Normal ECG values in cattle.
\r\n\tAccording to research, even in developed societies, at least three-quarters of the society has a health-related complaint, but only one-third of them consult a physician for help. Access to professional healthcare is low for several reasons. These reasons are poverty, lack of education or health literacy, lack of job skills, lack of a country's natural resources, lack of scientific knowledge, lack of infrastructures such as roads, communication lines, efficient government, false beliefs, bad environmental conditions such as pollution of water, soil, and air, racial, ethnic, sexual, and age discrimination in employment practices, corrupt or incompetent governments, poorly developed economy.
\r\n\tIn today's conditions, the increase in natural disasters due to global climate change and the loss of existing natural resources such as water and soil deteriorates good environmental conditions. Disasters cause acute health problems such as injuries and infections, and access to health services becomes difficult in disaster situations. For these reasons, professional health services should be well planned in crisis and disaster situations. Social justice and equity should be considered in planning. In recent years, we have seen an increase in violence and wars around the world. Wars caused by man-made disasters take away people's right to life and right to health. In addition, extraordinary situations such as wars, famine, floods, soil erosion, hurricanes, earthquakes, and droughts cause large migrations and make access to health services difficult. On the other hand, nuclear power plants threaten people's lives in some regions due to wars. It has also become difficult to provide health services for professional healthcare providers.
Aging is a complex and natural process both for women and men, but there are some differences about the way they become confident with it. In fact, in women, the representation of emotional and cognitive feeling concerning identity is very different than in men [1].
\nIt has been widely assumed that women of middle age usher in a long period of decline toward death and that therefore it will be associated with an increase in thoughts about death and mortality, as well as with declines in perceived physical, relational, and psychological capacities [2].
\nAs Gergen highlighted women have always been associated to their reproductive capacities. Therefore, aging may have a great impact on women’s self-identity as it can be interpreted as a loss of power [3].
\nHowever, there is an evidence that some aspects of women’s well-being (positive relations with others and personal growth) are somewhat better than men’s at all ages and none are worse [4].
\nMoreover, Montepare in 1996 found that middle-aged women had more favorable body images, in some respects, than younger women.
\nFinally, it is generally assumed that concern about aging, especially the physical processes associated with it, is more common and age-appropriate among the elderly than the middle-aged [5].
\nSince the turn of the century, there has been enormous progress in aging research in many fields.
\nIn this book chapter, we focused on women and their identity.
\nThe aim of this chapter is to shed additional light on women’s identity and how they live their “silver years” in terms of happiness and purpose of life.
\nFinally, our work shows how aging depends on women’s mental attitude, not only on physical changes related to biological age.
\nIn contrast to decline associated with physical and cognitive aging, emotional aging appears to improve with age.
\nFurthermore, dispositional tendencies, life events, and individuals’ management of such events can all influence whether well-being improves or deteriorates with age.
\nNevertheless, researches carry out that reasonably high levels of affective well-being and emotional stability are normal at least until after adults reach 70 or 80 years of age [6].
\nExperts proposed many theories about emotional aging.
\nSome theories on life-span emotional-motivational development highlight that normative shifts in emotional goals and strategies in adulthood are common in women’s and men’s adulthood. On the other hand, socio-emotional selectivity theory focuses on the importance of the acceptance of life-end in order to experience pleasant moment at present. This would help people to focus on present challenges rather than eluding them aiming to future rewards. Getting old is physiologically linked to the concept of endings; therefore, the theory predicts motivational changes during aging. This concept may be valid also for those people with a short life expectancy [7].
\nDynamic integration theory underlines that as aging is linked to cognitive ability decrease, elderly often have problems with social integration and make great efforts when experiencing negative feelings [8].
\nThe life-span theory of control holds that individuals’ capacity to control their environment and achieve their developmental goals declines in older adulthood [9].
\nConsequently, when experiencing a new condition, elderly tend to change the self rather to the situation itself. On the other hand, authors suggest that experiencing and practicing emotional situations may play a positive role on elderly ability of managing them [10, 11].
\nIn conclusion, according to the model of selection, optimization, and compensation, the ability of shifting between emotional preferences helps elderly to contrast progressive cognitive decline. As explained by Howden and Meyer structural and anatomical changes occurring during aging have a great impact of the concept of well-being. They noticed that structural degradation and functional slowing of the autonomic system may diminish physiological arousal after exposure to emotional stimuli, thereby reducing the impact of negative events.
\nHowever, once an autonomic reaction starts, the same mechanism can lengthen physiological reactions, thereby increasing the duration of negative emotional states [12, 13].
\nHighlighting the complexities of women’s psychological and physical aspects of aging, clinical psychology suggests that women over 50 currently cover over 17.2% of the total population and this percentage is expected to increase [14].
\nOf concern, over the last decade, we have observed an increase in the number of middle-aged and older women presenting for inpatient eating disorder treatment and a rise in the prevalence of obesity in women aged over 60 years [15, 16].
\nHowever, our understanding of women’s experiences of body image in relation to the aging process is limited.
\nTo date, most of the body image research has been on younger samples and has focused on satisfaction with weight and size [17].
\nA focused research on middle-aged and old women’s concept of their body is necessary in order to target researchers’ attention. With this aim the Gender and Body Image study was developed [18].
\nThis study was conducted to capture the thoughts, feelings, and attitudes that women at middle age have about their bodies and the experience of aging.
