RMI v/s RPC difference table.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
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These architectures include the global control structures, protocols for communication, synchronization, physical distribution, scaling and performance, remote access and selection among design alternatives. At this level the common architectural styles like pipes and filters, object orientation, event-based models, and table-driven interpreter etc., and their computing techniques and distributed network architectures are seen. The level of performance within the distributed computing is directly proportional degree of multiplicity of resources involved and participating in it. This is one of the important factors that affects and regulates the usefulness within the distributed computing defining the capability of computing system to support multiplicity and migration. Most of distributed approaches involve dispersion of data over various network machines for reliability and availability of data which requires deployment of communication protocols that can server inter-platform connectivity. The interconnections in a disseminated framework allows machine to interact autonomously allowing them to share memory or processors. They can communicate with each other utilizing messages, snippets of data exchanged, intimating a function on one machine and finishing on other and so on. Simply by messages many information can be conveyed to execute with specific contentions, also they can send and get bundles of information and can do many more such things [2].
Dispersed frameworks over the network has always been communicating and imparting the information by means of message passing. This type of correspondence was exceptionally straightforward where one side (client) bundles a few information, known as a message and sends it to the opposite side where it is decoded or stored additionally. The configuration of the message and the manner by which it will be prepared by the recipient is carried out by application subordinate. In a few applications the recipient may react by sending an answer message often called as acknowledgement or response while in other cases, this won’t not occur. This approach likewise makes it difficult to reuse segments of one circulated framework in other conveyed frameworks as the message is encoded in language could not be decodable or readable by other language framework with different sets of library and calling mechanisms [3]. Despite the fact that message passing can be powerful, it would be decent if there were more uniform, reusable, and easy to understand methods for getting things done remotely by calling remote function on local machine or by sending function for execution on server. Such unusualness requires an extensive variety of new procedures past those utilized as a part of conventional computing. This also involves participation of an appropriated framework by letting the compiler or run-time libraries handle various issues of scheduling and allocation.
One of the alternatives in the design of the distributed system architecture is how to access remote resources or make calls to remote objects and also how to send the program over network. Currently, the client–server paradigm is the most common style, where the code does not move at all. Under the code-mobility and remote programming domain there are certain paradigm that helps in understanding the shift happened in distributed system architecture. Like, remote method invocation allows invocation of remote objects to java enabled platforms. Code-on-demand paradigm calls upon the code from a distant site which is then downloaded and executed on the local machine. And, remote evaluation paradigm which sends the code to another site where it is executed from which result is returned back to caller [4]. These distributed mechanism helps in building up of mobile and portable code design to help effective information and program relocation in various processing states on heterogeneous execution platforms.
Allocation of numerous resources to a small number of computers called Server-hosts, yet keeping client-hosts simpler by offloading the computation to central terminal is termed as centralized Paradigm. This type of architectural taxonomy relies heavily on network resources like servers and infrastructure for computation and storage. In this typography, client-hosts are diskless nodes that are dependent on central network terminal to load its operating system. Simply, it acts as an input/output interface to the server because they neither have their own operating system nor personalized resources. The much broader infrastructure used for such paradigm is Thin Client, which is a lightweight computer that is purposely built for remote into a server, where many client-hosts share their computations with a server or server farm. It depends heavily on another computer (server) to fulfill its computational roles. The specific roles assumed by the server-host may vary, from hosting a shared set of virtualized applications, a shared desktop stack or virtual desktop, to data processing and file storage on the behalf of client-hosts [5].
The server-side infrastructure makes use of cloud computing software such as application virtualization, hosted shared desktop (HSD) or desktop virtualization (VDI). This combination forms what is known today as a cloud based system where desktop resources are centralized into one or more data centers. Basically, this type of architecture is described by lack of delegation as they have single management station to initiate requests for low-level data.
Distributed processing encompasses a wide range of task autonomy and semantic richness in hierarchical architectures. This paradigm describes implementation labels that employ vertical delegation for management functionality. Hierarchical approach includes distributed objects and limited forms of Management-by-Delegation (MbD) with code mobility technologies such as Remote EValuation (REV) and Code-on-Demand (CoD). Distributed objects describe a form of gateway operation allowing the communication with encapsulated data and actions remotely. Likewise, REV provides code for execution of intended management function while CoD retrieves and caches code to execute the intended management function [6]. The hierarchical paradigm supports the delegation as following:
Delegation-by-domain: Domain delegation is referred as a simplified distributed paradigm. In this, a central authority assigns complete management control of a specified domain to the domain itself. The distributed domain functions independently of the central authority. Management information is not shared, and resources and administrative control resides with the specified domain. Central authority behaves as task coordinator to delegate task to different domains.
Delegation by micro-task with low-level semantics: Delegation by micro task in distributed hierarchical paradigm allows the central authority to employ one or more management stations to perform specified tasks. Low-level semantics signifies the little abstraction from the details of the management task. Likewise, this method of delegation statically retrieved low-level data from simple agents before handing the response data to the central authority for processing into information.
Delegation by micro-task with high-level semantics: High-level semantics refers to meaningful abstractions from low-level data. For example, this method of delegation statically retrieves object data from a distributed environment before handling the response object to the central authority for processing. This framework encapsulated the protocol that supports communication between objects. Example of this distributed object paradigm includes common object request broker architecture (CORBA) and web based enterprise management (WBEM).
Delegation by macro-task with low-level semantics: Delegation by macro task allowed a central authority to empower one or more management stations to control specified managed elements rather than specified element properties. The management station performs necessary functions such as statically retrieving low-level data from simple agents to be processed into information by managing application. It is also responsible for taking corrective action if central authority is lost while communications.
Delegation by macro-task with high-level semantics: This form of delegation involves one or more authorized management stations controlling specified managed elements. Management functions include statically retrieving object data from a distributed environment which is subsequently processed by the managing application. It allows effective control decomposition and functional approximation to promote framework scalability, run time overhead reductions and workload dynamics. Example of this approach is a Goal Driven Network Management System [7].
Semantically rich delegation referred to a cooperative paradigm in distributed systems that empower the remote agent to control specified elements with limited instructions for preset operations. The intelligent agent relies on high-level goals and changing contextual data to make appropriate independent determination for successful management in a complex environment. Along with high autonomy and low task specification, cooperative paradigm uses horizontal delegation to cooperate with other agents unlike vertical delegation in hierarchical approaches. This is also more effective for real-time data collection within large complex and evolving networks. However, these approaches require some sort of system fidelity and measures of consistency across all nodes ensuring cooperation towards a common goal [8].
Distributed application structure defines client–server model that does segregation of workloads between service or resource provider, called servers and service or resource requester, called clients. These two separate components, a client and a server, which communicate over a network through a TCP/IP handshake paradigm. The client requests information, while the server responds when its advertised services are accessed. This each request/response, as depicted in Figure 1, is a complete round trip on the network. The code that implements these services i.e. the know-how is hosted locally by the server, also server has processing capabilities. Client decides with some intelligence which of services offered by server it should use.
Client server paradigm.
Single-tier architecture is the simplest, single tier on single user, and is the equivalent of running an application on a personal computer as shown in Figure 2. All the components like user interface, business logic, and data storage, which are necessary to run an application, are located within the system. They are the easiest to design, but the least scalable as they are not part of a network also they cannot be used for designing web applications [9].
Single-tier architecture.
Two-tier architectures supply a basic network between a client and a server. For example, the basic web model is a two-tier architecture as illustrated in Figure 3. A web browser makes a request from a web server, which then processes the request and returns the desired response, in this case, web pages. This approach improves scalability and divides the user interface from the data layers. However, it does not divide application layers so they can be utilized separately. This makes them difficult to update and not specialized. The entire application must be updated because layers are not separated.
Two-tier architecture.
