Chemical composition of the B356.2 alloy (wt%) [8].
\r\n\tThere are different types of multiple pregnancies: fraternal twins, identical twins, triplets, and higher-order multiples. Symptoms of multiple pregnancies are larger uterus than expected for the date in pregnancy, increased morning sickness, increased appetite, and excessive weight gain. In this book, we will examine the clinical aspects of multiple pregnancies and management. Also, we will examine the management of cases of twins including antenatal care, delivery, and postpartum.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-198-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-197-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-199-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"70396c6f5f2928c422c1eaf6d33c6269",bookSignature:"Prof. Hassan S Abduljabbar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11732.jpg",keywords:"Multiple Pregnancies, Twins, Physiology, Incidence, Epidemiology, Demographics, Predisposing Factors, Prenatal Diagnosis, Zygosity, Complications, Management of Birth, Antenatal Care",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"14 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology at King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia, consultant, clinician, researcher, editor, and referee of many international scientific medical journals. Dr. Abduljabbar is president of the Saudi Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the president of the Federation of Arab Gynecology Obstetrics Societies. He has published more than seventy-five scientific articles and edited several books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"S",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68175/images/system/68175.png",biography:"Hassan S. Abduljabbar, MD, FRCSC, American Board Diplomate, is a professor at the College of Medicine, King Abdulaziz\nUniversity, Saudi Arabia. He is also the president of the Saudi Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the Federation of Arab\nGynecology Obstetric Societies (FAGOS). He is a referee for\nmany international scientific journals. He is also an examiner for\ngraduate degrees as well as for the Saudi and Arab board exams.\nDr. Abduljabbar has published more than fifty articles and edited three books.",institutionString:"Dr. Erfan & Bagedo General Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444312",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Tikel",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444312/images/20015_n.jpg",email:"sara.t@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2013",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Clinical Aspect",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31dfd32a77f71bc348d7922af48b8e62",slug:"steroids-clinical-aspect",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2013.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"814",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Basic Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74304f5d822f8f45d4b48a0e00ebd375",slug:"steroids-basic-science",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5937",title:"Obstetrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"092197b1191815505a23e7dd1c9edde6",slug:"obstetrics",bookSignature:"Hassan Salah Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5937.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10485",title:"Fibroids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"64ad14b1aba83e47fb100fa63e21533e",slug:"fibroids",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7132",title:"Complications of Pregnancy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d2bdac8e99a71feab10bd0b9e1063bb9",slug:"complications-of-pregnancy",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7132.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10721",title:"Preeclampsia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb38592b7a656d02dd6b28c34e43de32",slug:"preeclampsia",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10721.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7969",title:"Leiomyoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"659a9fef0f90168b2184c86af85d3a42",slug:"leiomyoma",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56987",title:"Effect of Microalloying Elements on the Heat Treatment Response and Tensile Properties of Al-Si-Mg Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70665",slug:"effect-of-microalloying-elements-on-the-heat-treatment-response-and-tensile-properties-of-al-si-mg-a",body:'\nThe main objectives of heat-treating cast Al-Si-Mg alloys include homogenization, stress relief, improved dimensional stability, and optimization of the strength and ductility parameters. The T6 heat-treated Al-Si-Mg alloys have an optimum combination of strength and ductility. The typical heat treatment specification of a T6 temper consists of solid solution treatment and quenching, followed by aging. The main effects of solution heat treatment are the dissolution of Mg2Si particles, the homogenization of the casting, and modification of the morphology of eutectic silicon through fragmentation and spheroidization at critical temperatures. The recommended solution temperature for 356 and 357 alloys is 540 ± 5°C [1, 2].
\nThe purpose of quenching is to preserve the solid solution formed at the solution heat treatment temperature by rapid cooling to room temperature. The quenching medium and rate are the parameters which control the mechanical properties. The highest strength can be ensured when the material is subjected to a rapid quenching rate. Aging is the final stage of heat treatment in cast Al-Si-Mg alloys. The aging can be natural or artificial. Alloy mechanical properties depend on both aging temperature and time. The main objective of artificial aging is to heat the as-quenched castings to an intermediate temperature between 150 and 200°C for 4–8 h in order to precipitate the excess solutes which were supersaturated in α-Al during the solution heat treatment process. The improvement achieved in the mechanical properties during artificial aging is due to the precipitation of metastable phases from the supersaturated solution. Al-Si-Mg alloys fulfill the following precipitation sequence [3]:
\nSS → needle-shaped GP zones → rod-like β
For Al-Si-Mg alloys, the solubility of Mg and Si in the Al matrix decreases with temperature. In order to obtain a maximum concentration of Mg and Si particles in solid solution, the solution temperature should be close to the eutectic temperature. For the 356 and 357 alloys, the solution temperature is 540 ± 5°C. At this temperature, about 0.6% Mg can be placed in solid solution. The dissolution of Mg2Si into Mg and Si occurs in the two alloys at 475 and 540°C, respectively [4].
\nAn investigation [5] was carried out on the effects of T6 and T4 tempers on the tensile properties of nonmodified and Sr-modified A356 alloys obtained from permanent mold and sand mold castings. The results showed that the yield strength is not appreciably influenced by the change in Si-particle characteristics. The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and %El increases significantly with increase in the solution treatment time at 540°C. Also it was observed that upon modification with Sr the fracture mode changes from brittle to ductile especially in sand castings. Both non-modified and Sr-modified alloys obtained from permanent mold casting, however, showed ductile fracture mode. All the improvements in the tensile properties reported upon were related mainly to the changes which occurred in the Si particle aspect ratio and particle size during solution treatment.
\nYoshida and Arrowood [6] studied the effects of varying the solutionizing parameters (time and temperature) of a T6 traditional treatment on the mechanical properties (i.e., hardness, ductility, and ultimate tensile strength) of Sr-modified and nonmodified permanent mold cast A356 alloys. The investigated solution treatment times were 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 h, while the solution treatment temperatures were 520 and 540°C, where the aging treatment was kept unchanged at 160°C for 6.5 h. The highest hardness was obtained at the shortest solutionizing time of 2 h for both the unmodified and modified A356 alloy, while the highest ductility was not reached until the samples were solutionized for 8 h at the same temperature. A slight change in solutionizing temperature did not cause much variation in hardness, ductility, or UTS. It may also be concluded that the Sr-modified samples exhibit higher ductility than the unmodified ones under all the heat treatment conditions reported in this study.
\nA valuable study was carried out by Moustafa et al. [7, 8] on A413. 1 Al-Si eutectic alloys, where they reported that alloys with Mg contents suffered reduction in hardness, yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength values following the addition of Sr. They explained this observation in terms of retarded precipitation of Mg2Si particles during the aging treatment owing to longer incubation period preceding the commencement of precipitation, irrespective to the solutionizing time [8, 9]. Also, alloying element additions of Mg and Be, resulted in improving the hardness and strength of the base alloy, especially in the T6 condition, where adding small amount of Be (∼0.02%) prevented Mg oxidation (i.e., formation of MgO and MgAl2O4 (spinel)) during melting, so that the hardness increased slightly.
\nThe main purpose of this study, on Al-Si-Mg type 356 and 357 casting alloys, is to investigate the effects of alloying elements and heat treatment conditions on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of nonmodified and Sr-modified 356- and 357-type alloys by examining the following factors:
\nThe influence of alloying elements on the aging behavior of alloy castings investigated in relation to:
Fe content, Sr-modification, grain refining, and addition of Mg and Be; and
Solution heat treatment and aging parameters.