\nThis research gathered survey-based information related to body image, health, identity, and aging from 1,849 women over age 50 across the United States.
\nQuantitative data revealed body dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptoms, and extreme weight control methods in a significant number of these women.
\nAccording to other studies, it was also demonstrated that body dissatisfaction in women appears to be fairly stable across age despite the fact that body appreciation increases [19].
\nIt is commonly known that aging is associated with unwelcome changes in physical appearance, increased dependency on others, and negative societal stereotypes [20].
\nThus, middle and old age are generally seen as a period of decline in Western society, a problem with particular relevance for women due to Western society’s long history of placing value on physical appearance, youth, and thinness [21, 22, 23].
\nTo date, several interview-based qualitative studies illustrate the contradictory nature of women’s experiences of aging and body image [24]. While aging women experience unwelcome changes in physical appearance. At the same time, they become more focused on physical health and more rejecting about social pressures related to appearance [25].
\nUnfortunately, all these qualitative studies refer to interviews conducted on narrow age groups or focused on one particular aspect of aging (e.g., weight and body size).
\nThe GABI analysis, however, inquired on perceptions and experiences of women over 50 focusing on body image, aging, and identity in order to generate ideas for future study and to inform clinical practice.
\nWomen enrolled in this study were interested both in physical and psychological aspects of aging.
\nThis topic was identified in another qualitative study of aging and body image among older women in a narrower age group [24] and supports quantitative research indicating that body image becomes more complex with age.
\nAccording to similar researches [26, 27], women were disappointed to weight and metabolism change, which were considered as signs of aging.
\nMany of the enrolled female subjects referred that as experiencing body changes, cognitive adaptations to the physical experience of aging and the psychological experience of body image simultaneously changed. Women referred that unforeseen body change acceptance was a frightening task; on this matter menopause was described as a crucial period as women referred contrasting feelings. They have to face the occurrence of physical changes due to their old age, regretting their younger bodies. Older women strongly voiced a sense of injustice in their aging experience, recounting external pressures from the society about appearance that were different for aging men.
\nWomen interviewed in this study described an awareness of these internal shifts, acknowledging that they were less interested in adhering to the societal expectations, yet still felt challenged to adhere to them regardless of age [28].
\nWomen commented on feelings of invisibility and irrelevance, a phenomenon that has also been highlighted [29].
\nThe lack of representation of aging women in the media documented in quantitative reports did not go unnoticed by our participants [30].
\nWomen commented on the increasing importance of self-care, noting that caring for their physical health assumed priority over physical appearance as they grew older, concurring with previous descriptions [23, 31].
\nYoung women’s confidence is usually based on beauty and appearance. On the other hand, old women consider health and physical autonomy as the most relevant values. However, society does not seem to accord to these changes.
\nIn fact women reported to be undervalued while getting old. As Twigg and Majima remark, women aim to be still considered for their capacities, and although their priorities may shift toward functionality, they are still interested on their appearance. In fact they still enjoy clothing and cosmetic shopping [32].
\nWomen asserted that although their priorities may shift toward functionality, this does not mean that appearance no longer matters.
\nBeing old can be a challenge. Senses become less sophisticated, friends are fewer, and stress easily increases. Additionally, loneliness, sense of dependence from others, anxiety, sadness, and apathy are some of the most common feelings and emotions perceived by the older.
\nHow to escape from that? Many therapeutic interventions were proposed, especially for women:
\nDance therapy for the elderly is a cognitive and social activity which improves levels of resilience and adaptation to the stresses of aging [33]. Working both on physical and intellectual aspects, dance sessions showed great results concerning self-esteem, communication, and general well-being.
\nRecently, there has been a growing interest toward elderly’s affective and emotional needs.
\nThe aim of relational therapies is to increase the understanding of those needs and patients’ well-being.
\nAs well as being wonderful companions, studies revealed that pets provide significant health benefits to their owner [34]. Many studies were also conducted on ill subjects. As Sollami et al. underlined, pet therapy could have a great emotional and social impact, bringing relief to patients and their family members but also to health professionals [35].
\nGossip is an healthy women habit. Getting older people have to face up new and unpleasant situations, and social contact plays a key role on the ability to overcome them.
\nOnce again, men and women react differently, using various cognitive and social strategies. During aging many cognitive functions (i.e., memory) may decrease and deafness occurs; however, women keep on being curious about neighbors’ and friends’ news. Gossip is more than an ordinary behavior. In fact, the Konstanz Department of Psychology in Germany has recently pointed out the importance of communication as the heart of social and cultural life [36]. Being capable of building relationships represents a powerful ability that guides human and social intelligence over the entire life span.
\nHartung and Renner underline the central role of relationships. They suggest that social curiosity and the tendency to gossip are inherently related to each other. In fact they represent two different social functioning drives. On the one hand, curiosity is described as the main component for development and learning behaviors. The main curiosity functions are creating interpersonal strings and facilitating the feeling of belonging to others. People with interpersonal curiosity are more sociable and resilient to stressful events. Therefore, they need to control social world in order to feel safe and relaxed. To sum up, curiosity is defined as the “drive to know.”
\nOn the other hand, gossip is generally described as “an entertainment of pleasure.”
\nInformation, friendship, influence, and entertainment are considered to be the main social functions. Sharing gossip and news stands as a dynamic strategy in order to socialize, create relationship, and prevent from outsiders’ exclusion.