Three-tier architecture is most commonly used to build web applications. In this model, the browser acts like a client, middleware or an application server contains the business logic, and database servers handle data functions. This approach separates business logic from display and data [10]. So the three layers commonly known as: presentation layer (PL/UI), business logic layer (BLL) and data access layer (DAL) as shown in Figure 4.
Presentation tier (Level 1): This provides the application’s user interface (UI). Being the topmost level it displays information related to user oriented functionality responsible for managing user interaction with the system. This acts as common bridge into core business logic encapsulated in business layer.
Business logic tier (Level 2): This is also called application layer as it controls an application’s functionality by performing detailed processing. This layer implements the core functionality of the system encapsulating the relevant business logic. It has components exposing service interfaces for callers to use.
Data access tier (Level 3): This includes data persistence mechanisms like database servers, file shares, etc. providing access to data hosted within system and data exposed by other networked systems. The data layer exposes generic interfaces that can be consumed by components in the business layer. It also provides an API to application layer that exposes methods of managing the stored data without out casting dependencies on the data storage mechanisms.
Three-tier architecture.
Terms layer and tier are often used interchangeably but one point of difference is that a layer is a logical structuring mechanism for the elements that make up the software solution. That means logical software component groups, mainly by functionality, are used for software development purpose. By contrast, a tier is a physical structuring mechanism for the system infrastructure [11]. Like an individual running server is one tier and several running servers may also be counted as one tier. Layer software implementation has many advantages and is a good way to achieve N-tier architecture. Layer and tier may or may not exactly match each other. Each layer may run in an individual tier. However, multiple layers may also be able to run in one tier.
N-tier implies more than three levels or tiers involved as depicted in Figure 5; mostly additional tiers are associated with business logic tier. Some layers in 3-tier can be broken further into more layers. These broken layers may be able to run in more tiers. For example, application layer can be broken into business layer, persistence layer or more. Presentation layer can be broken into client layer and client presenter layer [12]. So, in order to claim a complete N-tier architecture, client presenter layer, business layer and data layer should be able to run in three separate computers (tiers).
Client tier: This tier is involved with users directly. There may be several different types of clients coexisting, such as WPF, Window form, HTML web page and etc.
Client presenter tier: This contains the presentation logic needed by clients, such as ASP. NET MVC in IIS web server.
Business tier: It handles and encapsulates all of business domains and logics; also called as domain layer.
Persistence tier: This tier handles the read/write of the business data to the data layer, also called data access layer (DAL).
Data tier: It is the external data source, such as a database.
N-tier architecture.
Remote procedure call works on client–server communication protocol that is used by one program to request a service from a program located in another computer in a network without understanding network details. It is based on RPC is a synchronous operation requiring the requesting program to be suspended till the results of remote procedure are returned [13].
RPC is analogous to a function call extending the notion of conventional local procedure calling so that procedure need not exists in the same address space as the calling procedure. Like a function call, the calling arguments are passed to the remote procedure and the caller waits for a response to be returned from the remote procedure.
The client makes a procedure call that sends a request to the server and waits for response, as shown in Figure 6. The thread is blocked from processing until either a reply is received, or it times out. When the request arrives, the server calls a dispatch routine that performs the requested service, and sends the reply back to the client. After the RPC call is completed, the client program continues its normal execution [4].
Remote procedure call.
Stub: Stubs are generated at the static compilation time and then deployed to the client side which is used as a proxy for the client. Client-side proxy acts as a mediator between the client and the broker and provides additional transparency between them and the client so that a remote object appears like a local one. The proxy hides the inter-process communication (IPC) at protocol level and performs marshaling of parameter values and un-marshaling of results from the server.
Skeleton: Skeleton is generated by the service interface compilation and then deployed to the server side, which is used as a proxy for the server. Server-side proxy encapsulates low-level system-specific networking functions and provides high-level APIs to mediate between the server and the broker. It also receives the requests, unpacks the requests, un-marshals the method arguments, calls the suitable service, and also marshals the result before sending it back to the client [2].
Sequence of events during an RPC:
The client calls the client stub. The call is a local procedure call, with parameters pushed on to the stack in the normal way.
The client stub packs the parameters into a message and makes a system call to send the message. Packing the parameters is called marshaling.
The client’s local operating system sends the message from the client machine to the server machine.
The local operating system on the server machine passes the incoming packets to the server stub.
The server stub unpacks the parameters from the message. Unpacking the parameters is called un-marshaling.
Finally, the server stub calls the server procedure. The reply traces the same steps in the reverse direction. Figure 7 shows the event flow of RPC.
Event flow in RPC.
Remote method invocation is a technology introduced by java that allows invocation of methods that are remotely located by simply calling them using desired interfaces. RMI technology allows us to distribute over business logic i.e. making the business logic available on a remote server letting it accessible to clients [14].
RMI is often called as “RPC with object orientation”, i.e. the RPC but with ability to pass one or more objects along with the request. The objects can include the information that will change the service that is performed in the remote computer as delineated in Figure 8.
Remote method invocation.
For example, when a user at a remote computer fills out an expense account, the Java program interacting with the user could communicate, using RMI, with a Java program in another computer that always had the latest policy about expense reporting. In reply, that program would send back an object and associated method information that would enable the remote computer program to screen the user’s expense account data in a way that was consistent with the latest policy [15]. The user and the company both would save time by catching mistakes early. Whenever the company policy changed, it would require a change to a program in only one computer (Table 1).
RMI | RPC |
---|---|
Location neutral, language dependent | Language neutral mechanism |
Supports object oriented design | It is procedural like C |
It allows objects passing as arguments and return values | It supports only primitive data types |
This allows usage of design patterns | No such capability |
RMI v/s RPC difference table.
RMI is implemented as three layers (as illustrated in Figure 9):
Stub/Skeleton layer: A stub program represents the remote object and also acts as gateway to a corresponding skeleton at the server end. The stub appears to the calling program to be the program being called for a service.
Remote reference layer: This can behave differently depending on the parameters passed by the calling program. For example, this layer can determine whether the request is to call a single remote service or multiple remote programs as in a multicast.
Transport connection layer: This sets up and manages the request. A single request travels down through the layers on one computer and up through the layers at the other end.
Event flow in RMI.
RMI Registry is a central repository keeping a track of all services being exposed from the current network. Since all the clients’ requests for services through the RMI Registry the location of the application or service is unknown to the clients hence making the application location neutral [16].
Typically, code on demand is used for any technology that sends executable code from a server host to a client host on the request of the client’s application. Code on demand is a specific use of mobile code under the field of code mobility. In the code-on-demand style, as delineated in Figure 10, a client component has an access to a set of resources, but not the know-how on how to process them. It sends a request to a remote server for the code representing that know-how, receives that code, and executes it locally. So as per the code-on-demand paradigm, knowing the know-how is necessary when in need [17].
Code-on-demand.
Say for example, one host (A) initially is unable to execute its task due to a lack of code (know-how). And another host (B) in the network provides the needed code. Once the code is received by A, the computation is carried out on A’s machine. Host A holds the processor capability as well as the local resources. Unlike in the client–server paradigm, A does not need knowledge about the remote host, since all the necessary code will be downloaded.
Java applets are excellent practical examples of this paradigm. Applets get downloaded in Web browsers and execute locally.
The internet is a combination of various kinds of systems or platforms that are often required to communicate with each other. The client that makes a request may be from a completely different platform for instance the application may be hosted on the windows based server and client may be requesting from a Linux-based system.
Java introduced a new technology that would allow any client from any network platform to host and execute applications over the internet. This new technology was called as applets [18]. The word applet stands for an “application scriplets”. This can be defined as a piece of java code residing on a server machine requested via a browser downloaded over the internet and executed on the client machine via the browser. In order to execute the applet on a client machine, the browser must be java enabled i.e. JRE must be enabled. An applet is typically embedded inside a web page and runs in the context of a browser. The browser’s Java Plug-in software manages the lifecycle of an applet. The architecture of applet is shown in above Figure 11.
