses the range of human vocalizations [84]. Many experimental cochlear ABMs need increased sensitivity, stability, and size reduction to be practically used [83].
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3.2. Beyond sensors
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3.2.1. Piezoelectric surgery
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In addition to creating implants, piezoelectricity can be used in a variety of medical treatments, most of which depend on the vibrational properties of the piezoelectric device. Unlike implanted devices, piezoelectric devices needed for surgery do not need to be biocompatible, because they do not come in contact with human cells. Therefore, many external devices will make use of lead zirconate titanate (PZT), as it is easier to produce [86]. The typical piezosurgical devices will consist of stacked rings which are given an applied voltage. The stacked actuator design increases the actuator efficiency because the electric field is determined by the applied voltage and the thickness (Eq. (5)) [87]. The strain is proportional to the electric field if the thickness of the actuator is decreased, a higher strain can be generated for the same amount of voltage.
\n
\n\nE\n=\n\nV\nt\n\n\nE5
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The resulting vibration will be transduced to the tip, which is installed in such a way that it will amplify vibrations, because traditionally ceramics are more brittle and do not display much displacement [88].
\n
In surgery, piezoelectric devices, such as the ultrasonic lancet, are used for delicate operations to preserve surrounding tissue. By controlling the micromovements of the oscillating device, damage to soft tissues can be avoided, and the separation between interfaces is easily accomplished. Alternatives to piezosurgery, such as a chisel and hammer or rotating saw are seen as more invasive, have potential to lacerate non-discriminatorily [89]. Hard tissues, such as mineralized bones are damaged by frequencies of 25–39 kHz, however neurovascular tissue is cut at frequencies higher than 50 kHz. There are no macrovibrations which may cause discomfort to the patient or disturbance of surrounding tissue [90]. The tip oscillates in a linear direction, and can span the distance of 60–200 μm [86].
\n
The first use of piezosurgery was the dental industry, with applications like removal of implants, bone harvesting, and inferior alveolar nerve detachment [91]. Many such surgeries require working in small spaces and do not require larger incisions on the bone material. The removal of implants takes advantage of how the ultrasonic vibrations target the interfacial layer, and weaken the implant’s attachment to bone. This reduces the adhesion forces and allows the implant to be removed with fewer incisions. In a similar way, the collection of graft material is another excellent use of an ultrasonic lancet. After making preliminary cuts with a saw, the ultrasonic vibrations reduce the need for chisel strikes [91]. In surgery performed on the lower jawline, protecting the inferior alveolar nerve is important to patient recovery [92]. As said previously, the use of piezosurgery prevents the damage of these nerve tissues. Another benefit in all surgeries is particle breakdown caused by ultrasonic activity, which makes visibility easier [92].
\n
Piezosurgery has some other applications in neurosurgery and orthopedic surgery; however, it is limited in equipment fragility and associated expenses [86, 90]. The tip of the device fractures, creating the need for replacements [88]. It also takes longer to perform operations, and can damage tissue through heating. Irrigation is required to keep the area cool, and larger scale devices are used for macrosized surgeries [86].
\n
\n
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3.2.2. Ultrasonic dental scaling
\n
A piezoelectric dental scalar also has piezoelectric ceramic rings (Figure 3) on the inside to induce axial vibrations, and operates at ultrasonic frequencies [93]. Ultrasonic dental scalers operate in the range of 25–50 kHz, and oscillate parallel to the tooth surface over a range of 10–100 μm [94]. Its purpose is to remove accumulated biofilms from the tooth surface and for treatment of root canals. The vibrations of the tip break down the calculus (tartar) and plaque which have formed on the tooth’s enamel surface. Because of the tip’s quick speed, when the irrigation water passes over the scalar, micro- and nanosized bubbles form around its curve and tip [95, 96]. When these bubbles collapse, cavitation forces create shock waves cleaning the tooth. This adds to the ultrasonic scalar’s effectiveness, and further investigation of the cavitation’s effects could lead to new dental technology which further reduces scaler contact with teeth [97].
\n
Figure 3.
The stacked actuator design and other components of an ultrasonic dental scaler. Reprinted from Engelke et al. [93] with permission from Hindawi.
\n
The oscillation pattern of the scaler depends on the type of tip chosen [93] and the effectiveness of the scaler varies depending on how it is used. Influencing factors can be the lateral force, tip angle, and power setting [98]. Increasing the power on the ultrasonic scalar too much will scratch a tooth’s protective enamel surface, increasing the tooth’s surface roughness and causing damage to the surrounding tissues. The variety of ultrasonic scalers’ operating conditions demonstrates the need for research on appropriate forces needed to remove dental tartar without causing damage.
\n
\n
\n
3.2.3. Microdosing
\n
Microdosing is another application of piezoelectrics and has become popular because it conserves the amount of medication dispensed and can reduce discomfort by avoiding injections [99, 100]. In some cases, an injected drug can be aerosolized in order to avoid injection. In this case, piezoelectric vibrations can break the drug into fine particles which can be carried in an air stream and inhaled by the patient [100]. In the case of solids, a stacked actuator design is applicable by providing a single oscillation, rather than the consistent vibration of the previously mentioned ultrasonic devices. A glass tube is attached to the actuator and an electric signal stimulates the actuator providing a force to the tube and displacing a certain amount of the solid. Though the dispensing is very precise, it does have a minimum dosage and blockage can occur in the glass tube [101].
\n
Stacked actuators in fluid pumps can administer small single doses or a continuous flow [102]. Fluid administration, like those for eye drops, often require small single doses [99]. A more complex form of controlled microdosing can be accomplished through a diaphragm pump [103]. This is more suited for some dosing systems such as insulin dispensing. One pump design places four chambers in series, with electrodes connecting the gate so they operate in tandem. Here the voltage controls the degree of membrane fluctuation and the phase of the material controls its direction [104]. An alternative design has parallel cylinders which are filled and emptied according to a certain sequence. The number of steps in the sequence determines the flow rate [105]. Though PZT is a popular material for biomedical pumps, polymer actuators such as PVDF-TrFE have been used as well [106].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.4. Energy harvesting
\n
In order to have implantable sensors within the body, they need to have a convenient source of energy. If the sensor is battery powered, future surgery will be required to extract and replace the battery. This is a current problem with pacemakers and limits the number of sensors placed after surgery. Energy harvesting through the body’s movement via piezoelectricity is one way to avoid the need for battery incorporation or replacement. Energy harvesting from organs or the human body requires specific considerations, the most important being biocompatibility. Like implants, energy harvesting devices ideally should not contain hazardous chemicals, like lead, or must be sealable [107]. In the field of energy harvesting, one of the key modes of energy harvesting, a vibrating cantilever, is not as applicable to in situ biological energy harvesting because a vibrating cantilever has a very high resonance frequency for peak power generation [108]. Though a cantilever’s resonance frequency can be changed by altering its physical characteristics, such as adding a proof mass or increasing size [109], an implant needs to be small as to avoid interference with organ function [108]. Typically, piezoelectric biomedical harvesters will be thin films that target tiny irregular vibrations caused by normal organ deformation [110]. A piezoelectric energy harvester provides an AC power source, and the most energy is gained near the resonance frequency of the film [111]. This adds another engineering constraint as biological motions usually have low natural frequencies. The human heart beats at around 39 Hz and the frequency of someone walking is around 1 Hz [108, 112]. The energy harvesting element also has to be small, as large devices may impede the normal function of human organs or cause discomfort.