\nGossip represents a type of exploratory and learning behavior in a word that is going to be more complex, especially for elderly people.
\nTo date, social media and technology play a central role in our social life, and they are considered to be the best and easiest ways to communicate as they allow people to keep in touch with friends reducing distance. It is interesting to consider how is elderly approach to 2.0 reality and how it could have a crucial role in their daily life. Discussion boards, social networks, blogs, videos, and virtual reality are all ways to share information, bringing people together and improving social contact, and they can prevent elderly from social isolation.
\nDenecke et al. suggest that the “social media phenomenon” is increasing through the elderly, especially through those who suffer from chronic illness [37].
\nMoreover, peer-to-peer healthcare is emerging as a source of information and social support for chronically ill patients.
\nNowadays, technology and social media represent a great opportunity to support and prevent social isolation. The last one is the major seniors’ noxious factors. Social media also stand as a place to share information and personal stories. This virtual place could be a chance to create a fertile and stimulating open space in order to share interpersonal feelings and fears.
\nVirtual reality is another way elderly could use to express themselves. Arlati et al. conducted an interesting research on this matter. The aim of the study was to improve the patient’s adherence to treatments, promoting collaboration and competition using virtual reality.
\nResearchers proposed a dual-task training program. They asked users to cycle on an uncommon bike while recognizing target animals as they appear along the way. The chance of training with other users in order to reduce the risk of social isolation was also given. Using “social bike,” users can choose the multiplayer mode, in order to stimulate competition or cooperation with the others [38].
\nBefore a woman becomes old, a long journey has just begun from the adolescents to juvenile period and from adult to old age.
\nUsually, the old age is commonly viewed as a sort of the final destination instead of the start of something knew.
\nAs long-term memory appears to be reinforced by the time, also identity seems to be more stable and temperament, and character is already intrinsically connected to each other.
\nOld age is considered as a fully formed stone where the heart and mind are strictly connected.
\nDespite off, many authors suggest that before women become old, she could start to have some typical deficit as amnestic and neurocognitive problem, going through the mild cognitive impairment.
\nThis is a critical stage in which the couple begins to decline, when they deal with losses, support the middle generation, and conduct a life review.
\nIn this stage, usually considered between 65 years old, men and especially women are more sensitive to adverse events and health problem and begin to be more frailty.
\nFrailty is an important factor in functional and cognitive emotional decline, morbidity, and mortality for some older people.
\nActually, anxiety, and depressive symptoms are much common in elderly people especially in women.
\nIn older age, loneliness, social isolation, feeling of contribution/uselessness, lack of leisure activities, anxiety for the health, social deprivation, and depression are increasing [39].
\nIn 2015, a writer and illustrator Matthew Johnstone tells the story of overcoming the “black dog of depression” [40].
\nHe presents depression as a black dog, and it is clear to explain how depression is largely preventable and treatable.
\nThe black dog could reduce the ability of concentrating, doing everything you were used to appreciate before, fear of being with other people, and constantly having fear to be discovered by other people’s exhausting energy.
\nIt could make you sad until damaging your identity.
\nGetting old with good attitudes like managing stressful events with resilience and being compassionate with other people could be a strategy to live better.
\nWhen a woman gets old, the frailty of identity and personality increase, and this is the reason why prevention is important to do not present these symptoms.
\nBeing resilient, having a good relation with other people, and conducting a sport exercise are demonstrated to be essential on mental health overcoming the black dog [40].
\nIn conclusion, our work shows how aging depends on women’s mental attitude, not only on physical changes related to biological age [41].
\nElectrocardiography is the simple non- invasive technique that records the changing electrical activity/potential difference in the heart by positive and negative electrodes. It is a valuable aid in assessing the heart rate, rhythm, chamber size, cardiac conduction system and cardiac functions. It is considered one of the more sensitive tool for diseases of the heart [1, 2]. ECG in ruminants is primarily used in the detection of cardiac arrhythmias, disturbances in conduction and electrolyte imbalances. This will help to determine the prognosis of cardiac disease and for therapeutic considerations [3]. Whereas mild enlargement of chambers cannot be detected in cattle due to deeply penetrating Purkinje fibers and the depolarization and repolarization occurring concurrently over multiple minor fronts [4]. Devadevi
The bovine heart lies in the middle mediastinum between the 3rd to 5th intercostal space predominantly to the left side of the median plane with the base lying dorsally and the apex present ventrally, close to the sternum. The heart is rotated to the left side about its vertical axis such that the right auricle is present on the left side.
The heart consists of four chambers – two atria and two ventricles and has a base and an apex with the apex being formed solely by the left ventricle. The heart is surrounded by the fibrous and serous pericardium with a small amount of serous fluid present in the pericardial cavity. Each electrical discharge begins at the sinoatrial (SA) node present on the right atrium and the depolarization spreads through the atrial muscles to the atrioventricular (AV) node. The conduction passes from the atria to the ventricles through the bundle of His which divides into the left and right bundle branches supplying the left and right ventricles respectively. The left bundle branch is further divided into the anterior and posterior fascicles. The conduction is then passed through the Purkinje fibers to the myocardium [8].