Microstructural analysis of the precipitated phases during the solidification process.
Correlating the results obtained from the tensile testing with the microstructural analysis to determine the effects of each alloying element, intermetallic phase, changes in the morphology, solutionizing parameter, and aging condition on the mechanical properties of the alloys investigated.
The chemical composition of the B356.2 alloy used in the present study is shown in Table 1. The Mg level of the alloy was increased by adding pure Mg to the alloy melts to obtain Mg levels of 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 wt%. The Fe and Be were added in the form of Al-25% Fe and Al-5% Be master alloys, respectively, to the alloy melt to obtain Fe levels of 0.09, 0.2, and 0.6 wt% and a Be level of 0.05 wt%. The Sr and Ti were added in the form of Al-10% Sr and Al-5% Ti master alloys, for Sr-modification and grain refining purposes, respectively, to the alloy melts to obtain levels of 0.02 wt% Sr and 0.15 wt% Ti.
\nSi | \nFe | \nCu | \nMg | \nZn | \nAl | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B356.2 | \n7.0 | \n<0.06 | \n<0.025 | \n0.35 | \n<0.001 | \nBal | \n
Chemical composition of the B356.2 alloy (wt%) [8].
AA, aluminum association.
Unlisted aluminum or impurities.
An electrical resistance furnace with a 70-kg crucible capacity was used to prepare 60 kg of each alloy. The melt was kept at 750 ± 5°C as the melting temperature at which additions of magnesium, iron, beryllium, strontium, and titanium were made. These measured additions were added to the melt using a perforated graphite bell. Before casting, the melt was degassed using pure and dry argon for 20 min using a graphite impeller in order to clean the melt from hydrogen and inclusions. For the purposes of thermal analysis, one sample of each alloy composition was prepared using the arrangement shown in Figure 1; moreover, two samplings for chemical analysis were also taken from each melt, one before the start of casting and one at the end of casting.
\nSchematic drawing showing the graphite mold used for thermal analysis.
The chemical analysis was carried out using arc spark spectroscopy at GM facilities in Milford, NH. The actual chemical composition of each of the alloys prepared is shown in Table 2, representing average values taken over three spark measurements made for each chemical analysis sample. The alloys A1 through C3B shown in the table represent 18 non-modified alloys while their Sr-modified counterparts were coded A1S to C3BS, respectively. The Sr level ranged from 0 to 0.02 wt% in these alloys. The codes A, B, C, 1, 2, etc. are explained below.
\nAlloy code | \nElement concentration (wt%) | \n||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Si | \nFe | \nMg | \nCu | \nMn | \nTi | \nSr | \nBe | \nAl | \n|
7.02 | \n0.101 | \n0.376 | \n0.050 | \n0.010 | \n0.143 | \n0.001 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.00 | \n0.203 | \n0.383 | \n0.008 | \n<0.001 | \n0.151 | \n0.001 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
6.97 | \n0.630 | \n0.372 | \n0.011 | \n0.002 | \n0.174 | \n0.001 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
6.99 | \n0.113 | \n0.590 | \n0.042 | \n0.008 | \n0.164 | \n0.001 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.03 | \n0.210 | \n0.570 | \n0.009 | \n0.002 | \n0.179 | \n0.001 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
6.88 | \n0620 | \n0.540 | \n0.010 | \n0.002 | \n0.172 | \n0.001 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.08 | \n0.123 | \n0.760 | \n0.034 | \n0.007 | \n0.192 | \n0.002 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.35 | \n0.226 | \n0.750 | \n0.009 | \n0.002 | \n0.197 | \n0.001 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.07 | \n0.630 | \n0.750 | \n0.010 | \n0.003 | \n0.183 | \n0.002 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.33 | \n0.093 | \n0.368 | \n0.052 | \n0.006 | \n0.180 | \n0.001 | \n0.034 | \nBal. | \n|
6.61 | \n0.197 | \n0.474 | \n0.011 | \n<0.001 | \n0.180 | \n0.001 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
6.89 | \n0.670 | \n0.510 | \n0.011 | \n0.002 | \n0.186 | \n0.003 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
7.26 | \n0.081 | \n0.530 | \n0.006 | \n<0.001 | \n0.173 | \n0.001 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
6.60 | \n0.184 | \n0.710 | \n0.007 | \n<0.001 | \n0.177 | \n0.001 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
6.22 | \n0.680 | \n0.700 | \n0.007 | \n0.002 | \n0.183 | \n0.001 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
6.50 | \n0.127 | \n0.980 | \n0.034 | \n0.006 | \n0.203 | \n0.001 | \n0.026 | \nBal. | \n|
6.38 | \n0.196 | \n0.960 | \n0.009 | \n0.001 | \n0.210 | \n0.001 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
5.96 | \n0.560 | \n0.920 | \n0.009 | \n0.003 | \n0.221 | \n0.002 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
7.06 | \n0.103 | \n0.338 | \n0.046 | \n0.010 | \n0.139 | \n0.016 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.18 | \n0.217 | \n0.354 | \n0.014 | \n0.002 | \n0.165 | \n0.019 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.18 | \n0.660 | \n0.349 | \n0.007 | \n0.002 | \n0.172 | \n0.017 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.07 | \n0.105 | \n0.520 | \n0.033 | \n0.002 | \n0.156 | \n0.018 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.26 | \n0.217 | \n0.530 | \n0.009 | \n0.001 | \n0.169 | \n0.015 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.17 | \n0.640 | \n0.530 | \n0.008 | \n0.002 | \n0.154 | \n0.017 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.98 | \n0.101 | \n0.820 | \n0.035 | \n0.002 | \n0.152 | \n0.013 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
7.26 | \n0.185 | \n0.730 | \n0.030 | \n0.002 | \n0.171 | \n0.009 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
6.84 | \n0.710 | \n0.860 | \n0.034 | \n0.005 | \n0.169 | \n0.006 | \n— | \nBal. | \n|
6.54 | \n0.122 | \n0.640 | \n0.041 | \n0.007 | \n0.227 | \n0.048 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
6.12 | \n0.190 | \n0.491 | \n0.009 | \n<0.001 | \n0.217 | \n0.027 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
7.78 | \n0.810 | \n0.530 | \n0.084 | \n0.012 | \n0.210 | \n0.016 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
7.64 | \n0.123 | \n0.780 | \n0.010 | \n0.002 | \n0.243 | \n0.024 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
5.93 | \n0.194 | \n0.730 | \n0.007 | \n<0.001 | \n0.227 | \n0.023 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
7.06 | \n0.670 | \n0.710 | \n0.007 | \n0.002 | \n0.222 | \n0.022 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
7.26 | \n0.105 | \n0.950 | \n0.020 | \n0.002 | \n0.188 | \n0.023 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
6.33 | \n0.194 | \n0.950 | \n0.021 | \n0.002 | \n0.189 | \n0.017 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n|
6.21 | \n0.690 | \n0.850 | \n0.033 | \n0.005 | \n0.207 | \n0.014 | \n>0.036 | \nBal. | \n
Average chemical composition (wt%) of the alloys studied.
A = 0.1% Fe, B = 0.2% Fe, C = 0.6% Fe, 1 = 0.4%Mg, 2 = 0.6% Mg, 3 = 0.75% Mg, S = Sr,*B = Be.
\nThe various alloys were used to prepare castings from which test bars were obtained for tensile testing purposes. With this aim in mind, the degassed molten metal was carefully poured into an ASTM B-108 permanent mold preheated to 450°C, to obtain castings for tensile testing. Figure 2a shows the actual casting obtained whereas Figure 2b shows the dimensions of the tensile bars.