\n
Most implanted devices should have some degree of flexibility for use in the human body. Both polymer and ceramic flexible devices can be adhered to consistently moving body parts to provide a source of energy. This could include wrapping a piezoelectric film around a pulsing artery or anchoring it to an expanding diaphragm, lung, or heart [108]. The heart, or locations near it, are advantageous places to put an energy harvesting device because they could power a pacemaker. Ceramic nanoribbons are usually attached to some flexible film such as polyimide, polyethylene terephthalate, or polyethylene naphthalate. The ceramic components, made of PMN-PT, PZT, or BaTiO3, are fabricated in small units and then transferred to the flexible film [110]. PVDF and PVDF-TrFE thin films can also be used to fabricate energy harvesters. These films have the advantage of being biocompatible and do not have to be transferred onto a flexible matrix [113].
\n
In replacement joints, stacked ceramic sheets are preferred for energy harvesting. Knee surgery is a difficult process and complications can arise after surgery [112]. The replacement joint can become imbalanced, and be subject to wear, loosening, or even fracture. The presence of sensors in the replacement joint vicinity would allow doctors to study how to improve knee replacements and detect problems with greater speed. The stacked actuator is the best design for energy harvesting in implanted joints. These actuators do not need to be as flexible, because the downward force from the knee is compressive, rather than stretching [114]. Prospective locations for the actuators could be in the tibial component of the joint or in the polyethylene cartilage imitation [112, 114].
\n
The main limitations of piezoelectric energy harvesting are low efficiency and power output. This is large concern with biomedical devices, because they often do not operate at the device’s resonance frequency [115]. Another avenue of research focuses on enhancing the efficiency of energy harvesting by mechanically scraping screening charges found on the surface of piezoelectric materials [116, 117, 118, 119].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion
\n
The purpose of this book chapter has been to give an overview of piezoelectric in the biomedical industry. We have described the piezoelectric properties of biological materials and how they can be used to develop disease treatment. We also covered piezoelectric materials used in sensors, and other devices to explore the current industries which can be improved by further research. By describing these challenges, we hope to bring greater understanding of how important piezoelectricity is to the medical industry and the opportunities it has for future development.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This research was supported by the KUSTAR-KAIST Institute, KAIST, Korea and Creative Materials Discovery Program from National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (NRF-2017M3D1A1086861). The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Sangmin Shin for his advice and stimulating discussion.
\n
Dr. Panpan Li was also supported by the Korea Research Fellowship Program funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea (no. 2017H1D3A1A01054478).
\n
\n',keywords:"piezoelectric materials, biotechnology, biomedical applications and devices, vital signs, sensors, cell regeneration",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/61340.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/61340.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61340",totalDownloads:2646,totalViews:1980,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,introChapter:null,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:95,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"January 1st 2018",dateReviewed:"April 3rd 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 29th 2018",dateFinished:"May 9th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter describes the history and development strategy of piezoelectric materials for medical applications. It covers the piezoelectric properties of materials found inside the human body including blood vessels, skin, and bones as well as how the piezoelectricity innate in those materials aids in disease treatment. It also covers piezoelectric materials and their use in medical implants by explaining how piezoelectric materials can be used as sensors and can emulate natural materials. Finally, the possibility of using piezoelectric materials to design medical equipment and how current models can be improved by further research is explored. This review is intended to provide greater understanding of how important piezoelectricity is to the medical industry by describing the challenges and opportunities regarding its future development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/61340",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/61340",book:{id:"6727",slug:"piezoelectricity-organic-and-inorganic-materials-and-applications"},signatures:"Melodie Chen-Glasser, Panpan Li, Jeongjae Ryu and Seungbum\nHong",authors:[{id:"240618",title:"Prof.",name:"Seungbum",middleName:null,surname:"Hong",fullName:"Seungbum Hong",slug:"seungbum-hong",email:"seungbum@kaist.ac.kr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"242355",title:"Ms.",name:"Melodie",middleName:null,surname:"Glasser",fullName:"Melodie Glasser",slug:"melodie-glasser",email:"mglasser@kaist.ac.kr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"242359",title:"Dr.",name:"Panpan",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Panpan Li",slug:"panpan-li",email:"panpanli@kaist.ac.kr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"242360",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeongjae",middleName:null,surname:"Ryu",fullName:"Jeongjae Ryu",slug:"jeongjae-ryu",email:"meroojj@kaist.ac.kr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biological piezoelectric materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Piezoelectric medical devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Piezoelectric sensors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1. Developing synthetic skin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2. Biological quartz microbalance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3. Cochlear implants",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Beyond sensors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.2.1. Piezoelectric surgery",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.2. Ultrasonic dental scaling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.3. Microdosing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.4. Energy harvesting",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nye JF. Physical Properties of Crystals: Their Representation by Tensors and Matrices. 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Journal of Oral Research and Review. 2016;8(1):27-31\n'},{id:"B87",body:'Pritchard J, Bowen CR, Lowrie F. Multilayer actuators: Review. British Ceramic Transactions. 2001;100(6):265-273\n'},{id:"B88",body:'Lucas M, Gachagan A, Cardon A. Research applications and opportunities in power ultrasonics. Proceedings of the IMechE. 2009;233:2949-2965\n'},{id:"B89",body:'Pereira CCS, Gealh WC, Meorin-Nogueira L, Garcia-Junior IR, Okamoto R. Piezosurgery applied to implant dentistry: Clinical and biological aspects. The Journal of Oral Implantology. 2014;60:401-408\n'},{id:"B90",body:'Labanca M, Azzola F, Vinici R, Rodella LF. Piezoelectric surgery: Twenty years of use. British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 2008;46:265-269\n'},{id:"B91",body:'Leclercq P, Zenati C, Doban DM. Ultrasonic bone cut part 2: State-of-the-art specific clinical applications. Journal of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery. 2008;66:183-188\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Degerliyurt K, Akar V, Denizci S, Yucel E. Bone lid technique with piezosurgery to preserve inferior alveolar nerve. OOOOE Journal. 