Cattle are docile in nature but they are excited and restless in a new environment. The cattle should be kept in a pleasant environment and be allowed to take rest. Animals should not be subjected to an ECG immediately after arrival because of the increase in the heart rate and respiration rate due to stress during transport. This will in turn give a wrong diagnosis. The animal is allowed to take rest for 15 minutes before performing the ECG examination. This will reduce the error in the ECG. Cattle should be kept in the trevis for ECG examination and calves should be kept on a wooden table, floor or nonconductive materials. Animals should not be leaning on the trevis as it will interfere with the ECG examination. A thick rubber sheet is placed over the trevis to prevent electrical noise produced by alternate currents when the animal comes in direct contact with the trevis [9].
ECG is the best method to read the different kinds of arrhythmias in cattle. If the heart rate exceeds 90 beats/minute, it is called as sinus tachycardia and if it is less than 50 beats/minute it is called as sinus bradycardia. ECG is an ideal additional tool to find out the electrolyte and mineral deficiency in cattle. These imbalances commonly occur during the first 3 months of production in animals suffering from milk fever, hypomagnesemia, post parturient hemoglobinuria and ketosis. Animals suffering from severe diarrhea may be deficient in certain minerals like sodium, potassium, chloride, iron and magnesium which may result in poor prognosis and should be replaced with ideal intravenous or oral electrolyte therapy. ECG is one of the methods to find out the enlargement of the atrium and ventricles. Although in cattle, mild enlargement of the heart is difficult to detect because of the deep penetration of the Purkinje fibers. ECG can be used to check the heart rate in cattle which may be cross verified with auscultation methods. The average of the last six R-R intervals of the trace is calculated to obtain the heart rate as the animals are more relaxed toward the end of the recording [10].
The positioning of the animals is important to get an accurate ECG. The cattle should be kept in the standing position inside the trevis for an ECG examination. Animals affected with milk fever, diarrhea, lactic acidosis, Downer cow syndrome, etc. may be sternally or laterally recumbent. In such cases, animals may be subjected to the ECG examination in their current position.
Bipolar lead systems (Base apex I, II, III and X, Y and Z of the orthogonal system) and Unipolar leads (aVF, aVR, aVL and thoracic) have been described in animals. In large animals for the detection of cardiac arrhythmias base lead II and Y lead of the orthogonal system are most commonly used [9].
In cattle, ECG examinations method followed is base apex limb lead II. After adequate rest, the animal is kept in standing position in a trevis. ECG gel is applied on the lead attachment sites. Three sites are selected for application of the clips (Figure 1). Positive lead I is attached between the 3rd-5th intercostal space on the left side behind the elbow. Negative lead II is attached to the caudal 1/3rd of the jugular furrow and neutral lead III is attached away from the other two leads at the wither point [11].
Positive lead I attached at the 3rd-5th intercostal space. Negative lead II attached at the caudal 1/3rd of the jugular furrow. Neutral lead III attached away from the first two leads at the point of withers.
The ECG machine is simply a voltmeter or galvanometer that records the changes in the electrical potentials occurring during each cardiac cycle. These changes are recorded on an ECG paper with a grid by a stylus. The stylus gets deflected according to the intensity of the electrical activity. The ECG machine is connected to a monitor and has an inbuilt printer. The results are obtained almost immediately. The clip used in ECG examinations is called an alligator clips. These clips have a pointed mouth with serrated ends for firm holding of the thick cattle skin. The serrated ends are very sharp and hence before usage it should be rasped or blunted to prevent injury to the animals. Before application of the alligator clips the sites should be cleaned with surgical spirit and adequate ECG gel should be applied for better contact.
The ECG machine is equipped with a printer that generates a graphical representation on gridded paper of the electrical activity of the heart. The speed of the paper is set at 25 mm/second and the stylus present in the ECG records the deflection produced by the electrical impulses. The vertical axis of the grid denotes the voltage and direction of the deflection, either positive or negative, with respect to the baseline. The horizontal axis represents the time taken for each event in the cardiac cycle as well their sequence. The ECG paper is composed of a grid with small and large boxes. Each small box on the horizontal axis corresponds to a 0.04 second interval. Five small boxes form a large box which consequently represents 0.2 seconds. On the vertical axis, each small box corresponds to 0.1 mV.
An ECG gives a graphical representation of the electrical changes occurring in the heart as a P-QRS-T complex. The electrical depolarization starting at the SA node travels across the atria creating a brief upward deflection of the stylus forming the P wave, representing atrial depolarization. The P-R interval is formed when the depolarization passes from the SA node to the AV node and into the ventricular tissue. The ventricular septum is the first to get depolarized in a direction away from the positive electrode creating a small negative deflection called the Q wave. A large positive/negative deflection, termed R wave, is created when the bulk of the ventricular myocardium gets depolarized. The S wave is formed when the remaining basilar portion of the ventricles gets depolarized. Thus the ORS complex is representative of ventricular depolarization. Complete ventricular depolarization is followed by repolarization before the next cardiac cycle. There is a difference in repolarization of the ventricular tissue creating a potential difference across the ventricular myocardium which forms the T wave.