\n(a) ASTM B-108 permanent mold used for casting tensile test bars and (b) dimensions of the tensile test bar (in mm).
Following casting in the ASTM B-108 permanent mold, the tensile bars were divided into 13 different bundles (5 bars/bundle); each bundle was subjected to certain heat treatment conditions as follows: 1 bundle was kept in the as-cast condition; 1 bundle was solution treated at 540°C for 5 h, then quenched in warm water at 65°C, and was kept in the as-solutionized condition; another bundle was kept also in the as-solutionized condition, however, after solutionizing for 12 h at 540°C followed by quenching in warm water at 65°C; 5 bundles were solution heat-treated at 540°C for 5 h, then quenched in warm water at 65°C followed by artificial aging at 160°C for 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12 h, respectively; the remaining 5 sets (bundles) were solution heat-treated at 540°C for 12 h, then quenched in warm water at 65°C followed by artificial aging at 160°C for 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12 h, respectively. The solution and aging heat-treatments were carried out in a forced-air Blue M electric furnace equipped with a programmable temperature controller, accurate to ±2°C. The aging delay was less than 10 s. For each individual heat treatment, five test bars were used.
\nFor each condition, the test bars were pulled to fracture at room temperature at a strain rate of 4 × 10−4/s using an MTS Servohydraulic mechanical testing machine. During the course of the tensile test, an attachable strain-gauge extensometer was connected to the gauge section of the tensile bars to measure the percentage elongation. The reported tensile data were the percentage elongation to fracture (%EF), 0.2% offset yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength; these data were reported as the average values of five data sets obtained from pulling five bars per condition.
\nSamples for microstructural analysis were taken from both the tensile-tested bars ~10 mm below the fracture surface and the as-cast thermal analysis castings, which were sectioned to study each alloy condition, that is, for the tensile-tested bars, one sample was used in the as-cast condition, while the other two were solution heat-treated (540°C/5 h and 540°C/12 h) beside the as-cast thermal analysis sample. The microstructures of the polished sample surfaces were examined using an optical microscope linked to a Clemex image analysis system, and a Hitachi S-4700 field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM), equipped with a standard secondary electron detector (SE), a backscatter electron detector (BSD), and an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS).
\nMeasurements of the dendrite arm spacing (DAS) showed that the DAS was about 24 μm in the as-cast tensile bars. The Si particle measurements for the A1 base alloy, containing low levels of Mg and low Fe, and modified base alloy A1S, show that the Si particle area decreased from 28.4 to 0.67 μm2, the Si particle length decreased from 10.8 to 1.25 μm (as can be seen from Figure 3), the aspect ratio decreased from 3.78 to 1.84, while the roundness ratio increased from 18.9 to 50.3% upon addition of Sr to the A1 base alloy in the as-cast condition [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
\nAverage length of eutectic silicon particles with different solution heat treatment conditions.
The addition of Be in alloy A1B1 resulted in reduced silicon particle area of 10.3 μm2, a reduced silicon particle length of 6.6 μm, a lower value of aspect ratio (2.73), and an increased roundness ratio up to a value of 35.7%. The mutual addition of Sr and Be (alloy A1BS) led to a reduction in silicon particle area (1.31 μm2), silicon particle length (1.84 μm), and the aspect ratio (1.94); however the roundness ration increased to 47.6%. By increasing the Fe and Mg content (alloy C3), the silicon particle area decreased to 6.9 μm2, the silicon particle length and aspect ratio reduced to 6.44 μm and 3.01, respectively, while the roundness ratio increased to 24.6%. The combined addition of strontium, beryllium, iron, and magnesium (alloy C3BS) reduced the silicon particle area to 1.53 μm2, the silicon particle length to 2 μm, the aspect ratio to 1.99 and increased the value of the roundness ratio to 46.7%. The aforementioned values of the silicon particle characteristics highlight the modification effect of Sr and the partial modification effect of both Mg and Be. However, with increasing Fe levels it seems that most of the Be reacts with the Fe forming a Be-Fe phase (Al8Fe2BeSi). The results for the average Si particle length are summarized in Figure 3.
\nFigure 4 shows the morphology of the eutectic Si particles in the A1 alloy, deeply etched in hydrofluoric acid (HF) solution. As can be seen in Figure 4a, the Si particles precipitated in the form of short platelets with sharp angles (white arrow). Solutionizing at 540°C resulted in fragmentation of the Si particles as demonstrated by the circled area in Figure 4b. As inferred from Figure 4c, there is a large difference in the particle sizes (see arrow) caused by dissolution of these particles in the aluminum matrix leading to coarsening of the other particles and hence the reported standard deviation (100%). Another observation that could be made from Figure 4c is that the new fragments of the Si platelets are still maintaining the platelet shape as shown by the more elongated particles in the figure. This process continued even after solutionizing for 400 h at 540°C as displayed in Figure 4d–f.
\nVariation in eutectic Si particles in A1 alloy as a function of heat treatment: (a) as cast, (b and c) after 5 h at 540°C, (d) after 12 h at 540°C, (e) after 200 h at 540°C, and (f) after 400 h at 540°C. The white arrow in (f) reveals the dissolution of fine particles even after the long solutionizing time at 540°C.
Figure 5 shows the microstructure of A1S alloy. As expected, addition of Sr 160 ppm resulted in changing the morphology of the Si particles to fibrous as displayed in Figure 5a. The microstructure of the A1S alloy following solutionizing at 540°C for 5 h is presented in Figure 5b. Three observations could be made from this figure:
Necking of the Si particles-solid arrow
Dissolution of some particles in the matrix-broken arrow, in keeping with the: Ostwald ripening mechanism [15] (see Figure 6).
Coarsening of other particles by collision.
Variation in eutectic Si particles in A1S alloy as a function of heat treatment: (a) as cast, (b) after 5 h at 540°C, (c and d) after 12 h at 540°C, and (e) after 200 h at 540°C, and (f) after 400 h at 540°C broken arrow in (b) points to the presence of very small Si particles, whereas the solid arrow in (e) indicates the complete fusion of a Si particle in a cluster of particles.
Schematic diagram showing coarsening of Si particles according to Ostwald ripening mechanism [
Increasing the solutionizing time to 12 h at 540°C led to partial spheroidization as shown by the solid arrows in Figure 5c where the new particles are having multiple sides. The white area circled in Figure 5c points to particle collision. Figure 5d is an enlarged portion of Figure 5c showing the possibility of the fusion of some particles in the background to the left, leading to a coarser one. This process of coarsening was observed to continue up to 400 h at 540°C, Figure 5d–f. It should be noted here that the Si particles are not spherical; rather, they possess multiple faces (Figure 5f).
\nSamuel et al. [16] observed that any Sr-modified microstructure is clearly affected when magnesium is present. Microstructural parameters as obtained from image analysis, such as silicon particle size and aspect ratio, were found to increase with an increasing Mg content, subsequently becoming increasingly inhomogeneous. The reason for the deterioration in modification is believed to be the formation of intermetallic phases of the type Mg2SrAl4Si3, where the addition of Mg also lowers the eutectic temperature - the eutectic temperature decreases with increasing Mg content. It was also reported, however, that a magnesium content of ~1 wt% itself acts as a refiner for the eutectic silicon in unmodified Al-Si alloys.