2009;108(6):e1-e5\n'},{id:"B93",body:'Engelke D, Oehme B, Strackeljan J. A novel drive option for piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers. Modelling and Simulation in Engineering. 2011;2011:910876\n'},{id:"B94",body:'Arabaci T, Cicek Y, Canakci CF. Sonic and ultrasonic scalers in periodontal treatment: A review. International Journal of Dental Hygiene. 2007;5:2-12\n'},{id:"B95",body:'Vyas N, Pecheva E, Dehghani H, Sammons RL, Wang QX, Leppinen DM, et al. High speed imaging of Cavitation around dental ultrasonic Scaler tips. PLoS One. 2016;11(3):e0149804\n'},{id:"B96",body:'Felver B, King D, Lea S, Price G, Walmsley AD. Cavitation occurrence around ultrasonic dental scalers. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2009;16(5):692-697\n'},{id:"B97",body:'Walmsley AD, Laird WRE, Lumley PJ. Ultrasound in dentistry part 2- periodontology and endodontics. Journal of Dentistry. 1992;1992:11-17\n'},{id:"B98",body:'Flemmig TF, Petersilka GJ, Mehl A, Hickel R, Klaiber B. Working parameters of a Magnetostrictive ultrasonic sealer influencing root substance removal in vitro. Journal of Periodontology. 1998;69(5):547-533\n'},{id:"B99",body:'Ianchulev T, Weinreb R, Tsai J, Lin S, Pasquale LR. High-precision piezo-ejection ocular microdosing: Phase II study on local and systemic effects of topical phenylephrine. Therapeutic Delivery. 2018;9(1):17-27\n'},{id:"B100",body:'Corcoran TK, Venkataramanan R, Hoffman RM, George MP, Petrov A, Richards T, et al. Systemic delivery of atropine sulfate by the microdose dry-powder inhaler. Journal of Aerosol Medicine and Pulmonary Drug Delivery. 2013;26(1):46-55\n'},{id:"B101",body:'Wang H, Zhang T, Zhao M. Micro-dosing of fine cohesive powders actuated by pulse inertia force. Micromachines. 2018;9(2):73\n'},{id:"B102",body:'Kar S, McWhorter S, Ford SM, Soper SA. Piezoelectric mechanical pump with nanoliter per minute pulse-free flow delivery for pressure pumping in micro-channels. The Analyst. 1998;123:1435-1441\n'},{id:"B103",body:'de Lima CR, Vatanabe SL, Choi A, Nakasone PH, Pires RF, Silva EC. A biomimetic piezoelectric pump: Computational and experimental characterization. Sensors and Actuators, A: Physical. 2009;152(1):110-118\n'},{id:"B104",body:'Liu G, Shen C, Yang Z, Cai X, Zhang H. A disposable piezoelectric micropump with high performance for closed-loop insulin therapy system. Sensors and Actuators, A: Physical. 2010;163(1):291-296\n'},{id:"B105",body:'Jang LS, Kan WH. Peristaltic piezoelectric micropump system for biomedical applications. Biomedical Microdevices. 2007;9(4):619-626\n'},{id:"B106",body:'Yildirim YA, Toprak A, Tigli O. Piezoelectric membrane actuators for micropump applications using PVDF-TrFE. Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems. 2018;27(1):86-94\n'},{id:"B107",body:'Mitcheson PD. Energy harvesting for human wearable and implantable bio-sensors. In: Annual International Conference of the IEEE EMBS; Buenos Aires, Argentina. 2010\n'},{id:"B108",body:'Karami MA, Inman D. Powering pacemakers from heartbeat vibrations using linear and nonlinear energy harvesters. Applied Physics Letters. 2011;100(4):042901\n'},{id:"B109",body:'Kim M, Hong S, Miller DJ, Dugundji J, Wardle BL. Size effect of flexible proof mass on the mechanical behavior of micron-scale cantilevers for energy harvesting applications. Applied Physics Letters. 2011;99:243106\n'},{id:"B110",body:'Hwang GT, Byun M, Jeong CK, Lee KJ. Flexible piezoelectric thin-film energy harvesters and nanosensors for biomedical applications. Advanced Healthcare Materials. 2015;4:646-658\n'},{id:"B111",body:'Wahbah M, Alhawari M, Mohammad B, Saleh H, Ismail M. Characterization of human body-based thermal and vibration energy harvesting for wearable devices. IEEE Journal on Emerging and Selected Topics in Circuits and Systems. 2014;4(3):354-363\n'},{id:"B112",body:'Almouahed S, Gouriou M, Hamitouche C, Stindel E, Roux C. The use of piezoceramics as electrical energy harvesters within instrumented knee implant during walking. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics. 2011;16(5):799-807\n'},{id:"B113",body:'Wong YLL. Piezoelectric ribbons for stretchable energy harvesting [PhD dissertation]. Pittsburgh (PA): Carnegie Mellon University; 2016\n'},{id:"B114",body:'Safaei M, Meneghini RM, Anton SR. Energy harvesting and sensing with embedded piezoelectric ceramics in knee implants. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics. 2018;99:1\n'},{id:"B115",body:'Shafer MW, Garcia E. The power and efficiency limits of piezoelectric energy harvesting. Journal of Vibration and Acoustics. Apr 2014;136(2):021007\n'},{id:"B116",body:'Hong S, Tong S, Park WI, Hiranaga Y, Cho Y, Roelofs A. Charge gradient microscopy. 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Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, Korea
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1. Introduction (History to apply polyimide for micro-electronics)
Polyimide exhibits the highest level of heat resistance, excellent mechanical properties, and electrical insulation among organic resins, and therefore exhibits high reliability with little change in physical properties over a long period of time. Further, in general, a polyimide is obtained by reacting an acid anhydride and a diamine in a polar solvent to obtain a poly(amic acid) (PAA) as a polyimide precursor, and then converting to an inert polyimide by heat treatment [1].
Since the PAA is dissolved in a solvent or an alkaline aqueous solution, a polyimide pattern can be obtained in the state of the precursor by using such as photolithography technique.
Sato et al. examined the use of polyimide as an interlayer dielectrics for Integrated Circuit (IC) and showed that it performed higher reliability than the commonly used silicon dioxide [2]. Based on this result, polyimide has come to be used as an insulator of electronic components. Polyimides for those electronic applications required to form a pattern to make a circuit. Polyimide pattern was obtained by wet-etching process using hydrazine [3]. However, due to the toxicity of hydrazine, this method was abolished. Then partial imidized PAA was etched by tetra-methyl ammonium aqueous solution (TMAH), which is a developer of a positive photoresist. Etching of polyimide is performed at the same time as developing the photoresist. [4].
In addition, May et al. found that memory data of DRAM was broken by α rays emitted from radioactive atoms contained as impurities in the ceramic package. The issue was called “soft error” [5]. They suggested to coat pure resin on the memory cell to absorb the alpha particle. After their report, polyimide coat that high purity resin was coated on a memory cell were effective to protect the soft error.
From the viewpoint of preventing the soft error in DRAM, the coating polyimide on the semiconductor surface has been promoted [6, 7]. Further, it has been promoted to change the ceramic package to an epoxy mold resin composed to reduce a cost. The issue here is the thermal stress caused by the difference between the coefficient of thermal expansion of the semiconductor chip and the that of the epoxy mold resin. This thermal stress occurs during soldering and causes problems such as cracks in the passivation layer and epoxy mold resin, and deformation of aluminum wiring. To solve the issue, it has been proposed to apply a heat-resistant and flexible polyimide to the surface of the semiconductor chip. The polyimide layer to reduce thermal stress is called “stress buffer”. The stress buffer is the main application of polyimide coating for semiconductor devices. The polyimide for the stress buffer is required to show good adhesion to Si, mold resin and metal with rather low modulus and good thermal stability [6, 7].