The normal P wave amplitude and duration in Holstein cattle is 0.05–0.32 mV and 0.05–0.12 seconds respectively (Figure 2). In cattle, the QR and QS amplitudes are recorded separately and the normal values are 0.05–0.95 mV and 0.9–1-1 mV respectively. The normal duration of the QRS complex is 0.04–1.0 seconds. The P-R interval and Q-T interval in normal Holstein cattle was found to be 0.12–0.26 seconds and 0.22–0.48 seconds respectively. In large animals, the T wave is more variable than in small animals and is generally not relevant in the detection of cardiac problems. The normal T wave amplitude and duration are 0.05–0.8 mV and 0.05–0.16 seconds respectively [10]. In Table 1 the normal ECG values of cattle is given.
Normal ECG pattern in cattle.
S. No | Parameters | Normal values |
---|---|---|
1 | P wave amplitude (mV) | 0.05–0.32 |
2 | P wave duration (sec) | 0.05–0.12 |
3 | QR amplitude (mV) | 0.05–0.95 |
4 | QS amplitude (mV) | 0.9–1.1 |
5 | QRS duration (sec) | 0.04–1.0 |
6 | P-R duration (sec) | 0.12–0.26 |
7 | Q-T interval (sec) | 0.22–0.48 |
8 | T wave amplitude (mV) | 0.05–0.8 |
9 | T wave duration (sec) | 0.05–0.16 |
Normal ECG values in cattle.
Variations in an ECG from the normal values of amplitude and duration in the P-QRS-T complex is indicative of cardiac dysfunction. In general, an increase in the amplitude of the P wave is suggestive of right atrial enlargement and increase in duration of the P wave is seen in left atrial enlargement (Figure 3). The QRS complex in bovines is negative and an increase in amplitude of QRS complex and duration of Q-T interval is characteristic of ventricular hypertrophy (Figure 3). A positive S wave is indicative of myocardial infarction. Variations in T was may be helpful in the diagnosis of electrolyte and mineral imbalances. ECG alterations in some of the common cardiac diseases and electrolyte imbalances are described below.
ECG shows notching of P wave indicative of atrial enlargement and increase in amplitude of QRS complex and QT interval indicative of ventricular enlargement in cattle.
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is occurs due to focal ectopic firing arising from within the pulmonary veins and spreading to the atria [12]. AF is the most common cardiac arrhythmia present in milking cows. 50% of the cows with AF were previously diagnosed with ketosis suggestive of a relationship between the two conditions [13]. ECG recording of AF reveals absence/decreased amplitude of the P wave with a series of rapid and irregular waves (F wave) on the base line. The QRS complex is normal in amplitude and duration but irregular [12]. In cattle, the heart rate exceeds 90 beats/minute, it is called as sinus tachycardia (Figure 4) and if it is less than 47 beats/minute it is called as sinus bradycardia (Figure 5).
ECG shows sinus tachycardia in cattle.
ECG shows sinus bradycardia in cattle.
Endocarditis is an inflammatory disease affecting the layers of the endocardium in cattle due to bacterial infection. Bacterial endocarditis is most commonly of vegetative form (Healy, 1996). ECG examination in bovine vegetative endocarditis revealed deep QRS complex (1.7–2.5 mV) and tall T waves (0.8–1.5 mV) shown in the Figure 6 [14].
ECG shows deep QRS complex and tall T wave in cattle with endocarditis.
Pericarditis is the inflammation of the pericardium with accumulation of serous or fibrinous inflammatory debris [15]. The most common cause of pericarditis in cattle is traumatic pericarditis [16] due to penetration of the pericardium by a hard foreign body. ECG taken in cattle affected with traumatic pericarditis shows decreased amplitude of QRS complex (<1.5 mV), regular alteration of P, QRS or T complexes and slurring/elevation in ST interval [17, 18, 19] shown in Figure 7.
ECG shows regular alteration in P, QRS or T wave and elevation of ST interval in cattle with pericarditis.
In Table 2, ECG pattern of cattle with electrolyte and mineral imbalance was given. Hyperkalemia in an increase in potassium ion concentration in the blood caused by renal failure, severe dehydration and acidosis in calves with diarrhea [20]. The ECG in such animals shows wider QRS complex, tall T waves and deeper and higher S-T segment. A decrease in potassium ion concentration or hypokalemia occurs in case of inappetance, metabolic acidosis and increased excretion due to corticosteroid therapy combined with treatments used for ketosis [20]. The ECG recordings have tall and tent shaped T wave with an absence of P wave.
S. No | Condition | P wave | QRS complex | T wave | S wave | others |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Hyperkalimia (Increased K+) | * | Longer | Taller | Deeper Higher ST segment | Conduction Abnormalities |
2 | Hypokalimia (decreased K+) | No P wave | * | Tall and Tent shape | * | Recorded in diarrhea calves |
3 | Hypercalcimia (Increased Ca2+) / Hypothermia | * | Short QT interval | Widened /flattented | Short ST segment | Cause Acute Myocardial Infaction |
4 | Hypocalcimia (decreased Ca2+) | * | Prolong QT interval | * | Lengthened ST segment | Recorded in Milk fever, Downers cow syndrome/ Creepers cow Arrythmias and complete heart block |
5 | Hypomagnesimia (Decreased Mg2+) | * | Short PQ interval and QRS complex Lesser degree shortening of QT | Negative | * | Causes Tachycardia, Arrythmias and sudden death. |
6 | Severe Hypomagnesimia | * | * | High Peak | ST depression | Causes Sinus Tachycardia |
7 | HypoPhosphatemia (decreased P) | * | * | * | * | No change in ECG |
ECG patterns in cattle with electrolyte and mineral imbalance.