\nIbrahim et al. [17] showed that the addition of up to 0.5 wt% of Mg to molten 319 type alloys results in the formation of Mg2Si; the Mg-rich phase commonly exists as rounded black particles close to the eutectic silicon particles. It was also reported that the addition of Mg results in remarkable fragmentation/modification of the eutectic silicon particles as well as transformation of a large portion of the harmful needles of β-Al5FeSi Fe phase into the less detrimental Chinese script-like phase with a composition close to Al8Mg3FeSi6.
\nThe heat treatment for Al-Si-Mg alloy is T6 which consists of solution heat treatment and natural or artificial aging. A solution treatment between 400 and 560°C, results in the dissolution of the hardening phase (Mg2Si) in the aluminum matrix. However, the solutionizing temperature is limited by the eutectic phase melting temperature. The alloy thereafter is aged at low temperature (150–200°C) for precipitation of the hardening compounds which improves the mechanical properties of the aluminum matrix [18]. The primary purpose of the long solution treatment is to thermally alter silicon particle characteristics [19]. During T6 treatment, the Mg and Si which are in solid solution precipitate as Mg2Si during the aging treatment [13].
\nFigure 7a reveals the precipitation of Mg2Si in the form of Chinese script (black) following the formation of π-Al8Mg3FeSi6 in 356 alloy solidified at 0.8°C/s (A1 alloy). The identity of these two phases was confirmed from their corresponding EDS spectra shown in Figure 7b and c, respectively. The microstructure of the A1 alloy following solutionizing at 540°C for 12 h is shown in Figure 8a, revealing the presence of scattered particles. These particles have been identified as Si particles [20]. Following aging at 160°C for 12 h resulted in the dense precipitation of Mg2Si particles in the form of short rods-Figure 8b. Obviously, the density of the Mg2Si precipitation is controlled by the amount of added Mg and the presence of Sr [21]. Another parameter to be considered during long solutionizing times is the decomposition of the π-phase into the β-phase as demonstrated in Figure 9 [22].
\nPrecipitation of Mg2Si and π-Fe in 356 alloy solidified at 0.8°C/s: (a) backscattered electron image, (b) EDS spectrum corresponding to Mg2Si phase, and (c) EDS spectrum corresponding to
Backscattered electron images of the precipitation observed in A1 alloy tensile bars: (a) T4 condition and (b) T6 condition.
Decomposition of π-phase to β-phase during solutionizing at 540°C for 12 h [
Tensile properties of reference alloys A1, A3, and C3 in the as-cast and different heat treatment conditions applied are summarized in Table 3. In the as-cast samples, increasing Mg content from 0.4 wt% (base alloy A1) to 0.8 wt% (alloy A3) resulted in slightly increasing the strength due to the partial modification effect of Mg as well as the transformation of β-phase to π-phase, that is, most of the Fe-intermetallic phases precipitated in the form of the π-phase in spite of the low Fe content (0.09 wt%), whereas increasing the Fe level up to 0.6 wt% in the high Mg-containing alloy A3 i.e. alloy C3 resulted in decreasing the UTS somewhat, because of the growing formation of Fe-intermetallic phases. For the three reference alloys, percent elongation was decreased.
\nA1 | \nUTS (MPa) | \n204 | \n262 | \n342 | \n358 | \n361 | \n354 | \n360 | \n
YS (MPa) | \n97 | \n116 | \n237 | \n267 | \n277 | \n282 | \n292 | \n|
El (%) | \n6.5 | \n15.9 | \n10 | \n8.7 | \n8.1 | \n6.2 | \n6.5 | \n|
A3 | \nUTS (MPa) | \n204 | \n263 | \n343 | \n358 | \n381 | \n383 | \n386 | \n
YS (MPa) | \n114 | \n141 | \n254 | \n292 | \n330 | \n333 | \n347 | \n|
El (%) | \n3.4 | \n7.2 | \n5.96 | \n4.3 | \n3.1 | \n2.8 | \n2.0 | \n|
C3 | \nUTS (MPa) | \n201 | \n239 | \n320 | \n328 | \n366 | \n366 | \n360 | \n
YS (MPa) | \n116 | \n135 | \n270 | \n297 | \n345 | \n350 | \n357 | \n|
El (%) | \n2.6 | \n4.8 | \n1.7 | \n1.0 | \n1.0 | \n0.9 | \n0.7 | \n|
A1 | \nUTS (MPa) | \n204 | \n255 | \n340 | \n358 | \n360 | \n362 | \n362 | \n
YS (MPa) | \n97 | \n107 | \n229 | \n273 | \n284 | \n274 | \n280 | \n|
El (%) | \n6.5 | \n17.6 | \n12.3 | \n10 | \n8.7 | \n9.5 | \n8.5 | \n|
A3 | \nUTS (MPa) | \n204 | \n287 | \n351 | \n368 | \n382 | \n382 | \n384 | \n
YS (MPa) | \n114 | \n154 | \n266 | \n295 | \n321 | \n336 | \n353 | \n|
El (%) | \n3.4 | \n9.7 | \n6.5 | \n3.6 | \n4.0 | \n2.7 | \n2.0 | \n|
C3 | \nUTS (MPa) | \n201 | \n250 | \n317 | \n334 | \n367 | \n365 | \n364 | \n
YS (MPa) | \n116 | \n152 | \n294 | \n301 | \n317 | \n326 | \n327 | \n|
El (%) | \n2.6 | \n4.3 | \n1.0 | \n1.0 | \n0.9 | \n0.7 | \n0.7 | \n
Tensile properties of reference alloys A1, A3, and C3 in the as-cast and heat-treated conditions.
Applying 5 h solution heat treatment at 540°C appeared in a noticeable increase in the ultimate strength (UTS) values, (59 MPa) for alloys A1 and A3, and (39 MPa) for alloy C3, due to the fragmentation and spheroidization of Si particles and spheroidization of undissolved π-phases as well as dissolving of Mg2Si in the matrix and the decomposition of the π-phase to β-phase which further fragmented during solution heat treatment, thereby improving the tensile properties. For both solutionizing times, the elongation values obtained were two times or more higher than those observed in the as-cast condition for alloys A1, A3, and C3, indicating improved ductility of the solution heat-treated samples. Similar results regarding the addition of alloying elements and solution heat treatment parameters have been reported in a number of studies [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
\nThe tensile data of the 31 alloys used in the present work was classified into 4 series:
Fe-Mg series.
Fe-Mg-Be series.
Fe-Mg-Be-Sr series.
Fe-Mg-Sr series.
The data was then treated using Minitab software and is presented in Figures 10–12.
\nVariation in the UTS values as a function of alloying elements.
Variation in the YS values as a function of alloying elements.
Variation in the % elongation to fracture (EF) values as a function of alloying elements.
Based upon the results presented in these figures, the following observations may be noted:
\nIn the as-cast condition, increasing the Mg content leads to further transformation of the β-phase platelets to a Chinese script
Increasing the solution heat treatment time leads to further decomposition of the π-phase, fragmentation of the β-phase, and spheroidization of the eutectic Si, resulting in an improvement in the alloy tensile properties.
Increasing the Fe level decreases the alloy ductility values, whereas the addition of Mg increases the % EF-values.
Introducing Be, Sr, or both, improves the alloy strength to some extent, regardless of the levels of Fe and Mg present.
Increasing solution treatment time from 5 to 12 h enhances the UTS and YS values.
Increasing the Mg-content results in improving the tensile properties; however increasing the iron levels markedly deteriorates these properties.