Architecture of applet.
Atop these five methods, depicted in Figure 12, an applet is been created:
Init(): This method is intended for whatever initialization is needed for your applet. It is called after the param tags inside the applet tag have been processed.
Start(): This method is automatically called after the browser calls the init method. It is also called whenever the user returns to the page containing the applet after having gone off to other pages.
Stop(): This method is automatically called when the user moves off the page on which the applet sits. It can, therefore, be called repeatedly in the same applet.
Destroy(): This method is only called when the browser shuts down normally. Because applets are meant to live on an HTML page, you should not normally leave resources behind after a user leaves the page that contains the applet.
Paint(): Invoked immediately after the start() method, and also any time the applet needs to repaint itself in the browser. The paint() method is actually inherited from the java.awt.
Life cycle of applet.
In computer science, remote evaluation is a term that belongs to the family of mobile code, within the field of code mobility. It is for any technology that involves the transmission of executable software code from a client hosts to a server hosts for execution to be happen at the server and the result is sent back to the client after execution for this resources of server sside are used [19]. A simple model of remote evaluation is illustrated in Figure 13.
Remote evaluation.
An example for remote evaluation is grid computing: An executable task may be sent to a specific computer in the grid. After the execution has terminated, the result is sent back to the client. The client in turn may have to reassemble the different results of multiple concurrently calculated subtasks into one single result.
Web based technologies are of two different types: Client Side Technologies and Server Side Technologies. The Client Side Technology has the code completely downloaded on the client machine and executed on the client itself, any changes that need to be incorporated or updated in the application will be on client system after re-downloading by the client. The processing of this application will take place on the client, completely.
In a Server Side Technology the complete business logic is maintained on the server and on the request of the client it will be executed on the server, delivering the response to the clients. The Java Servlets technology provides on such simple, vendor-independent mechanism to extend the functionality of a web server [20]. Servlets technology is similar to common gateway interface (CGI) scripts, Javascripts (on client side) and hypertext preprocessor (PHP). Additionally, scripting languages can be used in servlets to dynamically modify or generate hypertext markup language (HTML) pages. It also supports various HTTP methods, such as GET and POST, which is used to redirect requests and responses as shown in Figure 14.
Architecture of servlets.
Whenever a client sends a request to the J2EE application server for a particular servlet, the J2EE Application server passes the request to the Web container. The Web container checks whether an instance of the requested servlet exists. If the servlet instance exists then the Web container delegates the request to the servlet, which process the client request and sends back the response (Shown in Figure 15).
Various stages in request and response mechanism of servlets. (a) Clients request handling carried out by web container. (b) Object formation. (c) Calling servlet thread. (d) Thread execution. (e) Submission of response. (f) Final response toclient.
It is the job of Web container to get the request and response to the servlet. The container creates multiple threads to process multiple requests to a single servlet. So in case the servlet instance does not exist, the Web container locates and loads the servlet class. The Web container then creates an instance of the servlet and initializes it. The servlet instance starts processing the request after initialization. The Web container passes the response generated by the servlet to the client.
Servlets don’t have a main() method that’s why Web container manages the life cycle of a Servlet instance. The life cycle of the servlet includes three states: new, ready and end. The servlet is in new state if servlet instance is created. After invoking the init() method, Servlet comes in the ready state [21]. In the ready state, servlet performs all the tasks. When the web container invokes the destroy() method, it shifts to the end state. It is shown in Figure 16.
Life cycle of servlets.
Servlet class is loaded: The class loader is responsible to load the servlet class. The servlet class is loaded when the first request for the servlet is received by the web container.
Servlet instance is created: The web container creates the instance of a servlet after loading the servlet class. The servlet instance is created only once in the servlet life cycle.
Init method is invoke: The web container calls the init method only once after creating the servlet instance. The init method is used to initialize the servlet.
Method Signature: public void init(ServletConfig config) throws ServletException
Service method is invoked: The web container calls the service method each time when request for the servlet is received [22]. If servlet is not initialized, it follows the above three steps then calls the service method. The servlet is initialized only once so if servlet is already initialized, it directly calls the service method.
Method Signature: public void service(ServletRequest request, ServletResponse response) throws ServletException, IOException.
Destroy method is invoked: The web container calls the destroy method before removing the servlet instance from the service. It gives the servlet an opportunity to clean up any resources like memory, thread etc. Figure 16 shows life cycle methods of servlets.
In the past couple of years there has been a development of enthusiasm for versatile platform innovation and a few stages have been developed and innovated to allow more independencies in programming platform. In this chapter we have surveyed and researched the various computing environment provided for remote execution that has incurred the need of mobile codes, intelligent agents, autonomous objects, etc. raising issues with flexibility, efficiency and security in present system that can promises to resolve existing problems and add on more facilities like remote execution, auto-scheduling and many more. Some of them have just been utilized for look into purposes while others have been conveyed as business items. A few technologies that incorporated in evolution of mobile agents have been discussed on the basis of the usefulness of have been displayed in this exploration.
I would like to impart my sincere thanks to my guide Late. Dr. Rajesh Purohit, who has inspirited and fostered my interest in multifarious streams and disciplines of remoting and mobile-objects. Further I would like to extend my regards to all academic friends and lecturers who supported and motivated to move on with my work. They are (alphabetical order) Ashish Sharma, Poonam Purohit, Purva Dayya and Shivam Lohiya.
The following presents the acronyms used throughout this chapter.
HSD | hosted shared desktop |
VDI | desktop virtualization |
CORBA | common object request broker architecture |
WBEM | web based enterprise management |
MbD | management-by-delegation |
REV | remote revaluation |
CoD | code on demand |
TCP/IP | transfer control protocol/internet protocol |
PL/UI | presentation layer |
BLL | business logic layer |
DAL | data access layer |
API | application programmable interface |
UI | user interface |
WPF | windows presentation foundation |
HTML | hyper text markup language |
RPC | remote procedure call |
RMI | remote method invocation |
Applets | application scriplets |
Servlets | server scriplets |
CGI | common gateway interface |
HTTP | hyper text transfer protocol |
PHP | hypertext pre processor |
Hypertension (HTN) is a global health problem because of its high prevalence with concomitant risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), kidney disease, and other co-morbidities [1]. Although HTN like many other CVD risk factors was previously considered an adult health problem, recent evidence has shown that it is increasingly becoming a pediatric health problem with its prevalence tracking into adulthood [2, 3]. Therefore, if youth at risk of this disorder are identified early, proactive steps can be initiated to enhance better health prospects in later life.
Previous studies in the pediatric population have identified HTN as a potent antecedent of CVD and its rising prevalence is noticeable not only in industrialized countries but more so in developing countries including those in Africa [3, 4, 5]. It has been documented that elevated blood pressure (BP) in adolescence can be associated with target organ damage, renal failure, and adverse changes in sympathetic nervous system, all of which can negatively impact cardiac output with resultant imbalance in cardiovascular homeostasis [2]. Although the specific etiology of HTN remains nebulous, high levels of body fat and low physical activity (PA) or fitness level have been found to be major predisposing factors [6]. Several studies in youth have demonstrated positive relationships between body fat and resting blood pressure [4, 7]. For instance, a cross-sectional study [7] found fatness as well as fitness to be independent predictors of resting blood pressure. There is increasing evidence linking muscle fitness including muscle power to cardiovascular health in youth [8, 9]. A population-based study of American adolescents [10] documented an independent association between lower body muscle strength and cardiometabolic risk including blood pressure.