To form the stress buffer, a non-photosensitive polyimide was coated and etched by alkaline solution through a photoresist as a mask. Semiconductor manufacturers have been requested photosensitive polyimide which has a capability to make a lithographic patten by photolithographic technique, because of the high precision of pattering dimensions and the reducing pattering processes [8].
2. Negative tone photosensitive polyimide
Photosensitive polyimide was made by introducing a photosensitive group into polyimide or its precursor, or by adding a photosensitive component. The first reported photosensitive polyimide was the mixture of the dichromate compound and the PAA by Kerwin et al. [9]. Dichromate photo-resist which is composed of dichromate and water soluble resin such as PVA, casein, gelatin etc. is used in etching mask for lead frame. [10]. Reaction mechanism of the dichromate photo resist is photo induced reduction of dichromium salt [11]. However, this method has not been used because it uses a highly toxic chromium compound and the solution stability is poor.
Rubner et al. synthesized a poly(amic ester) in which a photopolymerizable acrylic group alcohol was introduced into the carboxyl group of the PAA by an ester bond and obtained negative working photosensitive polyimide [12]. This method requires acid chloride in the reaction of dicarboxylic acid and diamine, which has drawbacks such as complicated synthesis process, removal of impurities, and difficulty in removing photosensitive components during thermosetting. However, the technology was transferred to a polyimide manufacturer, and as results of vigorous research, it was widely applied in semiconductor stress buffer [13].
As a technology to counter the ester type, Hiramoto et al. have developed a simple negative photosensitive polyimide called “ionic bonded type”. The photosensitive polyimide is compsed of PAA, tertiary amine having photo reactive group such as acrylic group [14]. The photo reacitive group was introduced PAA by ionic interaction between carboxylic acid and tertiary amine. This method is extremely easy to obtain photosensitive polyimide, and not only the photosensitive component easily volatilizes during thermosetting, but it also acts as a catalyst for imidization, and curing is completed at a lower temperature. The ionic photosensitive polyimide was first practical use as an interlayer dielecrics for mounting substrates of super compters [15]. In addition, this photosensitive mechanism was unclear because no reaction of photoreactive acrylic groups was observed, but it was found that PAA causes photocharge separation with ultraviolet rays and the reaction proceeds [16].
Another negative type is a soluble polyimide composed of a benzophenone tetracarboxylic acid and a diamine having an alkyl group at the ortho position which was developed by Pfifer et al. [17]. The photosensitive mechanism of this polyimide was investigated by Horie et al., And the reaction mechanism was shown in which benzophenone was excited by ultraviolet rays (UV) to cause hydrogen abstraction from the alkyl group to crosslink and insolubilize it [18].
Furthermore, Omote et al. provided a negative-type image by adding a nifedipine to PAA [19]. The nifedipine changes its chemical structure and basicity by UV exposure. The interaction between PAA and nifedipine was changed by UV exposure due to basicity change of the nifedipine [19].
3. Positive tone photosensitive polyimide
There are two types of photoresists, a negative type and positive type. Exposed area of the negative type resist came to insoluble by UV induced chemical reaction. On the other hand, that of positive photoresist came to soluble to soluble to alkaline solution by UV reaction. The negative type was first put into practical use, and then the positive type came out. Generally, in the negative type, an UV reactive group such as an acrylic group photopolymerizes with UV to form a crosslinked structure, so that the negative type is insoluble in a developing solution. It is difficult to form a fine pattern because the cross-linked polymer swells in the developer.
On the other hand, common positive photoresist is composed of novolak resin having a phenolic hydroxyl group soluble in an alkaline aqueous solution, and diazonaphthoquinone compound. The diazonaphthoquinone compound is insoluble in alkali and formed a complex with novolak resin before UV exposure. The diazonaphthoquinone compound converts to indencarboxylic acid by UV exposure [20]. The indenecarboxylic acid is alkaline soluble. As a result, uncxposed area is hard to soluble to alkaline solution and exposed area is soluble to alkaline solution [21]. The development of polyimide of this technology was also studied from an early stage, and Loprest et al. invented a positive photosensitive polyimide precursor using a PAA and a diazonaphthoquinone compound [22]. However, a good image cannot be obtained because the solubility of PAA to an alkaline aqueous solution is too large, and it has not been put into practical use as it is. The flow of this technology was subsequently announced by adding a diazonaphthoquinone compound to a polyimide or poly(amic acid) ester having a phenolic hydroxyl group [23, 24, 25]. In addition, Tomikawa et al. developed a partial esterification of PAA by using dimethylformamide dialkyl acetal. And the reaction made it possible to control the dissolution rate of the partial esterified PAA to alkaline solution. [26].
Rubner et al. developed a positive heat-resistant material using polybenzoxazole (PBO) precursor as a heterocyclic polymer having heat resistance comparable to that of polyimide [27]. The precursor of PBO is polyhydroxyamide (PHA), which is a polyamide having a phenolic hydroxyl group, and has an appropriate alkali solubility. By adding a diazonaphthoquinone diazide compound to PHA, positive image of PBO was obtained. This technology has been deployed to various companies such as Sumitomo Bakelite and is widely used [28].
In addition, the development of positive photosensitive polyimide was also considered from another point of view. Kubota et al. announced a product using o-nitrobenzyl ester of PAA [29]. This is because the o-nitrobenzyl group is eliminated by deep UV exposure, so that the exposed part becomes PAA and becomes alkali-soluble. Furthermore, in the case of adding a nifedipine compound to the PAA developed by Omote et al. explained in the negative type, the hydrogen bonding strength changes depending on the baking conditions after exposure, and a positive type image can be obtained by controlling baking after exposure [30].
In addition, Tamura et al. found that a positive image can be obtained by baking an ion-bonded photosensitive polyimide at 130–150° C after exposure [31]. Regarding this mechanism, the glass transition temperature (Tg) differs between the exposed area and the unexposed area, and the Tg of the exposed area is slightly higher compare to that of unexposed area. When baking is performed near Tg, imidization rate of exposed area is slower than that of unexposed area due to Tg difference. High Tg, imidization of the exposed area with high Tg does not proceed, and imidization of the unexposed part with low Tg progresses, so that the exposed area with high Tg becomes an alkaline developer. It was found that a positive image was obtained [32].
The mainstream of current photoresists is chemical amplification type which is composed of alkali soluble resin protected by acid cleavable group and photo acid generator (PAG). An acid is generated from PAG by UV exposure and de-protection of acid cleavable group proceeds. Then the exposed area became alkaline soluble. This technology was also applied for polyimide. So solvent-soluble polyimide having a phenolic hydroxyl group, which was protected by an acid-cleavable protective group such as a t-BOC (tert-butoxycarbonyl) group and photo acid generator (PAG) [33, 34]. Nakano et al. developed the composition of PAA oligomer and a methylol compound are crosslinked at the time of prebaking and cleaved with an acid generated from PAG after UV exposure to obtain a positive image [35].