Additions of Be and Sr noticeably improves the mechanical properties of the alloys with the same Fe and/or Mg contents; however, these enhancements in mechanical properties are markedly observed at higher Mg contents and reduced levels of Fe.
It is evident from Figure 13a that Fe is the major element in determining the alloy performance. Introduction of Sr or Be or both would help in minimizing the harmful effect of Fe but to a limited extent. Increasing the solutionizing time to 12 h improved the alloy ductility due to coarsening of the eutectic Si particles. Figure 13b shows the UTS values of all the 36 alloys used in the present study for a solutionizing time of 5 h. It is clear that most of the T6 values are falling within a narrow zone represented by the oval circle moving the major axis to somewhat higher UTS levels with an increase in the UTS range (arrows). With increase in the solutionizing time from 5 to 12 h (Figure 13c), the width of the oval circle increased, accompanied by a slight drop in the major axis direction to lower UTS levels.
\nThe 3D scattered plot of UTS versus %EF versus aging time: (a) base alloy, (b) all alloys in the T6 condition following solutionizing for 5 h at 540°C, and (c) all alloys in the T6 condition following solutionizing for 12 h at 540°C. The black arrows indicate the major axis of the oval circles.
The present work was carried out on a series of heat-treatable aluminum-based aeronautical alloys containing various amounts of magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), strontium (Sr), and beryllium (Be). From an analysis of the results obtained, the following concluding remarks may be made.
The addition of beryllium produces partial modification of the eutectic silicon particles in a manner similar to that reported for the addition of magnesium. The eutectic temperature was reduced by 10°C as a result of the addition of 0.8 wt% Mg. The solidification curves and their derivatives of Sr-free alloys with high Fe and Mg contents showed that there was a peak at 611°C consequent to the formation of a Be-Fe (Al8Fe2BeSi) phase, this peak was very close to the peak corresponding to the formation of α-Al. The morphology of the Be-Fe phase was recognized to be a script-like one.
Increasing the duration of solution heat treatment enhances the tensile properties of the alloys through the decomposition of the π-iron phase into the β-iron phase, fragmentation of the β-phase, and change in the geometry of both π-phase and silicon particles (i.e., spheroidization). Two mechanisms of eutectic Si particle coarsening during solution heat treatment were observed to occur: (1) Ostwald ripening in the solution and (2) clustering/collisions of the Si particles. Coarsening increases with increased solution heat treatment time.
Higher Mg contents are believed to be beneficial to the tensile properties (i.e., ductility, ultimate tensile strength, and yield strength) in that they oppose the detrimental effect of increasing the Fe content on the same tensile properties. Additions of Be and Sr noticeably improve the mechanical properties of the alloys with the same Fe and/or Mg contents; however, these enhancements in mechanical properties are markedly observed at higher Mg contents and reduced levels of Fe. In the case of high levels of Fe, addition of Be is preferable because it neutralizes the deleterious effects of Fe phases in cast aluminum-silicon alloys; though adding 500 ppm of Be, in case of high Fe contents, is inadequate to interact with other alloying elements. During the melting process, the possible existence of a Be-Sr phase (probably SrBe3O4) is believed to consume some of the Be content in the alloy, leading to both reduction in the free Be content as well as the alloy mechanical properties.
The alloy tensile properties are highly affected by varying the solutionizing and aging treatments times. In the 356 base alloy, the main strengthening effects were confirmed to be related to the formation of Mg2Si precipitates. The improvements in the yield strength values are attributed to higher Mg contents, lower levels of Fe, addition of Be, Sr-modification, and solutionizing and aging times. Such enhancements in yield strength values are of great importance to the aeronautical industry because the design considerations in that field are mainly influenced by the yield strength.
The authors would like to thank Amal Samuel for enhancing the quality of the images and figures used in the present manuscript. They also wish to thank Dr. A.M. Samuel for careful proofreading of the manuscript.
\nBurns are the most traumatic injuries and physically harmful because of long hospitalization and rehabilitation, which lead to significant morbidity and mortality [1, 2]. The development of effective treatment associated with burn injury is a major unmet medical problem. Current burn wound treatment methods, such as eschar excision, split-thickness skin autograft, and cell-based skin constructs, are still not satisfactory and remain challenging. Not only causing painful and relative costly treatment, but those methods are also very difficult to perform in patients due to poor availability of healthy tissue [3, 4, 5].
Despite any advances in burn management, how to treat wound properly at the outset of burn injury is the important key of an effective treatment. Most patients with burn injuries suffer from long-term pain and posttraumatic situation; therefore, an appropriate burn wound handling with a good dressing initially is expected to be a great way to minimize scar formation and accelerate burn wound healing. A good clinical dressing must be easy to handle, avoids infection and inflammation, has no toxicity, causes no allergic reactions, and permits easy and early mobilization [6, 7].
Bioactive wound dressing, or functionalized wound dressing, is expected to overcome the limitations of the current treatment in burn wound management. This dressing delivers either bioactive compounds or dressing that is constructed from a material having endogenous activity in wound healing, which contribute not only a matrix for repair but also growth factors and cytokines to enhance the healing process [8]. Various types of bioactive wound dressings are available on the market and are used clinically. However, bioactive wound dressings have advantages and disadvantages, so choosing the suitable wound dressing as needed is advised.
Alginate, commonly derived from seaweed, has been widely investigated by many researchers for possible new alternative in wound management field. Alginate, a rich natural polysaccharide, which contains glycosaminoglycan (GAG), has several major properties such as biocompatibility, gelling, and swelling that keep the wound site moist enough for proper healing and then able to reduce healing times of wounds [9, 10]. When attached with wound, an ion-exchange reaction occurs between the calcium in the alginate and the sodium in the exudate, thus producing a soluble gel that help maintain a moist wound environment and also hold bacterial infection in absorbed wound fluid at the same time. This is why alginate is recommended for the treatment of moderate to highly exuding wounds [11].
Calcium alginate polysaccharide (CAPS) has been found suitable for use in pharmaceutical drugs, as a bioactive food ingredient, and for cell encapsulation or tissue regeneration [12]. Numerous studies revealed that CAPS-containing dressing for severe burn injuries has outstanding outcomes such as rapid wound closure with less scarring formation, minimum bacterial infection, cytokine enhancement regulation, and appropriate inflammatory response and pain regulation. In addition, this material becomes substantial to be considered as optimal burn wound dressing treatment because it maintains a great moist microenvironment at the wound site. Therefore, the detail mechanisms and involvement of CAPS dressing in accelerating burn wound healing will be further discussed in this chapter.
Generally, the treatment of burn injury depends on both depth and surface area of burn wounds, which reepithelialization is the most important stage of burn wound repair. For the severe burn injury such as deep partial-thickness or full-thickness burn, there is a need of special treatment to prevent delayed reepithelialization due to the destruction of epithelial regenerative elements in the basal layer of the epidermis and in the dermis. To date, eschar excision and split-thickness skin autograft taken from a healthy skin of the same patient are medical standard treatments for severe burn injury [3, 4]. However, the grafts are causing pain and very difficult to perform in patients due to poor availability of healthy tissue. In addition, many types of cell-based skin constructs have been developed for full-thickness burn injury, but poor survival rate of the keratinocytes in cell sheets has been a major concern in these discoveries [5].
On the other hand, for the first or superficial second-degree injury, the reepithelialization remains possible by the migration of keratinocytes from the edges of the wound, followed by their proliferation, stratification, and dedifferentiation to form an intact epithelium [3]. But still, an optimal reepithelialization requires a supportive microenvironment to avoid infection. Bacterial infection was well known as a common cause of death after burns [13]. Commonly, antimicrobial creams and occlusive dressings are applied on the wound to avoid infection, to limit wound progression, and to improve epithelialization progression [14].