Despite the emerging evidence linking muscle fitness to health outcomes in youth, studies examining the independent association of lower body muscle power (here-in referred to as LP or vertical jump power-VJP) and fatness with BP are exiguous. Further, the interactive effect of fatness and LP on BP needs to be explored. The present study aimed to examine the independent and combined associations of BMI and VJP with resting BP among in-school adolescents in Benue State, North central Nigeria. Specifically, the study determined the independent and joint associations of BMI and VJP with resting BP among adolescent girls and boys. The study further examined the relationships among BMI, VJP, and BP to determine population-specific thresholds for BMI and VJP for predicting risk of HTN among participants. The study also examined variations in fatness categories by VJP levels. A better understanding of these relationships will help inform more effective intervention programs that could lead to improved LP with a concomitant reduction in disease risk among youth including the overweight. Thus, it was hypothesized that LP would reduce BP values regardless of fatness levels.
This cross-sectional study included volunteer participants from selected secondary schools in Benue State, North Central Nigeria. Participants were eligible to participate in the study if they had no musculoskeletal problems, history of CVD, other reported health problems and sickness or had not participated in organized exercise programs at least 6 months before data collection. The study purpose and test procedures were fully explained to participants after permission was duly obtained from the heads of participating schools. The study protocol was approved by the health research ethics committee of Benue State University (Ref. No. BSUTHMKD/HREC/2013/017). Written informed consent of parents/guardians and assent of participants were sought before data collection. All tests were conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the Helsinki declaration.
The present study was conducted among adolescents aged 12–16 years in the three senatorial districts of Benue State, Nigeria (Benue North, Benue Central, and Benue South). Benue state with its capital at Makurdi is located in the North central geopolitical zone of Nigeria. The predominant tribes are Tivs, Idomas, Igedes and Etulos. The study covered 11 secondary schools comprising 2100 adolescent girls and boys. Like any typical state in Nigeria, secondary schools in Benue State are in two main categories: public and private. The public schools are owned by the government while private schools are owned by private individuals and Christian missionaries. The schools start lessons by 8:00 am and close by 2:00 pm with a 45 minutes break at 10 am.
Participants’ physical characteristic measurements were in accordance with the protocol of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) [11]. Specifically, bare-foot body mass and stature were measured in light clothing without shoes and socks with the aid of a calibrated digital weighing scale (Model Sec-880, Seca Birmingham, UK) and wall-mounted stadiometer (Model Sec-206; Seca, Birmingham, UK) to the nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively. BMI was computed by dividing body mass in kilograms by stature in meter-square (kg.m−2). BMI was used to estimate body fatness. Body fat was estimated from triceps and medial calf skinfolds with the aid of Harpenden skinfold calipers (Creative Health Products, Ann Arbor, MI, USA). Measurements were taken three times on the right side of a participant’s body and the median was recorded. The revised regression equations for black children were used to estimate percent body fat [12]. On the basis of their BMI values, participants were categorized into healthy weight (HW) and overweight (OW) according to FitnessGram revised data [12].
Waist circumference (WC) which estimates abdominal fat [13] was measured with a Lufkin non-extensible flexible anthropometric tape (W606PM Rosscraft, Canada) to the nearest 0.1 cm. Details of the measurement procedure have been previously described [7]. All physical characteristics measurements were conducted by an accredited ISAK-Certified level 2 Anthropometrist (Lead author).
Before data collection, a pilot test was conducted to refine test administration procedures and determine precision of the instruments for data collection. Forty adolescent girls and boys ranging in age from 12–15 years that did not form part of the sample were recruited for the pilot test. All measurements were made according to standard procedures and the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients were calculated to determine test reliability. In all cases, the alpha coefficients ranged from 0.820 to 0.896, indicating good internal consistency [14].
Leg muscle power, a component of muscle fitness was assessed using a vertical jump (VJ) field test. The test was conducted indoors on a flat floor with a smooth wall using the countermovement jump (CMJ) protocol. Participants were instructed to rub chalk on the fingertips of the dominant hand and had a couple of practice sessions and then took their turns for the test. In the CMJ protocol, a participant stood with the dominant shoulder about 15 cm from the wall with both feet flat on the floor, reached as high as possible with the dominant hand, and made a chalk mark on the wall. He/she lowered the dominant hand, performed a countermovement by flexing the knees and hips, moving the trunk forward and downward and swinging the arms backward, and jumped with a swiping motion as high as possible making a second mark on the wall. The score was the vertical distance between the two chalk marks. Participants’ scores were converted into VJP values using a regression equation [15]. Each participant was given two trials and the best recorded to the nearest centimeter. Detailed description of the protocol is available elsewhere [16]. Participants were categorized into high and low groups using their sex-specific VJP receiver operating characteristic (ROC) cut-off values.
Blood pressure of participants was assessed in the morning while they occupied a sitting position after 10 minutes of rest with an oscillometric device. (HEM-705 CP, Omron Tokyo, Japan). The resting systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were monitored on each participant’s right arm using appropriate cuff sizes. Measurements were taken 3 times at 2-min intervals, and the average was recorded. Specific details of the BP protocol have been previously described [7]. The cut-off points for HTN (95th percentile for age and sex) in this study were based on the standards of the fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents 2004 [17].
Data were checked for normality before analyses with the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Complete data for all variables were available for 2047 out of 2100 adolescents, with a compliance rate of 97.5%. Descriptive statistics were presented as means ± SDs, frequencies, and percentage distributions. Student\'s t-test was used to compare the means of both genders on all study variables. Zero-order correlation coefficients were calculated to assess the relationships among BMI, VJP, and BP of participants. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to determine the independent and combined associations of BMI, VJP, and resting BP. All analyses were adjusted for biological maturation. Biological maturation was estimated from height and chronological age using the regression equation of Moore and Co-workers [18]. The equation estimates maturity offset (MO) directly. Then, age at peak height velocity (APHV) was estimated as the difference between chronological age and MO. The independent association of BMI and VJP with BP was further examined using binary logistics regression models. Separate analyses were conducted for girls and boys. Odd ratios (95%CI) of being hypertensive were calculated between BMI and VJP categories. The amount of variation in BP explained by the model was determined using the Cox and Snell R square and Nergelkerke R square [14]. Models were adjusted for MO as a potential confounding variable. The predictive capacities of the independent variables for the risk of BP were determined through the ROC analysis with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). Threshold values for identifying risk of HTN were determined through area under curve (AUC) values, sensitivity, and specificity. A diagnostic test with AUC equal to 1 is perfectly accurate and another with a value of 0.5 has no discriminatory power. Tests with the AUC of 0.9–1.0 = highly accurate; 0.7–0.9 = moderate; and < 0.7 = less accurate [19]. All analyses were conducted using the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS Version 20, IBM corporation, Armonk, NY, USA).