Furthermore, Ueda et al. proposed a ternary system using a acid cleavable dissolution inhibitor and a PAG to enhance dissolution contrast between exposed and unexposed areas and to use polyimide and PBO precursors as they are. [36]. According to this method, it is not necessary to protect the polymer itself, and by adding a dissolution inhibitor with a protecting group that is eliminated by acid, the dissolution rate ratio between the exposed and unexposed areas may exceed 2000.
Ohyama obtained positive photosensitive polyimide by reaction development patterning. [37]. In addition, they are obtained positive photosensitive polyimide from polyerimide (Ultem), which is alkali insoluble thermoplastic polyimide, a diazonaphthoquinone compound. They designed a development solution also by mixing aqueous TMAH aqueous solution, a NMP as a solvent and a nucleophilic base such as monoethanolamine to proceed decomposition. As a result, they obtained a positive polyetherimide image [38]. Furthermore, it was shown that engineering plastics such as polycarbonate can be used in this method [39]. They investigated and stimulated development mechanism and found that a salt composed of an acid made of a diazonaphthoquinone compound and an alkali of the developer accelerates the penetration of the hydrophilic developer into the exposed area. The nucleophilic reaction in the exposed area proceeds, and the main chain is decomposed. On the other hand, it has been reported that the unexposed area does not form salt in the developing solution and the reaction of the main chain is negligible, so that the unexposed area remains [37]. This technique can also obtain negative images, which was obtained by adding phenylmaleimide and diazonaphthoquinonediazide compounds to the polymer, and developing with a developer containing alcohol in a TMAH aqueous solution [40]. Furthermore, it has been reported that development with an aqueous solution of TMAH, which is generally used in semiconductor processing, is also possible [39]. This method is an interesting technique because it shows that a polymer having more excellent physical properties can be applied as a photosensitive materials. It has also been reported that even when a polyisoimide and a diazonaphthoquinone compound are added, the exposed portion becomes alkali-soluble and an image is obtained [41].
4. Low temperature curable photosensitive polyimide
New photosensitive polyimide applications have emerged for semiconductor packages in addition of stress buffer. As semiconductors and electronic components are becoming smaller, the boards on which they are mounted are also becoming smaller, and the components are placed on the board and heat-mounted from the method of inserting the pins as electrodes into the holes in the printed circuit board (PCB). Surface mount technology (SMT) has been developed to minimize the footprint of semiconductors and electronic components [42]. In SMT, the substrate on which semiconductors and electronic components are mounted is raised to a temperature at solder melting, and mounting is performed. Therefore, in semiconductors with not so many electrodes, chip scale packages (CSPs) have emerged in which the electrodes are formed into convex bumps at the bottom rather than around the semiconductor [43]. In addition, for those with many lead-out electrodes, bump formation is not sufficient with the semiconductor package alone, and a fan-out type package (FO-WLP) that enables bump formation even in the mold resin portion has appeared [44]. For both CSP and FO-WLP, a re-ditribution layer (RDL) is formed using photosensitive polyimide or PBO so that bumps can be formed using the entire surface of the semiconductor package [45, 46].
To make a FO-WLP, RDL is formed outside the chip (Figure 1). Therefore, the chip is put into the mold resin, and rewiring is also formed in the mold resin portion. Therefore, the material used for rewiring needs to be formed below the heat resistant temperature of the mold resin composed of epoxy resin and silica filler.
Figure 1.
Cross section structure of FO-WLP.
As a result, materials that can be fired at 200° C or lower are required for rewiring applications. Furthermore, in FO-WLP, since photosensitive polyimide and PBO are directly bonded to LSI and mold resin, it is necessary that the photosensitive polyimide, PBO and solder bumps are not destroyed by thermal shock due to the difference in thermal expansion coefficient. Mechanical properties such as elongation at break are regarded as important, and product development is being carried out for this purpose [47]. In addition, FO-WLP is becoming finer, and wiring is being formed with a line and space of 2 μm [48].
Various studies have been conducted for low temperature curing. In order to perform imide ring closure at a low temperature, a thermobase generator is added [49], and an pre-imidized polymer is used [47]. In addition, focusing on the main chain structure of polyimide, Sasaki reported that the imidization rate determined by the acidity of the diamine component. So diamine having high acidity gave low temperature imidization [50].
Furthermore, PBO is also being studied for low temperature cyclization. If the structure constituting PBO is made flexible, low temperature curing is possible [51], and a thermoacid generator that generates sulfonic acid by heat is added. It has been reported that it cyclizes at low temperatures [52]. Furthermore, Kusunoki reported photosensitive polynorbornene which has low modulus, low dielectric constant, low water absorption with low temperature curable [53].
5. Polyimide for image sensor
As the image sensor becomes smaller and more integrated, each pixel becomes smaller, the amount of incoming light decreases, and the sensitivity decreases. On the other hand, a micro-lens is formed on the pixel to increase the light flux. Suwa et al. dispersed titania sol in a positive photosensitive polyimide to obtain a positive photosensitive heat-resistant resin having a refractive index of 1.9. This material is further made lenticular in the curing process [54]. In addition, they developed a siloxane base photosensitive high refractive index material whose refractive index is 1.9 [55]. On the other hand, Oishi et al. focused on the triazine skeleton, and obtained a material having a refractive index of 1.80 by using a hyperbranched polymer of triazine without adding a filler having a high refractive index [56].
6. Polyimide for LCD
One of big applications of polyimides to a display is an alignment layer of a liquid crystal display (LCD). The purpose of alignment film is arranging liquid crystal molecules in LCD (Figure 2). The alignment film is rubbed by a cloth to align liquid crystal molecules. Although the detailed mechanism by which the rubbing-treated polyimide orients the liquid crystal molecules is unknown, it was found that the polyimide is suitable as a liquid crystal alignment film, and it has come to be used in liquid crystal displays. Initially, aromatic polyimides such as PMDA and ODA were used for the alignment film of TN (Twisted Nematic) type LCD. Then STN (Super Twisted Nematic) type LCD was developed. New polyimide was developed for STN LCD alignment film [57].
Figure 2.
Cross section structure of Liquid Crystal Display.
To widen the viewing angle VA (Vertical Alignment) type, and IPS (In Plane Switching) type LCDs were shown [58].
To improve the LCD, numerous studies have been conducted on the relationship between the alignment state of the liquid crystal and the alignment film from the viewpoint of the influence of the rubbing treatment and the molecular structure of polyimide [59, 60, 61, 62]. Furthermore, after that, a series of systematic basic studies were conducted using synchrotron radiation equipment [63, 64, 65, 66].
From those basic studies design guides for the alignment film were shown [67]. Various types of polyimide alignment materials were commercialized [68].
Since dust is generated in the rubbing process, a method of aligning the liquid crystal without rubbing has been studied [69]. Photo active polyimide were suggested for the phot rubbing process. Photo active polyimide means photo rearrangement type and photo decomposed type [69, 70, 71, 72].