Note: * indicate No change in waves.
Hypocalcemia or parturient paresis is a condition common in periparturiant cattle due to deficiency of calcium characterized by progressive neuromuscular degeneration, circulatory collapse and depressed consciousness [21]. Hypocalcemia is a common finding in case of Milk fever, Downer cow syndrome, Creeper cows, etc. The ECG is has a characteristic prolonged Q-T interval and lengthened S-T segment (Figure 8). Cows with hypocalcemia may have arrhythmias and sometimes complete heart block. Hypercalcemia is an increase in the levels of serum calcium most commonly due to primary hyperparathyroidism and malignancy [22, 23] as well as over supplementation of calcium in treatment of milk fever. Hypercalcemia decreases the atrial activity and increases ventricular activity [24]. ECG reveals short Q-T interval, flattened/widened T wave and short S-T segment. Hypercalcemia may cause acute myocardial infarction.
ECG shows prolong QT interval and lengthened ST segment in cattle with hypocalcemia.
Hypomagnesemia tetany or grass tetany is caused by a deficiency of magnesium characterized by ataxia, recumbency, neuromuscular irritability, convulsions and tetanic spasms [25]. Cattle with hypomagnesemia (Figure 9) subjected to ECG shows short P-Q interval and QRS complex. The T wave is negative and there is a lesser degree of shortening of the Q-T interval.
ECG shows short PQ interval and QRS complex with negative T wave in cattle with hypomagnesemia.
Electrocardiography is currently the best method available for the detection of cardiac arrhythmias and conduction abnormalities [26]. Since Einthoven’s invention of the first electrograph in 1895, there have been major advances in the study of cardiac diseases in both humans and animals. In cattle the base apex lead system is the most suitable for monitoring of cardiac function in cattle [9, 10]. Today, ECG is widely used in the field of veterinary medicine for the detection of cardiac arrhythmias and conduction abnormalities as well as to identify electrolyte and mineral imbalances which is valuable in the diagnosis of various disease conditions.
The technical assistance of Mr. Dias Nolan, veterinary student, is greatly appreciated. Thanks are extended to Ms. Carmel Prins, veterinary student, for typing the manuscript, to Dr. V. Vijayalakshmi, veterinary post-graduate student, for assisting in all the procedures involved in obtaining the required ECG readings. The authors extend their sincere gratitude to the Department of Veterinary Medicine and the Dean, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Veterinary Education and Research, Puducherry.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"57717",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71923",title:"In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Cell Viability Assays: Principles, Advantages, and Disadvantages",slug:"in-vitro-cytotoxicity-and-cell-viability-assays-principles-advantages-and-disadvantages",totalDownloads:14810,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:156,abstract:"Cytotoxicity is one of the most important indicators for biological evaluation in vitro studies. In vitro, chemicals such as drugs and pesticides have different cytotoxicity mechanisms such as destruction of cell membranes, prevention of protein synthesis, irreversible binding to receptors etc. In order to determine the cell death caused by these damages, there is a need for cheap, reliable and reproducible short-term cytotoxicity and cell viability assays. Cytotoxicity and cell viability assays are based on various cell functions. A broad spectrum of cytotoxicity assays is currently used in the fields of toxicology and pharmacology. There are different classifications for these assays: (i) dye exclusion assays; (ii) colorimetric assays; (iii) fluorometric assays; and (iv) luminometric assays. Choosing the appropriate method among these assays is important for obtaining accurate and reliable results. When selecting the cytotoxicity and cell viability assays to be used in the study, different parameters have to be considered such as the availability in the laboratory where the study is to be performed, test compounds, detection mechanism, specificity, and sensitivity. In this chapter, information will be given about in vitro cytotoxicity and viability assays, these assays will be classified and their advantages and disadvantages will be emphasized. The aim of this chapter is to guide the researcher interested in this subject to select the appropriate assay for their study.",book:{id:"6310",slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",title:"Genotoxicity",fullTitle:"Genotoxicity - A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World"},signatures:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk",authors:[{id:"211212",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Aslantürk",slug:"ozlem-sultan-aslanturk",fullName:"Özlem Sultan Aslantürk"}]},{id:"66259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85270",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7576,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"40253",doi:"10.5772/50486",title:"Lipid Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems: A Revolution in Dosage Form Design and Development",slug:"lipid-nanoparticulate-drug-delivery-systems-a-revolution-in-dosage-form-design-and-development",totalDownloads:11291,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:105,abstract:null,book:{id:"2509",slug:"recent-advances-in-novel-drug-carrier-systems",title:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Novel Drug Carrier Systems"},signatures:"Anthony A. Attama, Mumuni A. Momoh and Philip F. Builders",authors:[{id:"142947",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Attama",slug:"anthony-attama",fullName:"Anthony Attama"}]},{id:"42016",doi:"10.5772/55187",title:"Why are Early Life Stages of Aquatic Organisms more Sensitive to Toxicants than Adults?",slug:"why-are-early-life-stages-of-aquatic-organisms-more-sensitive-to-toxicants-than-adults-",totalDownloads:3490,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:103,abstract:null,book:{id:"3408",slug:"new-insights-into-toxicity-and-drug-testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing"},signatures:"Azad Mohammed",authors:[{id:"147061",title:"Dr.",name:"Azad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"azad-mohammed",fullName:"Azad