Participants’ general characteristics are summarized in Table 1. Girls were taller (
Variable | Combined (n = 2047) | Girls (n = 1087) | Boys (n = 960) | t-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (y) | 13.6 ± 1.3 | 13.6 ± 1.3 | 13.6 ± 1.3 | 0.786 | 0.432 |
APHV (y) | 13.4 ± 1.1 | 12.6 ± 0.7 | 14.2 ± 0.7 | 50.075 | <0.001 |
Stature (cm) | 150.3 ± 11.6 | 150.8 ± 11.0 | 149.7 ± 12.2 | 2.149 | 0.032 |
MO (y) | 0.2 ± 1.4 | 1.0 ± 1.0 | −0.6 ± 1.0 | 33.6 | <0.001 |
Body mass (kg) | 43.5 ± 9.0 | 44.2 ± 8.7 | 42.6 ± 9.3 | 3.931 | <0.001 |
BMI (kg.m−2) | 19.3 ± 3.8 | 19.5 ± 3.7 | 19.1 ± 3.9 | 2.319 | 0.021 |
Fat (%) | 16.0 ± 6.5 | 18.4 ± 5.6 | 13.4 ± 6.4 | 18.597 | <0.001 |
WC (cm) | 66.2 ± 8.4 | 67.1 ± 8.2. | 65.1 ± 8.5 | 5.460 | <0.001 |
LBM (kg) | 36.4 ± 7.4 | 35.9 ± 6.5 | 36.9 ± 8.3 | 2.935 | 0.003 |
VJH (cm) | 23.8 ± 7.6 | 22.7 ± 7.1 | 25.0 ± 7.9 | 6.774 | <0.001 |
VJP (w) | 1397.9 ± 507.9 | 1392.6 ± 481.7 | 1403.9 ± 536.2 | 0.501 | 0.617 |
SBP (mmHg) | 113.6 ± 17.4 | 115.5 ± 18.1 | 111.5 ± 16.4 | 5.174 | <0.001 |
DBP (mmHg) | 69.2 ± 13.7 | 68.8 ± 13.7 | 69.7 ± 13.7 | 1.465 | 0.143 |
r between BMI and VJP | 0.504 | 0.517 |
General characteristics of participants (n = 2047).
Prevalence of hypertension in participants.
As shown in Table 2, VJP had the strongest correlation with the dependent variables, especially SBP. Because MO also had strong relationship with the dependent variables, models were adjusted for MO in both genders. Multiple regression was conducted to determine independent association of fatness and LP with resting BP (Table 3). LP was the only independent predictor (p < 0.001) of SBP and DBP in both genders, the association with the SBP being stronger. Fatness was not significantly associated (p > 0.005) with SBP and DBP in both genders.
SBP | DBP | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group | MO | BMI | VJP | MO | BMI | VJP |
Girls | 0.207** | 0.147** | 0.314** | 0.120** | 0.110** | 0.118** |
Boys | 0.298** | 0.172** | 0.334** | 0.076* | 0.072* | 0.094* |
Correlation coefficients among BMI, VJP, and blood pressure.
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01.
Group | Dependent variable | Predictors | r2 | Β | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Girls | SBP | BMI | 0.099 | −0.016 | 0.662 |
VJP | 0.321 | <0.001 | |||
DBP | BMI | 0.017 | 0.068 | 0.051 | |
VJP | 0.084 | 0.016 | |||
Boys | SBP | BMI | 0.111 | −0.001 | 0.968 |
VJP | 0.335 | <0.001 | |||
DBP | BMI | 0.010 | 0.032 | 0.398 | |
VJP | 0.078 | 0.039 |
Fatness and leg power as predictors of SBP and DBP among participants.
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the joint associations of fatness and LP with BP controlling for MO in both genders (Table 4). For the girls’ SBP model, the covariate explained only 4.3% of the variance in step 1. The addition of BMI and VJP in step 2 increased the total variance to 10.4% indicating that both the independent variables explained an additional variance of 6.1%. LP (
Predictor | Model 1 | Model 2 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group | variable | r2 | Β | r2 | Β | |||
Girls | SBP | MO | 0.043 | 0.207 | <0.001 | 0.104 | 0.087 | 0.014 |
BMI | — | — | — | — | 0.021 | 0.568 | ||
VJP | — | — | — | — | 0.263 | <0.001 | ||
Boys | MO | 0.089 | 0.298 | <0.001 | 0.143 | 0.231 | <0.001 | |
BMI | — | — | — | — | 0.111 | 0.005 | ||
VJP | — | — | — | — | 0.165 | <0.001 | ||
Girls | DBP | MO | 0.014 | 0.120 | <0.001 | 0.029 | 0.130 | <0.001 |
BMI | — | — | — | — | 0.121 | 0.001 | ||
VJP | — | — | — | — | −0.003 | 0.949 | ||
Boys | MO | 0.006 | 0.076 | 0.019 | 0.013 | 0.071 | 0.091 | |
BMI | — | — | — | — | 0.066 | 0.122 | ||
VJP | — | — | — | — | 0.026 | 0.592 |
Multiple regression analysis among Fatness, leg power, and BP among participants.
Results of the logistic regression models (Table 5) indicated that in general only VJP and BMI made significant contributions, which were greater in girls. In the girls’ model, both fatness (OR = 2.6, 95% CI = 1.29–5.35;
SBP | DBP | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group | Pred | β | OR | 95%CI | β | OR | 95%CI | |||
Girls | MO | 0.30 | 1.35 | 1.12–1.64 | 0.002 | 0.34 | 1.40 | 1.15–1.72 | 0.001 | |
BMI | ||||||||||
HW OW | 0.966 | 1 2.63 | 1.29–5.35 | 0.008 | 0.82 | 1 2.27 | 0.96–5.34 | 0.061 | ||
VJP | ||||||||||
High Low | −0.923 | 1 0.40 | 0.25–0.64 | <0.001 | 0.431 | 1 1.54 | .96–2.48 | 0.076 | ||
Boys | MO | 0.595 | 1.81 | 1.44–2.29 | <0.001 | 0.194 | 1.20 | 0.96–1.53 | 0.103 | |
BMI | ||||||||||
HW OW | 0.920 | 1 2.51 | 0.96–6.56 | 0.060 | −1.426 | 1 0.24 | .032–1.80 | 0.165 | ||
VJP | ||||||||||
High Low | −0.289 | 1 0.75 | 0.46–1.23 | 0.252 | −0.312 | 1 0.73 | 0.45–1.19 | 0.208 |
Odds of risk of HTN are stratified according to gender (n = 2047).
Pred = predictor.
The ROC curve analyses are presented in Table 6. In both genders, the AUCs were significantly greater than 0.5 for both VJP and BMI (p < 0.05). The optimal threshold in girls for VJP and BMI were 1501.5 W and 18.9 kg.m−2, respectively. Corresponding values for boys were 1340.7 W and 18.9 kg.m−2, respectively. Details of the results are shown in Table 5. The gender-specific ROC curves are presented in Figures 2 and 3.
Group | Variable | AUC | 95%CI | Cut-point | Se | Sp | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Girls | BMI | 0.573 | .518–.627 | 18.9 | 0.575 | 0.516 | 0.014 |
VJP | 0.696 | .649–.743 | 1501.5 | 0.698 | 0.373 | <0.001 | |
Boys | BMI | 0.607 | .547–.667 | 18.9 | 0.606 | 0.413 | 0.001 |
VJP | 0.667 | .605–.729 | 1340.7 | 0.670 | 0.484 | <0.001 |
Receiver operating characteristic analysis for risk of HTN (n = 2047).
Areas under the curve for BMI and VJP in girls.
Areas under the curve for BMI and VJP in boys.
In order to further evaluate the influence of fatness and LP on BP, participants were divided into four fat/power groups and the results are presented in Table 7. The proportion of girls within these categories was 42.1%, 53.0%, 3.6%, and 1.3% for low fat/high power, low fat/low power, high fat/high power, and high fat/low power, respectively. Corresponding values for boys were 42.2%, 53.3%, 3.0%, and 1.3%. There were significant group differences in SBP for both girls (F(3,1083) = 7.50,
Girls (n = 1087) | Boys (n = 960) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group | n | SBP | DBP | n | SBP | DBP |
Low fat/High power | 458 | 108.6 ± 21.3 | 70.0 ± 13.5 | 407 | 106.2 ± 18.9 | 70.7 ± 13.7 |
Low fat/Low power | 576 | 111.0 ± 16.3 | 67.6 ± 13.8 | 512 | 107.6 ± 15.2 | 68.8 ± 13.7 |
Fat/High power | 39 | 108.3 ± 17.6 | 69.9 ± 12.3 | 29 | 102.8 ± 15.9 | 72.0 ± 13.1 |
Fat/Low power | 14 | 128.0 ± 17.6 | 74.8 ± 19.6 | 12 | 123.4 ± 24.6 | 69.8 ± 12.2 |
Differences in BP according to fat/power groups (n = 2047).