Despite any advances in burn management, how to treat wound properly at the outset of burn injury is the important key of an effective treatment. The proper burn wound handling in the beginning with the functionalized wound dressing may enhance reepithelialization progress and accelerate an intact epithelium formation with minimal scar appearance. Not only should achieve rapid healing at reasonable cost with less inconvenience to the patient, but the use of clinical dressing also must be easy to handle, avoids infection and inflammation, has no toxicity, causes no allergic reactions, and permits easy and early mobilization [6, 7].
Based on its natural action, wound dressings are normally classified as passive products, interactive products, and bioactive products [9]. Passive products consist of traditional dressings like gauze and tulle dressings which account for the largest market segment. Interactive products consist of polymeric films and forms, which are recommended for low exuding wounds due to its characteristics. Bioactive products are which deliver either bioactive compounds or dressings are constructed from a material having endogenous activity in wound healing. These materials include proteoglycans, collagen, non-collagenous protein, chitosan, or alginate. They are considered to contribute not only a matrix for repair but also growth factors and cytokines to enhance the healing process [8]. Commercially, various types of those bioactive wound dressings are currently used in the clinical setting with their advantages and disadvantages for some types of wounds. In the case of burn wound, the dressing with rich glycosaminoglycan (GAG) is expected to encourage the efficient and rapid healing process. GAG has a significant role in wound healing phases which acts as a regulator of early inflammation to modulate inflammatory cell and fibroblast cell migration, pro-inflammatory cytokine synthesis, and the phagocytosis of invading microbes [15].
Alginate, commonly derived from seaweed, is a rich natural anionic phytol polysaccharide (APS) that consists of mainly differing ratios of D-mannuronic and L-guluronic acid, which are covalently bound through 1,4-glycosidic linkages. Polysaccharides and proteins are the most common natural polymers used in the tissue engineering field for the regeneration of full-thickness wounds because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and similarity with ECM [16, 17]. Containing glycosaminoglycan (GAG), they play a key role in wound healing due to their ability to encourage activation of the immune system that cleans up the wound site after injury and reduces the pain simultaneously. It provides a moist environment around the wound site that leads to rapid granulation and reepithelialization. Alginate-based wound dressings have also been demonstrated for their hemostatic properties in exudation/bleeding wounds and burns [9]. Alginate can easily form gels by binding with divalent cations, especially calcium ions [18]. The gelling property of alginate helps in the dressing removal without much trauma [19].
Alginate dressings were originally presented as formed from calcium alginate fibers and have been technically fabricated with fibers woven to form a more solid and strengthen structure to obtain an applicable wound dressing. As wound dressing, treatment with calcium alginate polysaccharide (CAPS) dressings had shown great wound recovery outcome in various types of skin wounds [20, 21, 22, 23]. They promoted healing via a direct modulatory effect on wound macrophage activation that secretes pro-inflammatory cytokines within the chronic wound bed which may initiate a delayed inflammatory phase [24]. Additionally, numerous studies revealed that CAPS-containing dressing for severe burn injuries has outstanding outcomes such as rapid wound closure with less scarring formation, minimum bacterial infection, cytokine enhancement regulation, and appropriate inflammatory response and pain regulation. Hence, this material becomes substantial to be considered as an optimal burn wound dressing.
The proper treatment of wound has attracted the human attention over several decades. Among the various types of wound, severe burn injuries are the most traumatic and physically harmful, which lead to significant morbidity and mortality [1, 2]. Burn injuries can lead to multifarious uncontrolled effects after the accident, and they may have a major impact to the body functions of burn-injured patients. Historically, they were accounted for an estimate of 180,000 deaths every year, which are related to burn injury worldwide, and the vast majority occurs in low- and middle-income countries [25]. Most burn victims face up a long-term hospitalization and suffer major burns covering 25% of their body surface.
The healing process of burn wound, both small burn and large severe burn injuries, occurs through several biological processes, such as hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation. Without the right handling, a hypertrophic scar caused by fibroblastic proliferation will be formed during the healing process, which is confined to the wound site [26]. In addition to local wound repair, severe large burns also can stimulate a persistent pathophysiological stress response [27].Most patients with burn injuries suffer pain during burn wound debridement in the clinic, which they describe as severe to excruciating despite the use of powerful opioid analgesics [28]. Based on local and systemic pathophysiologic responses, burn wound recovery is generally divided into three phases: acute phase, healing phase, and rehabilitation phase. The acute phase may be completely bypassed in smaller injuries, which specifically lasts 2–3 days [29, 30]; the healing phase may be weeks or more, whereas the rehabilitation phase most often takes at least 1 year and sometimes much longer, depending on patient participation in the treatment plan, patient age, and specification of burn [31]. These long phases of recovery often lead burn-injured patients to survive from long-term pain and encounter a posttraumatic situation.
In order to reduce the lifelong burn wound recovery phases which usually contributes to the further problems, an effective treatment must begin at the outset of burn wound care. An appropriate burn wound handling in the beginning is expected to be a great way to minimize scar formation and accelerate burn wound healing.
Since burns have a heterogeneous nature, a variety of animal burn models have been developed as valuable tools to observe the pathophysiology of burns. Animal models continue to be explored to uncover the molecular and cellular aspects that characterize human burn trauma [32]. Better understanding of the burn wound healing in animal models and their relation to human wounds will significantly overcome the limited translation of research into practical treatments for burn-injured patients.
Wang et al. [33] treated a severe burn injury in swine model with calcium alginate polysaccharide (CAPS) dressing to observe wound repair and scar formation comparing to the use of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as a commonly used wound dressing for many years [34, 35]. These animals were also used to assess the secondary outcomes of the depth of scar formation at postburn, determined by the Vancouver Scar Scale (VSS) which consists of four variables: vascularity, height (thickness), pliability, and pigmentation. The total score ranges from 0 to 14, whereby a score of 0 reflects normal skin. The results showed that wounds dressed with CAPS exhibit a rapid reepithelialization and less scar formation, which appeared with a smooth wound. Based on VSS scores, there was less scar formation in the wounds dressed with CAPS, shown by significantly lower scores up to 6 weeks of observation. Scarring, or fibrosis, is known as an abnormal tissue remodeling. The management of scar formation is one of major complications encountered during the wound healing process. Without the right handling, a hypertrophic scar caused by fibroblastic proliferation will be formed during the healing process [26]. Moreover, healing by fibrosis instead of regeneration often causes lifelong disability that has a significant economic impact [36].
In line, an obvious wound closure and relative complete reepithelialization were observed to occur on wound dressed with the CAPS dressing in rat group model [37]. Their histological analysis revealed that the new dermis tissue on dressing treated wound area was composed of reorganized and stratified epithelial layer, with fully developed connective tissue, hair follicle, sebaceous glands, and aligned collagen. Another study reported that CAPS dressing treatment accelerated wound closure rate and exhibited a faster epithelialization [38]. They found that the expression of skin tissue collagen I was elevated by CAPS dressing application, and this dressing provides a moist environment and a faster collagen I-related epithelialization.