Mohammed"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10456,totalCrossrefCites:107,totalDimensionsCites:242,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"49459",title:"Pharmacokinetics of Drugs Following IV Bolus, IV Infusion, and Oral Administration",slug:"pharmacokinetics-of-drugs-following-iv-bolus-iv-infusion-and-oral-administration",totalDownloads:15480,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"4491",slug:"basic-pharmacokinetic-concepts-and-some-clinical-applications",title:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Tarek A. Ahmed",authors:[{id:"175649",title:"Dr.",name:"Tarek A",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"tarek-a-ahmed",fullName:"Tarek A Ahmed"}]},{id:"29240",title:"Oral Absorption, Intestinal Metabolism and Human Oral Bioavailability",slug:"oral-absorption-intestinal-metabolism-and-human-oral-bioavailability-",totalDownloads:27175,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"672",slug:"topics-on-drug-metabolism",title:"Topics on Drug Metabolism",fullTitle:"Topics on Drug Metabolism"},signatures:"Ayman El-Kattan and Manthena Varma",authors:[{id:"85539",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayman",middleName:null,surname:"El-Kattan",slug:"ayman-el-kattan",fullName:"Ayman El-Kattan"},{id:"88221",title:"Dr.",name:"Manthena",middleName:null,surname:"Varma",slug:"manthena-varma",fullName:"Manthena Varma"}]},{id:"66259",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7587,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"66742",title:"Introductory Chapter: Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and for Human Life",slug:"introductory-chapter-alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-for-human-life",totalDownloads:4130,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"6828",slug:"alkaloids-their-importance-in-nature-and-human-life",title:"Alkaloids",fullTitle:"Alkaloids - Their Importance in Nature and Human Life"},signatures:"Joanna Kurek",authors:[{id:"214632",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Kurek",slug:"joanna-kurek",fullName:"Joanna Kurek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"19",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82962",title:"Pluralism Medical Treatment, Prevention, and Control of COVID-19 Infection and Its Long-Sufferings among the Older Adults in the Northeast of Thailand from 2019 to 2022",slug:"pluralism-medical-treatment-prevention-and-control-of-covid-19-infection-and-its-long-sufferings-amo",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106339",abstract:"COVID-19 in 2019 has brought both changes and challenges to the world. This global pandemic has an impact on people of all age levels, especially older adults. In Thailand, older persons are at high risk of COVID-19 infection. They are included in the so-called 608 groups. The objective of this review article was to synthesize and present medical pluralism, the development of drugs from herbs, and projects conducted to treat, prevent, and control the infection and long sufferings of COVID-19. The review covers 10 studies, three projects produced at Mahasarakham University, Chaiyaphum Rajabhat University, and Khon Kaen University that were reviewed, synthesized, and analyzed. The results of the synthesis indicate that modern and Thai traditional medicine can help reduce the severity of the infection and long sufferings of COVID-19. The medical pluralism between modern and Thai traditional medicine is needed to remedy COVID-19 cases among the older adults in the Northeast of Thailand.",book:{id:"11690",title:"COVID-19 Drug Development - Recent Advances, New Perspectives, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11690.jpg"},signatures:"Pissamai Homchampa, Khemika Napattaradechanon, Parichat Yatniyom, Thawalrat Ratanasiri, Piyaporn Sansila, Thanawan Sirisuk, Thawalwong Ratanasiri and Amornrat Ratanasiri"},{id:"82353",title:"Pharmacovigilance of Biological Drugs",slug:"pharmacovigilance-of-biological-drugs",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105520",abstract:"The use of biological drugs has significantly increased over the past decades and has allowed for the treatment of many life-threatening and chronic diseases. The patent expiration of biological innovative medicines enables copies of these drugs called biosimilars. The availability of biosimilars enhances competition, with the potential to improve patient access to biological medications and contribute to the financial sustainability of the healthcare systems. Unlike equivalent drugs, biosimilars are not identical but similar to their innovator products because of the differences in the manufacturing process, which is a biological process. However, they are considered comparable to their originators in safety, quality characteristics, biological activity, and efficacy. The regulatory procedures used for generic drugs cannot be applied for biosimilars, so they are subjected to rigorous characterization as well as comparative clinical studies. Since they are highly complex molecules produced from living cells, even small change in the production process can have major implications on their safety and effectiveness profile, causing a potential risk of immune-based adverse reactions. For all these reasons, for biological drugs, a robust long-term pharmacovigilance system is necessary. It is desirable that in the future, there are further guidance and resolution of the ongoing discussions on biosimilar labeling, naming, pharmacovigilance and interchangeability/substitution, to ensure the appropriate use of these drugs in clinical practice.",book:{id:"11679",title:"Pharmacovigilance and Regulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11679.jpg"},signatures:"Simona Guerzoni, Flavia Lo Castro, Carlo Baraldi, Giuliana Colella and Luca Pani"},{id:"82868",title:"Recent Strategies for Ocular Drug Delivery: Promises and Challenges",slug:"recent-strategies-for-ocular-drug-delivery-promises-and-challenges",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106335",abstract:"Ocular diseases include various anterior and posterior segment diseases. Due to the unique anatomy and physiology of the eye, efficient ocular drug delivery is a great challenge to researchers. The emerging nanoscience is playing an important role in the development of novel strategies for ocular disease management. Various active molecules have been designed to associate with nanocarriers to overcome ocular barriers and interact with certain ocular tissues. In this