HP=High power; LP = Low power.
Recent evidence from both observational and prospective studies in high-and middle-income societies has shown overweight youth with low leg muscle power exhibit unfavorable cardiometabolic disease risk, including high BP [20, 21]. Although HTN, like in the developed world is becoming a health problem in sub-Saharan Africa, the significance of fatness and leg muscle power in the development of HTN remains to be fully investigated among Nigerian youth.
The main findings of this study include: First, the prevalence of HTN is comparable with prevalent rates documented in both industrialized and developing countries [22, 23] and it is higher in girls. Second, the relationships among the independent and dependent variables are generally weak to moderate. Third, Fatness and LP are independent predictors of BP, but LP demonstrated a greater explanatory capacity than fatness in girls. Fourth, the joint contribution of fatness and LP in predicting blood pressure is modest (10.4–14.3%). Finally, SBP and DBP values varied by fat-power groups, with the low fat-high power group indicating the most favorable BP profile compared to the fat-low power group with the most adverse profile.
For the total sample documented in this study, the systolic and diastolic HTN prevalence of 9.8% and 8.9, respectively, is higher than the rates of 4.9 and 6.5% reported for South African adolescents [22]. Similarly, the Global prevalence rate of 6.9% for African children [23] is also lower than the rates documented in the present study. This result implies that HTN in Nigerian youth is increasing at a disturbing rate.
In this study, both fatness and LP are weakly related to BP in both genders, though the relationship between leg power and BP is stronger. However, the relationship between fatness and LP can be said to be moderate. These results are in agreement with previous research [21, 24]. A probable reason for these weak correlations may be the low prevalence of overweight among study participants. This has been previously observed [25]. Despite the modest relationship between the independent variables and BP, the link is still important in health terms.
Results of this study clearly show that LP but not fatness was the independent predictor of SBP and DBP in both girls and boys. Our results are consistent with some previous reports [20, 25]. These results indicate that leg muscle power is a problem among the study participants. As indicated, large proportions of both girls (54.4%) and boys (54.8%) had low LP. This result highlights the need to focus on this aspect of fitness among this cohort of adolescents. Muscle power is now considered an important component of health-related physical fitness, which is associated with a positive health prognosis and a lower risk of developing CVD risk in the pediatric population [8].
The present study shows the joint contribution of fatness and LP in predicting resting SBP was moderate (Girls = 10.4%; Boys = 14.3%). But the major determinant of SBP in girls was LP while in boys, maturity status. The association of LP with SBP was stronger in girls than boys. A plausible reason for the result in girls may be early maturation (Table 1), they also often participate in less vigorous physical activities than boys, hence the higher BP levels. Our results are in agreement with those of several investigators [20, 21, 26]. But surprisingly, the relationship between LP and BP was positive, indicating that participants with greater leg power also had higher SBP. It has been observed that confounding variables such as excessive intake of salt, alcohol, and cigarette could lead to these results [20]. We are in agreement with these speculations as they appear plausible. Fatness was significantly associated with only SBP in boys and DBP in girls.
Findings from the present study clearly indicate that resting BP levels varied by cut-points of fatness and LP. The poorest BP profile was documented in adolescents who are overweight with low leg muscle power. Specifically, high levels of LP resulted in lower resting BP irrespective of fatness status. This result is supported by previous research in Norwegian adolescents [21]. This finding is of public health significance.
Based on our results and those of others, it may be realistic to believe that fatness and LP are important variables that contribute to the development of HTN in adolescents. Worthy of note is the importance of lower body muscle power in cardiovascular and musculoskeletal health. For instance, there is increasing evidence linking muscle fitness, including muscle power to cardiovascular and general health in youth [9, 26, 27]. Indeed, current physical activity guidelines for youth emphasize muscle-strengthening activities on a regular basis for improvement in muscle fitness [28, 29]. Based on empirical evidence, several authorities have emphasized the development of muscle fitness due to its overall health benefits [30, 31, 32]. Therefore, evidence from the present study and others should serve to stimulate effective public health strategies to minimize HTN in adolescents by improving leg muscle power and reducing fatness.
Findings from this study should be interpreted in the light of some limitations. The cross-sectional design precludes confirmation of cause-and-effect relationship. A major strength of this study was the use of valid field tests of health-related physical fitness. These tests use standards that discriminate well between children with more favorable cardiovascular health profiles from those with less favorable profiles. For instance, results from the logistic regression models showed a very high percentage accuracy classification (PAC) in both genders (Girls = 90.2%; Boys = 90.2%).
In conclusion, LP was independently associated with resting BP in Nigerian adolescents. The relationship of LP with BP was more robust in girls. Combination of fatness and LP in predicting BP was modest. Variation in BP for girls was best predicted by LP while that of boy was biological maturation. The combination of low LP and high fatness resulted in the most unfavorable BP profile. These results suggest that intervention targeting BP control in adolescents should focus more on leg muscle power with less emphasis on body composition, and this should be considered an important public health goal.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of students, teachers, and head teachers of schools that participated in the project. The contribution of the research assistants who made data collection possible is gratefully acknowledged.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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MS pathogenesis is not clear. Destruction of myelin by inflammation caused by autoimmune reactions has been proposed. Interestingly, healthy humans usually do not develop abzymes (Abzs). It was shown that DNase and MBP-hydrolyzing Abzs are easily detectable at the beginning of autoimmune diseases (ADs) including MS, when concentrations of antibodies to autoantigens are not yet significantly increased and correspond to levels in healthy donors. In addition, the relative enzymatic activity of antibodies from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is ~50-fold higher than that from the sera of the same MS patients. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in C57BL/6 mice, a model mimicking relevant aspects of human MS was used. During development of spontaneous and MOG35-55-induced EAE in C57BL/6 mice, a specific reorganization of the immune system of mice was observed. It leads to a condition which was associated with the generation of catalytically active IgGs-hydrolyzing DNA, myelin basic protein (MBP), and MOG. Production of Abzs was associated with increased proteinuria, leading changes in differentiation of mice bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and an increase in proliferation of lymphocytes in bone marrow, spleen, and thymus as well as a significant suppression of cell apoptosis in these organs. Treatment of control non-autoimmune CBA mice with MOG led to the different differentiation and proliferation of HSCs comparing with EAE C57BL/6 mice. The treatment of EAE mice with cuprizone inducing demyelination lead to a significant decrease in the size of the brain corpus callosum, but do not significantly change the differentiation profile of HSCs differentiation when compared with untreated mice. It indicates that cuprizone treatment is associated with demyelination, but not autoimmune reactivity. The possible differences in immune system reorganizations during preclinical phases of the disease, acute and late EAE, leading to production of different autoantibodies and Abzs as well other changes are discussed.",book:{id:"5156",slug:"trending-topics-in-multiple-sclerosis",title:"Trending Topics in Multiple Sclerosis",fullTitle:"Trending Topics in Multiple Sclerosis"},signatures:"Georgy