7. Polyimide for OLED
Compared to LCD, organic EL displays (OLED) are self-luminous, have a large contrast between emitting area and non-emitting area, have a simple layer structure and can be made thin, have a fast response speed, and can display even on flexible substrate. The cross-sectional structure of the OLED is shown in the Figure 3. There are electrodes above and below the emission layer, and the light emitting layers are separated from each other by a pixel divided layer (PDL). Since the PDL contact with the emission layer, The water and decomposed gas generated from the PDL damage the adjacent to emission layer, narrowing the light emitting region. Heat resistance and degassing properties are important. In addition, the partition wall is not like a rectangular parallelepiped, but a trapezoidal shape with a gentle taper is preferable to suppress the current concentration.
Figure 3.
Cross section structure of OLED display.
On the other hand, another organic resin in OLED is PNL (Planarization Layer). The PNL is akso required low out gas and moisture. Therefore, a positive photosensitive polyimide material is suitable as a PDL and PNL for OLED display and is widely used [73].
8. High frequency application
In the future, mobile phones will be able to send and receive large amounts of data in a short time by utilizing high frequencies, the operating frequency of application processors that control mobile phones to become multifunctional will be higher, and automobile collision safety. Due to the increasing adoption of millimeter-wave radar to improve performance, the use of high-frequency materials will increase more than ever. For those applications, materials such as fluoropolymer [74], liquid crystal polyester [75], BCB (benzocyclobutene) [76], polyphenylene ether [77], and cycloolefin polymer [78] have a dielectric constant in the high frequency region. It has been used because of its low dielectric loss, but there are also problems such as low adhesiveness, and low dielectric constant and low dielectric loss are being studied by making porous polyimide [79]. Authors obtain a low dielectric loss photosensitive polyimide design guide line by dynamic mechanical analysis [80].
9. Li ion battery
Lithium-ion secondary batteries (LiB) are used widely as high energy density storage batteries for mobile phones, notebook PCs, electric tools, electric vehicle and so on, due to their high discharge voltage, almost no memory effect of charging and discharging, and small self-discharge. The battery is composed of negative electrode (Anode), positive electrode (Cathode), separator, and electrolytic solution as shown in Figure 4. Anode is composed of anode active material, binder resin, and Cu foil. Cathode is composed of cathode active material, and Al foil. SBR (styrene butadiene rubber), PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride) are used for binder resin. Conductive assisting agent is added to decrease electric resistivity in binder resin. Current anode acting material is carbon-based materials such as graphite or hard carbon. Lithium ions move in and out between the layers of graphite to charge and discharge, and the theoretical capacity is 372mAh / g. Recent batteries have almost reached this theoretical value, and it is necessary to change the active material to further increase the capacity. Silicon is attracting as an anode active material candidate for next generation due to its large capacity [81]. However, the volume changes of the Si active material is about 400% at charging / discharging. To use large volume change Si material, new binder resin is required to endure the big volume change. Promising candidate is polyimide which has excellent mechanical properties and good adhesive properties. It has been reported that the cycle characteristics are significantly improved when a polyimide-based material is used as a binder for such a Si base large-capacity anode active material [82, 83, 84].
Figure 4.
Schematic diagram of lithium ion secondary battery.
On the other hand, Li metal oxide base material is used for cathode active compound. Common binder resin for cathode active material is PVDF. To improve the safety, olivin compound such as LiFePO4 (LFO) is developed [85]. Li ion capacity of LFO is small compare to Li metal oxide material such as LiCoO2, LiNiO3. But LFO shows higher thermal stability than those of Li metal oxides. So operation temperature of LFO is wider than that of Li metal oxide. Miyuki et al. reported that polyimide is good binder for LFO due to high temperature operation, high charging / discharging property [86].
In addition, porous polyimide separator was obtained from polyimide and silica filler. The separator shows high rate and long term stability [87].
10. Conclusion
It has been more than 50 years since polyimide was put into practical use, but development for new applications is still underway. This is due to the high degree of freedom in design that allows the material called polyimide to be easily synthesized, maintains excellent heat resistance, and changes other physical properties in various ways. It is expected that new developments will continue in the future due to the degree of freedom in design and excellent characteristics such as heat resistance and insulation.
\n',keywords:"photosensitive polyimide, stress buffer, redistribution layer, poly(benzoxazole), refractive index, alignment film, pixel divided layer, planarization layer, binder resin, separator",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78702.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78702.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78702",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78702",totalDownloads:167,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 14th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 18th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 21st 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"September 21st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Polyimide is an organic polymer that exhibits the highest level of heat resistance, exhibits excellent mechanical properties and electrical insulation, and is stable for a long period of time. In addition, since it is easy to obtain polymers with different physical characteristics by changing the combination of monomers, it is possible to obtain the desired properties according to the application, and it is used in a wide range of fields such as insulating protective films for semiconductors and electronic components. This chapter describes polyimides used in microelectronics applications such as semiconductors, electronic components, displays, image sensors, and lithium-ion secondary batteries. The development of practical aspects such as photosensitivity, low-temperature curability, and adhesion to copper when used in microelectronics will be described.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78702",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78702",signatures:"Masao Tomikawa",book:{id:"10702",type:"book",title:"Polyimide",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Polyimide",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Belakatte Parameshwarappa Nandeshwarappa and Dr. Sandeep Chandrashekharappa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10702.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-885-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-884-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-886-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"261141",title:"Dr.",name:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa",middleName:null,surname:"Nandeshwarappa",slug:"belakatte-parameshwarappa-nandeshwarappa",fullName:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa Nandeshwarappa"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction (History to apply polyimide for micro-electronics)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Negative tone photosensitive polyimide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Positive tone photosensitive polyimide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Low temperature curable photosensitive polyimide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Polyimide for image sensor",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Polyimide for LCD",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Polyimide for OLED",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. High frequency application",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Li ion battery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'C. E. Sroog, A.L. Endrey, S.V. Abramo, C.E. Berr, W.M. Edward, and K.L. Oliver; J. Polym. Sci., Part A, 3, 1373-1390 (1965), DOI10.1002/pol.1965.100030410'},{id:"B2",body:'K. Sato, S. Harada, A. Saiki, T. Kimura, T. Okubo and K. Mukai, “A Novel Planar Multilevel Interconnection Technology Utilizing Polyimide”, IEEE Trans. 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Ishikawa, “Electrochemical properties of non-nano-silicon negative electrodes prepared with a polyimide binder”, J. Power Sources, 273, 118-122 (2015), ISSN 0378-7753, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.09.096.'},{id:"B85",body:'S-H. Wu, K. Hsiao K, and W-R. Liu, “The preparation and characterization of olivine LiFePO4 by a solution method J. Power Sources, 146(1-2), 550-554 (2005), DOI 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.03.128'},{id:"B86",body:'T. Miyuki, Y. Okuyama, T. Sakamoto, Y. Eda, T. Kojima, and T.Sakai, “Characterization of Heat Treated SiO Powder and Development of a LiFePO4/SiO Lithium Ion Battery with High-Rate Capability and Thermostability”, Electrochem., 80(6), 401-404 (2012), DOI, https://doi.org/10.5796/electrochemistry.80.401,'},{id:"B87",body:'Y. Shimizu, and K. Kanamura, “Effect of Pore Size in Three Dimensionally Ordered Macroporous Polyimide Separator on Lithium Deposition/Dissolution Behavior”. J. Electrochem. Soc., 166, A754– A761 (2019), DOI: 10.1149/2.1061904jes'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Masao Tomikawa",address:"masao.tomikawa.j4@mail.toray",affiliation:'