chapter, highlights will be made on barrier to intraocular delivery, general pathways for ocular absorption, and factors affecting intraocular bioavailability. The recent attempts of nanotechnology for treating anterior and posterior ocular diseases will be explored. This will include nanomicelles, nanoparticles, nanosuspensions, vesicular systems, in situ gel, dendrimers, contact lenses, implants, microneedles, and cell-based delivery systems. In addition, gene-based ocular delivery systems will be discussed. In this chapter, we will also provide a comprehensive overview of drug-device combinations used for ocular diseases such as glaucoma, dry eye disease, infections, and inflammations. Furthermore, drug delivery devices for ocular surgeries are discussed. Finally, challenges and future prospective of ocular delivery systems will be explored.",book:{id:"11688",title:"Advances in Drug Delivery Methods",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11688.jpg"},signatures:"Amal H. El-Kamel and Asmaa A. Ashour"},{id:"82727",title:"Mesoporous Silica Based Cancer Theranostic: A Modern Approach in Upcoming Medicine",slug:"mesoporous-silica-based-cancer-theranostic-a-modern-approach-in-upcoming-medicine",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105447",abstract:"In case cancers are located deep inside the body and are very tough to diagnose, diagnostic tools like MRI/CT scans can be employed to detect these cancers. The major challenge in such cases is the delivery of MRI active agents or visualizing agents to the target site. In this context we will discuss different mesoporous nanoparticles that can be employed to target the tissue at a specific location, its functionalization to reach the target site (Folic acid), different simple dyes as well as specific dyes which offer theranostic functionality. The nanoparticles like mesoporous silica nanoparticles offer the possibility to load therapeutic and diagnostic agents. Its surface allow multiple functionalization and conjugations which offer target specific delivery of these agents. Moreover we will also overview different modern drug delivery inventions for offering theranostic application.",book:{id:"11688",title:"Advances in Drug Delivery Methods",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11688.jpg"},signatures:"Ajinkya Pote, Vikas Ahirrao and Vishal Pande"},{id:"82680",title:"Recent Pharmaceutical Developments in the Treatment of Cancer Using Nanosponges",slug:"recent-pharmaceutical-developments-in-the-treatment-of-cancer-using-nanosponges",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105817",abstract:"Nanosponges are a class of nanoparticles characterized by their sponge-like surface that ensures high loading capacity. Cancer causes high mortality and requires precise treatment without harming the body. Hence, nanoparticles are required to target medications to tumor. Nanosponges may be synthesized from various polymers and metals, giving them distinct properties. The majority of polymer synthesis entails crosslinking, while metal synthesis entails the isolation of metal nanoparticles accompanied by their assembly into sponges. Nanosponges must be functionalized to precisely attack tumors. There are several patents on nanosponges synthesis and their use. Future trends in the usage of nanosponges include simultaneous distribution of several molecules and expanding the spectrum of use from medicinal delivery to substance encapsulation for a multitude of applications. As their usage in the pharmaceutical industry grows, more emphasis should be put on toxicity-related aspects induced by the near association of cell membrane and nanosponge resulting in intracellular dissolution or reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which in turn damages various cellular components. Many techniques have been created to reduce toxicity, including functionalization with various materials such as antioxidants, polymers and altering nanosponges composition. As the application of nanosponges increases in many industries, the phenomenon related to toxicity must be further explored through research.",book:{id:"11688",title:"Advances in Drug Delivery Methods",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11688.jpg"},signatures:"Kapil Gore, Sankha Bhattacharya and Bhupendra G. Prajapati"},{id:"82523",title:"Trypan Blue Exclusion Assay, Neutral Red, Acridine Orange and Propidium Lodide",slug:"trypan-blue-exclusion-assay-neutral-red-acridine-orange-and-propidium-lodide",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105699",abstract:"Cytotoxicity and cell viability assessments are very important parameters that are widely used in fundamental research and drug development to determine the safety profile of toxic compounds. These assays measure the degree to which a substance can cause toxic damage to cells or cell death. There are different assays that have been employed to determine the cytotoxicity of substances. These assays either determine enzymatic function, cell viability, mitochondrial activity, lipid metabolism, cell proliferation and/or cell death. These assays entail use of different kinds of dyes such as trypan blue exclusion dye, neutral red, acridine orange and propidium iodide to stain the cells. Trypan blue dye permeates compromised cell membrane to stain necrotic cells. However, this can lead to false positive and false negative results as it does not provide information on sub-lethal injury. As a result, neutral red and acridine orange can be used as counterstains for trypan blue to stain the lysosome of live cells. Acridine orange can also be used to stain nucleic acids in living cells and is usually co-stained with propidium iodide or ethidium bromide. This is because propidium iodide permeates only compromised plasma membrane thus co-staining cells with these dyes can provide vital information that can be used to differentiate between live and dead cells.",book:{id:"11678",title:"Cytotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11678.jpg"},signatures:"Arinzechukwu Ude, Kaiyven Afi-Leslie, Kelechi Okeke and Emmanuel Ogbodo"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:55},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. 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Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"88",type:"subseries",title:"Marketing",keywords:"Consumer Trends, Consumer Needs, Media, Pricing, Distribution, Branding, Innovation, Neuromarketing",scope:"