A. Nevinsky",authors:[{id:"47119",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgy",middleName:null,surname:"Nevinsky",slug:"georgy-nevinsky",fullName:"Georgy Nevinsky"}]},{id:"21744",doi:"10.5772/19010",title:"Hallmarks in the History of Epilepsy: From Antiquity Till the Twentieth Century",slug:"hallmarks-in-the-history-of-epilepsy-from-antiquity-till-the-twentieth-century",totalDownloads:9305,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"627",slug:"novel-aspects-on-epilepsy",title:"Novel Aspects on Epilepsy",fullTitle:"Novel Aspects on Epilepsy"},signatures:"Emmanouil Magiorkinis, Kalliopi Sidiropoulou and Aristidis Diamantis",authors:[{id:"33300",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanouil",middleName:null,surname:"Magiorkinis",slug:"emmanouil-magiorkinis",fullName:"Emmanouil Magiorkinis"},{id:"33563",title:"Ms.",name:"Kalliopi",middleName:null,surname:"Sidiropoulou",slug:"kalliopi-sidiropoulou",fullName:"Kalliopi Sidiropoulou"},{id:"33564",title:"Dr.",name:"Aristidis",middleName:null,surname:"Diamantis",slug:"aristidis-diamantis",fullName:"Aristidis Diamantis"}]},{id:"24857",doi:"10.5772/28930",title:"Hormonal Signaling Systems of the Brain in Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"hormonal-signaling-systems-of-the-brain-in-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1993,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"745",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-processes-prevention-protection-and-monitoring",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",fullTitle:"Neurodegenerative Diseases - Processes, Prevention, Protection and Monitoring"},signatures:"Alexander Shpakov, Oksana Chistyakova, Kira Derkach and Vera Bondareva",authors:[{id:"75886",title:"Dr",name:"Vera",middleName:null,surname:"Bondareva",slug:"vera-bondareva",fullName:"Vera Bondareva"},{id:"75888",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Shpakov",slug:"alexander-shpakov",fullName:"Alexander Shpakov"},{id:"81684",title:"Dr",name:"Oksana",middleName:null,surname:"Chistyakova",slug:"oksana-chistyakova",fullName:"Oksana Chistyakova"},{id:"81685",title:"Dr.",name:"Kira",middleName:null,surname:"Derkach",slug:"kira-derkach",fullName:"Kira Derkach"}]},{id:"19739",doi:"10.5772/18469",title:"Antiepileptic Medicinal Plants used in Traditional Medicine to Treat Epilepsy",slug:"antiepileptic-medicinal-plants-used-in-traditional-medicine-to-treat-epilepsy",totalDownloads:9699,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"628",slug:"clinical-and-genetic-aspects-of-epilepsy",title:"Clinical and Genetic Aspects of Epilepsy",fullTitle:"Clinical and Genetic Aspects of Epilepsy"},signatures:"E. Ngo Bum, G.S. Taiwe, F.C.O. Moto, G.T. Ngoupaye, R.R.N. Vougat, V.D. Sakoue, C. Gwa, E.R. Ayissi, C. Dong, A. Rakotonirina and S.V. Rakotonirina",authors:[{id:"31580",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Ngo Bum",slug:"elisabeth-ngo-bum",fullName:"Elisabeth Ngo Bum"},{id:"46671",title:"Dr.",name:"Germain",middleName:"Sotoing",surname:"Taïwe",slug:"germain-taiwe",fullName:"Germain Taïwe"},{id:"46672",title:"MSc.",name:"Fleur",middleName:null,surname:"Moto",slug:"fleur-moto",fullName:"Fleur Moto"},{id:"46673",title:"Prof.",name:"Gwladys",middleName:"Temkou",surname:"Ngoupaye",slug:"gwladys-ngoupaye",fullName:"Gwladys Ngoupaye"},{id:"46674",title:"MSc.",name:"Espoir",middleName:null,surname:"Ayissi",slug:"espoir-ayissi",fullName:"Espoir Ayissi"},{id:"46675",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",slug:"christian-dong",fullName:"Christian Dong"},{id:"46676",title:"MSc.",name:"Frédéric",middleName:null,surname:"Maidawa",slug:"frederic-maidawa",fullName:"Frédéric Maidawa"},{id:"46677",title:"MSc.",name:"Gildas",middleName:null,surname:"Djafsia",slug:"gildas-djafsia",fullName:"Gildas Djafsia"},{id:"46678",title:"MSc.",name:"Leopold",middleName:null,surname:"Nanga",slug:"leopold-nanga",fullName:"Leopold Nanga"},{id:"46679",title:"MSc.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"Soudi",slug:"saleh-soudi",fullName:"Saleh Soudi"},{id:"46680",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Rakotonirina",slug:"alice-rakotonirina",fullName:"Alice Rakotonirina"},{id:"46681",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvère",middleName:null,surname:"Rakotonirina",slug:"silvere-rakotonirina",fullName:"Silvère Rakotonirina"}]},{id:"44560",doi:"10.5772/54744",title:"The Role of Epigenetics in Neurodegenerative Diseases",slug:"the-role-of-epigenetics-in-neurodegenerative-diseases",totalDownloads:4012,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"3278",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",fullTitle:"Neurodegenerative Diseases"},signatures:"Luca Lovrečić, Aleš Maver, Maja Zadel and Borut Peterlin",authors:[{id:"75615",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Lovrecic",slug:"luca-lovrecic",fullName:"Luca Lovrecic"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"44555",title:"Pharmacological Treatment of Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"pharmacological-treatment-of-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:3670,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3278",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",fullTitle:"Neurodegenerative Diseases"},signatures:"Humberto Mestre, Yael Cohen-Minian, Daniel Zajarias-Fainsod and\nAntonio Ibarra",authors:[{id:"72488",title:"Dr.",name:"José Juan Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Ibarra Arias",slug:"jose-juan-antonio-ibarra-arias",fullName:"José Juan Antonio Ibarra Arias"},{id:"120571",title:"Mr.",name:"Humberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mestre",slug:"humberto-mestre",fullName:"Humberto Mestre"},{id:"165904",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Zajarias-Fainsod",slug:"daniel-zajarias-fainsod",fullName:"Daniel Zajarias-Fainsod"},{id:"165905",title:"Mrs.",name:"Yael",middleName:null,surname:"Cohen-Minian",slug:"yael-cohen-minian",fullName:"Yael Cohen-Minian"}]},{id:"60608",title:"Mucuna and Parkinson’s Disease: Treatment with Natural Levodopa",slug:"mucuna-and-parkinson-s-disease-treatment-with-natural-levodopa",totalDownloads:4661,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Mucuna pruriens is a tropical bean containing large amounts of levodopa and is the most important natural remedy for Parkinson’s disease. Famous neurologists have patented methods of extraction for its advantages over the synthetic forms, Sinemet and Madopar. This natural levodopa is less toxic and has a faster and more lasting effect and can delay the need for pharmaceuticals and combination therapies. Currently, there are many patients with Parkinson’s disease who take Mucuna and spontaneously reduce the dose of conventional drugs and do so behind their doctors’ backs. Mucuna should always be taken under medical supervision.",book:{id:"6406",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-understanding-pathophysiology-and-developing-therapeutic-strategies",title:"Parkinson's Disease",fullTitle:"Parkinson's Disease - Understanding Pathophysiology and Developing Therapeutic Strategies"},signatures:"Rafael González Maldonado",authors:[{id:"214658",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-Maldonado",slug:"rafael-gonzalez-maldonado",fullName:"Rafael Gonzalez-Maldonado"}]},{id:"19700",title:"Physiotherapy for Children with Cerebral Palsy",slug:"physiotherapy-for-children-with-cerebral-palsy",totalDownloads:21769,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"630",slug:"epilepsy-in-children-clinical-and-social-aspects",title:"Epilepsy in Children",fullTitle:"Epilepsy in Children - Clinical and Social Aspects"},signatures:"Mintaze Kerem Günel",authors:[{id:"38412",title:"Prof.",name:"Mintaze",middleName:null,surname:"Kerem Günel",slug:"mintaze-kerem-gunel",fullName:"Mintaze Kerem Günel"}]},{id:"51151",title:"Association Between Multiple Sclerosis Risk and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: Insights and Challenges",slug:"association-between-multiple-sclerosis-risk-and-human-immunodeficiency-virus-infection-insights-and-",totalDownloads:2044,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a convoluted autoimmune and inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) in which the protective myelin sheath is eroded and the underlying nerve fibers are damaged. There is no conclusive knowledge on the role played by different etiological factors in its development, and studies have shown that it primarily results due to complex interactions between the genetic, geographic and infectious components. Among the risk factors reported to have a possible role in MS development, retroviruses also appear to influence it. Studies suggest human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection to be inversely related to MS risk, but to date, the association between the two remains enigmatic. This protective inverse association has become an area of active research and the most plausible