Research and Development Division, Toray Industries Inc., Otsu, Shiga, Japan
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10702",type:"book",title:"Polyimide",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Polyimide",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Belakatte Parameshwarappa Nandeshwarappa and Dr. Sandeep Chandrashekharappa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10702.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-885-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-884-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-886-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"261141",title:"Dr.",name:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa",middleName:null,surname:"Nandeshwarappa",slug:"belakatte-parameshwarappa-nandeshwarappa",fullName:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa Nandeshwarappa"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"106260",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuanliang",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",email:"tyoll@jnu.edu.cn",fullName:"Yuanliang 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Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
1. Odredbe
\\n\\n
Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
\\n\\n
Sljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\\n\\n
Klijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\\n\\n
Kompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\\n\\n
Stranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\\n\\n
Sve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\\n\\n
2. Licenca
\\n\\n
Osim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\n
3. Kolačići
\\n\\n
Mi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\\n\\n
4. Ograničenja odgovornosti
\\n\\n
IntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\\n\\n
5. Točnost materijala
\\n\\n
Materijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\\n\\n
6. Poveznice
\\n\\n
IntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\\n\\n
Zadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\n
Ako smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\\n\\n
7. Okviri (Frames)
\\n\\n
Bez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\\n\\n
8. Promjene
\\n\\n
IntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\\n\\n
9. Nadležno pravo
\\n\\n
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
\n\n
Sljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\n
Klijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\n
Kompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\n
Stranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\n
Sve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\n
2. Licenca
\n\n
Osim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\n
3. Kolačići
\n\n
Mi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\n
4. Ograničenja odgovornosti
\n\n
IntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\n
5. Točnost materijala
\n\n
Materijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\n
6. Poveznice
\n\n
IntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\n
Zadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\n
Ako smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\n
7. Okviri (Frames)
\n\n
Bez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\n
8. Promjene
\n\n
IntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\n
9. Nadležno pravo
\n\n
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. 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The natural resources are limited, and due to the natural disasters like sudden and severe abiotic stress factors, excessive floods, etc., the production capacities are changed per year. In contrast, the yield potential should be significantly increased to cope with this problem. Despite rich genetic diversity, manipulation of the cultivars through alternative techniques such as mutation breeding becomes important. Radiation is proven as an effective method as a unique method to increase the genetic variability of the species. Gamma radiation is the most preferred physical mutagen by plant breeders. Several mutant varieties have been successfully introduced into commercial production by this method. Combinational use of in vitro tissue culture and mutation breeding methods makes a significant contribution to improve new crops. Large populations and the target mutations can be easily screened and identified by new methods. 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G. Iglesias-Andreu, P. Octavio-Aguilar and J. Bello-Bello",authors:[{id:"110581",title:"Dr.",name:"Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Iglesias-Andreu",slug:"lourdes-iglesias-andreu",fullName:"Lourdes Iglesias-Andreu"}]},{id:"58410",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72074",title:"Radiation-Induced Degradation of Organic Compounds and Radiation Technologies for Purification of Aqueous Systems",slug:"radiation-induced-degradation-of-organic-compounds-and-radiation-technologies-for-purification-of-aq",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Environmental application of radiation technologies is an important part of radiation processing. Radiation treatment of aqueous systems contaminated with organic compounds is a promising method of water and wastewater purification and corresponding technologies are being developed. In this chapter, the following aspects of radiation treatment process are considered: sources of contamination and major contaminants of water and wastewater; primary processes in aqueous systems initiated by ionizing radiation; principal ways of contaminant conversion as consequences of primary processes (complete mineralization of organic compounds, partial decomposition of organic molecules resulted in detoxification, decolorization, disinfection of polluted water, and improvement in biological degradation of contaminant, polymerization of monomers’ contaminants, oxidation-reduction processes, and coagulation of colloids); sources of ionizing radiation; and main equipment applied in radiation technologies of aqueous system purification.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Igor E. Makarov and Alexander V. Ponomarev",authors:[{id:"213652",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Makarov",slug:"igor-makarov",fullName:"Igor Makarov"},{id:"213657",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ponomarev",slug:"alexander-ponomarev",fullName:"Alexander Ponomarev"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32842",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74818,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:85,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"32837",title:"Environmental Gamma-Ray Observation in Deep Sea",slug:"environmental-gamma-ray-observation-in-deep-sea-",totalDownloads:2931,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Hidenori Kumagai, Ryoichi Iwase, Masataka Kinoshita, Hideaki Machiyama, Mutsuo Hattori and Masaharu Okano",authors:[{id:"108174",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Kumagai",slug:"hidenori-kumagai",fullName:"Hidenori Kumagai"},{id:"108237",title:"Dr.",name:"Masa",middleName:null,surname:"Kinoshita",slug:"masa-kinoshita",fullName:"Masa Kinoshita"},{id:"137650",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Iwase",slug:"ryoichi-iwase",fullName:"Ryoichi Iwase"},{id:"137656",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",middleName:null,surname:"Machiyama",slug:"hideaki-machiyama",fullName:"Hideaki Machiyama"},{id:"146918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mutsuo",middleName:null,surname:"Hattori",slug:"mutsuo-hattori",fullName:"Mutsuo Hattori"},{id:"146919",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaharu",middleName:null,surname:"Okano",slug:"masaharu-okano",fullName:"Masaharu Okano"}]},{id:"58998",title:"Ionizing Radiation-Induced Polymerization",slug:"ionizing-radiation-induced-polymerization",totalDownloads:1820,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Ionizing radiation can induce some kinds of reactions, other than polymerization, such as dimerization, oligomerization, curing, and grafting. These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53780",title:"Gamma-Ray Spectrometry and the Investigation of Environmental and Food Samples",slug:"gamma-ray-spectrometry-and-the-investigation-of-environmental-and-food-samples",totalDownloads:2529,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gamma radiation consists of high‐energy photons and penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix. The disadvantage is the need of shielding to protect against this radiation. Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. Zehringer",authors:[{id:"311750",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus R.",middleName:null,surname:"Zehringer",slug:"markus-r.