The ability of CAPS dressing reduces scar formation in burn injury is attributable to its rich contain of glycosaminoglycan (GAG), which was known to promote wound healing, lead to rapid granulation and reepithelialization, and thus yield a minimum scar formation certainly. Moreover, when attached to the wound, an ion-exchange reaction occurs between the calcium in the alginate and the sodium in the exudate, producing a soluble gel that turns to help maintain a moist wound environment [39]. CAPS dressings also have their inherent ability to augment hemostasis, as release of calcium ions leads to platelet activation [40, 41]. Additionally, calcium ions also speed up the wound healing process by modulating cell proliferation, maturation, and the creation of epidermal lipid barriers [42, 43, 44].
As another major challenge in burn injury management, bacterial infection becomes the most common cause of mortality and morbidity [13, 45, 46]. Infection is defined as the presence of high concentrations (>
Some studies have demonstrated that CAPS dressings have hemostatic [47] and some bacteriostatic [48] properties. CAPS dressing for burn wound treatment demonstrated a remarkable inhibition of bacterial growth than CMC dressing treatment, which significantly reduced the amount of bacteria at 3 weeks postburn injury [33]. This reduction was maintained until 6 weeks postburn injury. The infection control functioned by CAPS dressing might be related to its bacterial infection holding in absorbed wound fluid. As they swell, they trap wound debris and bacteria, thereby reducing overall bacterial load within the wound during dressing changes [19]. In addition, the advantages of a new technology conferring a bactericidal effect on CAPS gels for wound dressing have been explored. Poor et al. [49] developed nonthermal-plasma-treated alginate gel wound dressing, and the results showed that this treatment has better wound decontamination and wound healing capabilities, as well as broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and negligible cytotoxicity.
CAPS dressing reduced the bacterial growth through the release of calcium, which has been recommended as an antimicrobial agent [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55], resulting in superior bactericidal and bacteriolytic effects compared with other antimicrobial agents [52, 53, 54, 55]. Moreover, the use of alginate derivatives such as antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal agents has been revealed by numerous data [56, 57]. Negatively charged alginates were found to interact with the outer bacterial cellular surface, which causes disruption and leakage of intracellular substances [58, 59]. Additionally, the ability of alginate modulating the production of toxins, microbial growth, and factors crucial for microorganism’s stability could be the reasons for its antibacterial efficacy characteristic. Some varieties of bacteria such as
Further, the CAPS dressing treatment has also demonstrated its critical role in inflammation. Inflammation is a crucial stage to successful burn wound healing. The release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, interferon (INF)-γ, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, after thermal injury is one of the important systemic inflammatory responses in burn-induced skin damages [62, 63]. Pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokines act as important modulators of immune cell proliferation, differentiation, and clonal growth of lymphocyte subpopulations and also attract immune cells to the site of burn injuries [64], which are substantial in the process of burn wound recovery.
The involvement of IL-4, IL-6, TNF-α, and MCP-1 was found in the early stages of the rat’s response to burn injury treated with CAPS dressing [33]. Immune cells were attracted by these cytokines to the site of injuries to initiate an immune response right away after burning. The ratio of IL-6 to TNF-α can be used to predict mortality from sepsis following burn injury [65]. IL-4 and IL-8 may serve as predictive biomarkers of mortality from sepsis and/or multiple organ failure (MOF) [66]. In addition, MCP-1, an initiator of typ. 2 T-cell generation and an indicator of bacterial infection, is essential for optimal microbial elimination [52]. The involvement of MCP-1 in Gram-positive bacterial infections has been demonstrated in the control of
Furthermore, the pain is related with the modulation of transforming growth factor (TGF-β), an important inflammatory cytokine and anti-inflammatory factor [70, 71, 72], that implicated in the pathogenesis of keloids and hypertrophic scarring. TGF-β also participates in the mechanism of pain signals including peripheral and central processing [71]. CAPS dressing for burn wound treatment demonstrated high levels of TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3, suggesting that it might contribute to reduced pain perception [33]. TGF-β1 is responsible for the fibrotic scarring response, whereas TGF-β2 and TGF-β3 are responsible for the scarless wound healing [70]. Another study confirmed that alginate-containing dressings can augment natural wound healing with inhibition of cytokines associated with fibrosis, resulting in decreased wound size and increasing epithelial proliferation [73].
Those data correlated very well with the use of CAPS dressing for human skin wound in the clinical setting recently. CAPS dressings were applied after perianal abscess surgery, which was known as an acute suppurative infectious disease that occurs around the anus, anal canal, and rectum. The results showed that the expression of a variety of proliferative cytokines increases in the wound treated with CAPS dressing and helps promote wound healing [74]. The CAPS dressing treatment also was found to increase the synthesis of collagen and, on the other hand, inhibit the apoptosis of mitochondrial pathway and death receptor pathway.
Some literatures revealed that calcium ions from Ca-alginate systems [62] and oligosaccharides derived from polysaccharides (β-glucan, xyloglucan, chitin, pectin, D-mannuronic, and L-guluronic) can stimulate human cells to produce cytokines [75, 76]. Especially, enhancement of IL-1β secretion was expected due to the connection between calcium ion-induced mitochondrial damage and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, an important molecular platform expressed by myeloid cells in innate immune defense [77, 78, 79]. Besides, alginate-containing dressings have the potential to activate macrophages and have the ability to generate a pro-inflammatory signal which promotes granulation tissue formation [24]. However, another factor that may be important in cytokine induction not only relates to the proportions of guluronic to mannuronic acid residues but also their polymeric arrangement [80].
In summary, because of these properties, CAPS dressings are considered as a bioactive wound dressing and expected to accelerate the treatment for burn wound healing. There were few products made from CAPS related to surgery and wound management previously but, due to the small amount of these fibers used in total product with high-cost manufacture, it seems not profitable to continue the production. With the improved technology lately, CAPS has been developed into spinning fine dressing as an applicable wound dressing. Together with the increased understanding of CAPS beneficials in accelerating burn injury treatment, it is expected that CAPS dressing will give potential value for medical and business field simultaneously.
As the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) has influential roles in the stimulation of rapid wound healing, calcium alginate polysaccharide (CAPS), which contains a rich amount of GAG, can be regarded as a remarkable material-based wound dressing option. Since this material had technically actualized into spinning fibers woven or non-woven, it is expected that CAPS-containing wound dressing not only gives an optimal burn injury treatment alternative in medical field but also can rise up the textile industry value from the business perspective. Owing the significant benefits as an “active” dressing for burn wound recovery, such as rapid wound closure with less scarring formation, minimum bacterial infection, cytokine enhancement regulation, and appropriate inflammatory response and pain regulation, which have been demonstrated in several studies and clinical trials, therefore, the CAPS dressing holds a promising potential as the advisable preference of burn injury treatment strategies with highly desirable properties.
The author would like to thank Dr. Chih-Hsin Wang (Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery) and Dr. Cheng-Che Liu (Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Graduate Institute of Physiology) at Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan (ROC), for their helpful discussion during this chapter writing.