explanations for this may be immune suppression and/or antiretroviral medications. The purpose of writing this chapter is to provide background information on the unfathomable relationship between HIV infection and the risk of developing MS while at the same time providing description of the insights garnered from recent studies. While highlighting the application of ART (antiretroviral therapy) as budding future alternative for MS management, this chapter provides momentum for further studies.",book:{id:"5156",slug:"trending-topics-in-multiple-sclerosis",title:"Trending Topics in Multiple Sclerosis",fullTitle:"Trending Topics in Multiple Sclerosis"},signatures:"Ehtishamul Haq, Insha Zahoor and Mushfiquddin Khan",authors:[{id:"181077",title:"Dr.",name:"Ehtishamul",middleName:null,surname:"Haq",slug:"ehtishamul-haq",fullName:"Ehtishamul Haq"},{id:"185233",title:"Dr.",name:"Insha",middleName:null,surname:"Zahoor",slug:"insha-zahoor",fullName:"Insha Zahoor"},{id:"185234",title:"Dr.",name:"Mushfiquddin",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mushfiquddin-khan",fullName:"Mushfiquddin Khan"}]},{id:"63824",title:"Plasmapheresis in Treatment of Myasthenia Gravis",slug:"plasmapheresis-in-treatment-of-myasthenia-gravis",totalDownloads:1349,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Treatment of myasthenia gravis is still a rather difficult task, since there is no single tactic to use different drugs (corticosteroids, rituximab, immunoglobulins), especially since it is associated with a number of side effects. They are not able to remove the accumulating autoantibodies and immune complexes, the large size of which does not allow them to be excreted by the kidneys as well. Special problems of treatment arise when myasthenic crises develop associated with respiratory failure requiring artificial lungs ventilation. Plasmapheresis can help to solve this for it is possible to remove antibodies and other pathological metabolites. In addition, regular plasmapheresis is able not only to prevent exacerbations but also to reduce doses of the maintenance therapy with less risk of their side effects, which is confirmed by our own experience.",book:{id:"7160",slug:"selected-topics-in-myasthenia-gravis",title:"Selected Topics in Myasthenia Gravis",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Myasthenia Gravis"},signatures:"Valerii Voinov",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1056",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81721",title:"Atrial Fibrillation and Stroke",slug:"atrial-fibrillation-and-stroke",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104619",abstract:"Atrial fibrillation (AF) represents a major cause of morbidity and mortality in adults, especially for its strong association with thromboembolism and stroke. In this chapter, we aim to provide an overview on this cardiac arrhythmia, addressing several important questions. Particularly, we faced the possible mechanisms leading to an increased risk of embolism in AF, emphasizing how Virchow’s triad for thrombogenesis is unable to fully explain this risk. Disentangling the risk of stroke caused by AF and by other associated vascular conditions is extremely challenging, and risk stratification of patients with AF into those at high and low risk of thromboembolism has become a crucial determinant of optimal antithrombotic prophylaxis. Moreover, we discuss the typical clinical and radiological characteristics of cardioembolic strokes, addressing acute, time-dependent reperfusional therapies in case of ischemic stroke. The role of anticoagulation in AF is also fully analyzed; the benefit of oral anticoagulation generally outweighs the risk of bleeding in AF patients, and a variety of scoring systems have been developed to improve clinical decision-making when initiating anticoagulation. With their predictable pharmacokinetic profiles, wide therapeutic windows, fewer drug–drug and drug-food interactions, and the non-vitamin K antagonist (VKA) oral anticoagulants (NOACs) have changed the landscape of thromboprophylaxis for AF patients, offering the opportunity to use effective anticoagulants without the need for intensive therapeutic drug monitoring.",book:{id:"10782",title:"Cerebrovascular Diseases - Elucidating Key Principles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10782.jpg"},signatures:"Francesca Spagnolo, Vincenza Pinto and Augusto Maria Rini"},{id:"81639",title:"Atrial Cardiopathy and Cryptogenic Stroke",slug:"atrial-cardiopathy-and-cryptogenic-stroke",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103736",abstract:"Cryptogenic stroke (CS) is defined as the presence of cerebral infarcts, the cause which has not been identified despite an appropriate diagnostic evaluation, and it accounts for approximately 30–40% of all ischemic strokes. There is a certain subgroup of CS with embolic characteristics on neuroimaging studies and no evidence of atrial fibrillation alternative or any alternative cause. Recent data suggest that disorders of the atrium, even without atrial fibrillation, could increase thromboembolic risk. The pathological atrial substrate, or atrial cardiopathy (AC), may be an important and underrecognized cause of cryptogenic strokes. This chapter will review the information on the rationale and data behind the concept of atrial cardiopathy, its pathophysiology, proposed biomarkers of atrial cardiopathy, and therapeutic implications.",book:{id:"10782",title:"Cerebrovascular Diseases - Elucidating Key Principles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10782.jpg"},signatures:"Marianela López Armaretti, Natalia Romina Balian and María Cristina Zurrú"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"COVID-19, Neuroimmunology and Neural Function",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"COVID-19, Neuroimmunology and Neural Function",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"},{id:"80005",title:"Infarct Stroke and Blood Glucose Associated with Food Consumption in Indonesia",slug:"infarct-stroke-and-blood-glucose-associated-with-food-consumption-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101548",abstract:"Stroke is the primary cause of death in adults. It is predicted that the death caused by stroke will increase twice in the next 30 years. In Indonesia, stroke is one of the diseases of the circulatory system, which has been taking the first place of causing death since 2007. Indonesia has rice as the main type of daily food consumed, which has higher glycemic index than other sources. This study aims to find the risk of blood glucose level that determines the incidence of infarct stroke. There were 164 patients enrolled in this study, 82 patients in each stroke and not stroke group. The blood examination is using the enzymatic method, which is the hexokinase method. The results of research revealed that indicators of high blood glucose level were found in infract stroke incidence, including casual blood glucose, fasting blood glucose, 2-h postprandial blood glucose, and glycated hemoglobin. These four indicators were found in a higher level in the infarct stroke than the non-stroke group. Other epidemiological studies have shown that diabetes is a risk factor for stroke. Therefore, education about food selection should be a priority in the effort to prevent infarct stroke and diabetes mellitus in Indonesia.",book:{id:"10782",title:"Cerebrovascular Diseases - Elucidating Key Principles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10782.jpg"},signatures:"Santi Martini, Hermina Novida and Kuntoro"},{id:"80391",title:"COVID-19 and Seizures",slug:"covid-19-and-seizures",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102540",abstract:"The past two years were deeply marked by the emergence of a global pandemic caused by the worldwide spread of the virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. The plethora of repercussions on the health of those affected is extensive, ranging from asymptomatic individuals, mild flu-like disease, and severe respiratory failure, eventually leading to death. Despite this predilection for the respiratory system, the virus is responsible for multisystemic manifestations and soon became clear that neurological involvement was a frequent issue of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Much have been pointed out about the neurotropic nature of the virus, the ways by which it invades and targets specific structures of the central nervous system, and the physiopathology behind the neurologic manifestations associated with it (namely encephalomyelitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, lacunar infarcts, and vascular dysfunction, just to list a few). 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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. 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Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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