-zehringer",fullName:"Markus R. Zehringer"}]},{id:"54118",title:"Gamma Rays from Space",slug:"gamma-rays-from-space",totalDownloads:2089,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"An overview of gamma rays from space is presented. We highlight the most powerful astrophysical explosions, known as gamma-ray bursts. The main features observed in detectors onboard satellites are indicated. In addition, we also highlight a chronological description of the efforts made to observe their high energy counterpart at ground level. Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"227",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82739",title:"Experimental Breeder Reactor II",slug:"experimental-breeder-reactor-ii",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105800",abstract:"The Experimental Breeder Reactor II (EBR-II) operated from 1964 to 1994. EBR-II was a sodium-cooled fast reactor operating at 69 MWth producing 19 MWe. Rather than using a loop approach for the coolant, EBR-II used a pool arrangement where the reactor core, primary coolant piping, and primary reactor coolant pumps were contained within the pool of sodium. Also contained within the pool was a heat exchanger where primary coolant, which is radioactive, transferred heat to secondary, nonradioactive, sodium. The nuclear power plant included a sodium boiler building where heat from the secondary sodium generated superheated steam, which was delivered to a turbine/generator for electricity production. EBR-II fuel was metallic uranium alloyed with various metals providing significant performance and safety enhancements over oxide fuel. The most significant EBR-II experiments occurred in April 1986. Relying on inherent physical properties of the reactor, two experiments were performed subjecting the reactor to loss of primary coolant flow without reactor SCRAM and loss of the secondary system heat removal without reactor SCRAM. In both experiments, the reactor experienced no damage. This chapter provides a description of the most important design features of EBR-II along with a summary of the landmark reactor safety experiments.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Chad L. Pope, Ryan Stewart and Edward Lum"},{id:"82712",title:"Idaho State University AGN-201 Low Power Teaching Reactor: An Overlooked Gem",slug:"idaho-state-university-agn-201-low-power-teaching-reactor-an-overlooked-gem",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105799",abstract:"A category of reactors called university research and teaching reactors, includes relatively high-power pool-type and low-power solid-core reactors. Many high-power university reactors are largely used for irradiations and isotope production. Their almost constant operation tends to impede student access. A university reactor can be particularly relevant to the university’s mission of preparing well-rounded students who have theoretical knowledge, reinforced by focused laboratory reactor experience. The solid-core Idaho State University Aerojet General Nucleonics (AGN) model 201 reactor operates at such a low power (5 W maximum) that it is not useful for isotope production activities. However, the AGN-201 reactor is well suited for teaching and research activities. The solid-core AGN-201 reactor requires no active cooling system, uses a simple shielding arrangement, and the very low operating power results in trivial burnup providing an operating lifetime exceeding many decades. It is thus worthwhile to examine the Idaho State University AGN-201 nuclear reactor more closely because it offers a wide range of research and teaching capabilities while being widely available to students.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Chad L. Pope and William Phoenix"},{id:"81424",title:"Core Reload Analysis Techniques in the Advanced Test Reactor",slug:"core-reload-analysis-techniques-in-the-advanced-test-reactor",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103896",abstract:"Since becoming a national user facility in 2007, the type of irradiation campaigns the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) supports has become much more diverse and complex. In prior years, test complexity was limited by the computational ability to analyze the tests’ influence on the fuel. Large volume tests are irradiated in flux traps which are designed to receive excess neutrons from the surrounding fuel elements. Typically, fuel elements drive the test conditions, not vice versa. The computational tool, PDQ, was used for core physics analysis for decades. The PDQ code was adequate so long as the diffusion approximation between test and fuel element remained valid. This paradigm changed with the introduction of the Ki-Jang Research Reactor—Fuel Assembly Irradiation (KJRR-FAI) in 2015. The KJRR-FAI was a prototypic fuel element for the KJRR research reactor project in the Republic of Korea. The KJRR-FAI irradiation presented multiple modeling and simulation challenges for which PDQ was ill suited. To demonstrate that the KJRR-FAI could be irradiated and meet safety requirements, the modern neutron transport codes, HELIOS and MCNP, were extensively verified and validated to replace PDQ. The hybrid 3D/2D methodology devised with these codes made analysis of the ATR with KJRR-FAI possible. The KJRR-FAI was irradiated in 2015-2016.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Samuel E. Bays and Joseph W. Nielsen"},{id:"81555",title:"Nuclear Thermal Propulsion",slug:"nuclear-thermal-propulsion",totalDownloads:113,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103895",abstract:"This chapter will cover the fundamentals of nuclear thermal propulsion systems, covering basic principles of operation and why nuclear is a superior option to chemical rockets for interplanetary travel. It will begin with a historical overview from early efforts in the early 1950s up to current interests, with respect to fuel types, core materials, and ongoing testing efforts. An overview will be provided of reactor types and design elements for reactor concepts or testing systems for nuclear thermal propulsion, followed by a discussion of nuclear thermal design concepts. A section on system design and modeling will be presented to discuss modeling and simulation of driving phenomena: neutronics, materials performance, heat transfer, and structural mechanics, solved in a tightly coupled multiphysics system. Finally, it will show the results of a coupled physics model for a conceptual design with simulation of rapid startup transients needed to maximize hydrogen efficiency.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Mark D. DeHart, Sebastian Schunert and Vincent M. Labouré"},{id:"81013",title:"Cyber-Informed Engineering for Nuclear Reactor Digital Instrumentation and Control",slug:"cyber-informed-engineering-for-nuclear-reactor-digital-instrumentation-and-control",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101807",abstract:"As nuclear reactors transition from analog to digital technology, the benefits of enhanced operational capabilities and improved efficiencies are potentially offset by cyber risks. Cyber-Informed Engineering (CIE) is an approach that can be used by engineers and staff to characterize and reduce new cyber risks in digital instrumentation and control systems. CIE provides guidance that can be applied throughout the entire systems engineering lifecycle, from conceptual design to decommissioning. In addition to outlining the use of CIE in nuclear reactor applications, this chapter provides a brief primer on nuclear reactor instrumentation and control and the associated cyber risks in existing light water reactors as well as the digital technology that will likely be used in future reactor designs and applications.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Shannon Eggers and Robert Anderson"},{id:"79671",title:"Fault Detection by Signal Reconstruction in Nuclear Power Plants",slug:"fault-detection-by-signal-reconstruction-in-nuclear-power-plants",totalDownloads:105,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101276",abstract:"In this work, the recently developed auto associative bilateral kernel regression (AABKR) method for on-line condition monitoring of systems, structures, and components (SSCs) during transient process operation of a nuclear power plant (NPP) is improved. The advancement enhances the capability of reconstructing abnormal signals to the values expected in normal conditions during both transient and steady-state process operations. The modification introduced to the method is based on the adoption of two new approaches using dynamic time warping (DTW) for the identification of the time position index (the position of the nearest vector within the historical data vectors to the current on-line query measurement) used by the weighted-distance algorithm that captures temporal dependences in the data. Applications are provided to a steady-state numerical process and a case study concerning sensor signals collected from a reactor coolant system (RCS) during start-up operation of a NPP. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method for fault detection during steady-state and transient operations.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Ibrahim Ahmed, Enrico Zio and Gyunyoung Heo"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 8th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. 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My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/106260",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"106260"},fullPath:"/profiles/106260",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()