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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Insects provide insight into estimating the post-mortem interval (PMI), assessing whether a corpse has been moved, use in toxicological analyses, and provide utility in surveillance and as sniffer systems. Necrophagous Diptera are regarded as the most important forensic indicator species, largely because they colonize a corpse within minutes of death. Other types of carrion-inhabiting insects also offer value, although more limited than flies, to forensic investigations. Perhaps, the most neglected of these groups is the parasitic Hymenoptera, a group comprising several species that utilize necrophagous flies as natural hosts. Parasitic wasps extend the PMI window to include the period of time after necrophagous flies have emerged to when a corpse is discovered. Wasp host preferences and seasonal occurrences can reveal if a body was moved from another location prior to discovery. Foraging behavior of adults can be used to locate concealed bodies and potentially aid in combating entomological terrorism agents. Presently, the full potential of parasitic Hymenoptera as alternate forensic indicator species has not been explored. This chapter relates the life history characteristics of parasitic wasps to their potential usefulness in forensic applications.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"David B. Rivers",authors:[{id:"181407",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Rivers",slug:"david-rivers",fullName:"David Rivers"}]},{id:"52013",doi:"10.5772/64616",title:"Forensic Hydrology",slug:"forensic-hydrology",totalDownloads:1434,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter is intended to call the attention towards a relatively new topic in engineering forensics: forensic analysis in hydrology. This type of analysis can be seen as a useful tool through which it is possible, in a fully objective way, to determine the real causes, natural or human induced that made a natural phenomenon a disaster. This branch of forensic analysis and particularly of engineering forensics can be applied directly to the case of floods and droughts but is not limited to those extremes phenomena. In particular, the application of these concepts to case of floods looks immediate, but other applications such as drought analysis can be addressed too. In the case of flooding events causing material damages and even loss of human lives, forensic analysis can provide results that help to clarify responsibilities but specially to prevent that future disasters happen again. This chapter will provide important information for the new forensic hydrologists, a discipline with great future, especially in the context of climate change, which will increase the magnitude, and frequency of extremes.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Aldo I. Ramirez and Alejandra Herrera",authors:[{id:"182174",title:"Dr.",name:"Aldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez",slug:"aldo-ramirez",fullName:"Aldo Ramirez"},{id:"193706",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera",slug:"alejandra-herrera",fullName:"Alejandra Herrera"}]},{id:"73978",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94299",title:"A Routine Activity Analysis of Selected Rape Cases during COVID-19 Lockdown in Nigeria",slug:"a-routine-activity-analysis-of-selected-rape-cases-during-covid-19-lockdown-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:522,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Using five popular rape victimisation cases which occurred during COVID-19 lockdown in Nigeria, this paper shows how the mastery of routines of rape victims by sexual predators enhanced the success of rape victimisation. Elements of routine activity theory such as motivated offender, attractive targets and absence of capable guardianship is used to analyse each case to signpost and underscore the importance and centrality of active capable guardianship to dislodge and neutralise rape offenders’ routine mastery around attractive targets. The paper recommends mounting capable guardianship to checking growing menace of rape in Nigeria. Attractive target should eliminate risky routines and poisonous relationship which could enhance their chances of sexual violation.",book:{id:"7821",slug:"criminology-and-post-mortem-studies-analyzing-criminal-behaviour-and-making-medical-decisions",title:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies",fullTitle:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies - Analyzing Criminal Behaviour and Making Medical Decisions"},signatures:"Oludayo Tade",authors:[{id:"316697",title:"Dr.",name:"Oludayo",middleName:null,surname:"Tade",slug:"oludayo-tade",fullName:"Oludayo Tade"}]},{id:"50323",doi:"10.5772/62773",title:"Usage of Infrared-Based Technologies in Forensic Sciences",slug:"usage-of-infrared-based-technologies-in-forensic-sciences",totalDownloads:2563,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Infrared (IR) radiation comprises a beam located in the electromagnetic radiation family; it arises from the thermal vibrations of radiation that have longer wavelengths than visible light, but shorter wavelengths than microwave radiation. Its wavelength is between 750 nm and 1 mm. The amount of thermal IR radiation emitted by an object is associated with the temperature of the object, the surface area of the object and the spreading of light. IR-based technologies have been demonstrated as a method of evidence identification in forensic sciences in addition to many daily uses.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Mahmut Asirdizer, Yavuz Hekimoglu and Orhan Gumus",authors:[{id:"21312",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Asirdizer",slug:"mahmut-asirdizer",fullName:"Mahmut Asirdizer"},{id:"185671",title:"Dr.",name:"Yavuz",middleName:null,surname:"Hekimoglu",slug:"yavuz-hekimoglu",fullName:"Yavuz Hekimoglu"},{id:"185672",title:"Dr.",name:"Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Gumus",slug:"orhan-gumus",fullName:"Orhan Gumus"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50789",title:"Molecular Genetics and its Applications in Forensic Sciences",slug:"molecular-genetics-and-its-applications-in-forensic-sciences",totalDownloads:4585,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The way to medico legal identification was open at the end of the twenty‐first century by the “digital fingerprinting” represented by the multifactorial phenotypical trait, determined by both polygenic and environmental factors, followed by group‐specific antigens, or with specificity for blood and tissue, and ending with the DNA molecule in use today. Because of this aspect, the framework of modern forensic medicine includes a new field, that of forensic genetics, that mostly involves working with investigations that have human genotype identification as a goal.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Raluca Dumache, Veronica Ciocan, Camelia Muresan and Alexandra Enache",authors:[{id:"179199",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Dumache",slug:"raluca-dumache",fullName:"Raluca Dumache"},{id:"181860",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Enache",slug:"alexandra-enache",fullName:"Alexandra Enache"},{id:"190151",title:"Dr.",name:"Camelia",middleName:null,surname:"Muresan",slug:"camelia-muresan",fullName:"Camelia Muresan"},{id:"190153",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Ciocan",slug:"veronica-ciocan",fullName:"Veronica Ciocan"}]},{id:"50757",title:"Forensic Analysis of the Wakayama Arsenic Murder Case",slug:"forensic-analysis-of-the-wakayama-arsenic-murder-case",totalDownloads:2521,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This is a review paper of forensic analysis of a murder case of Wakayama arsenic poisoning incident. The influence of this case on scientific research was not small in such a way that papers related to PTSD, disaster medical, copycats, chemical analysis, unwanted chemicals in food, terrorism, and so on were published. The forensic analyses on Wakayama arsenic poisoning incidence have characteristic that SPring-8, a largest synchrotron radiation facility, was used, as well as many other analytical techniques, but now most of the forensic analyses submitted from the prosecutor have been revealed to be fabrication, hiding the truth by logarithmic calculations, and therefore not scientific. Most of the testimonies at the court by the analysts were also lies. Examples of such false analyses are explained.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Jun Kawai",authors:[{id:"180878",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Kawai",slug:"jun-kawai",fullName:"Jun Kawai"}]},{id:"50528",title:"Geomatics and Forensic: Progress and Challenges",slug:"geomatics-and-forensic-progress-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1744,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Since graphics hold qualitative and quantitative information of complex crime scenes, it becomes a basic key to develop hypothesis in police investigations and also to prove these hypotheses in court. Forensic analysis involves tasks of scene information mining as well as its reconstruction in order to extract elements for explanatory police test or to show forensic evidence in legal proceedings. Currently, the combination of sensors and technologies allows the integration of spatial data and the generation of virtual infographic products (orthoimages, solid images, point clouds, cross‐sections, etc.) which are extremely attractive. These products, which successfully retain accurate 3D metric information, are revolutionizing dimensional reconstruction of objects and crime scenes. Thus, it can be said that the reconstruction and 3D visualization of complex scenes are one of the main challenges for the international scientific community. To overcome this challenge, techniques related with computer vision, computer graphics and geomatics work closely. This chapter reviews a set of geomatic techniques, applied to improve infographic forensic products, and its evolution. The integration of data from different sensors whose final purpose is 3D accurate modelling is also described. As we move into a highly active research area, where there are still many uncertainties to be resolved, the final section addresses these challenges and outlines future perspectives.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Pablo Rodríguez‐Gonzálvez, Ángel Luis Muñoz‐Nieto, Sandra Zancajo‐Blázquez and Diego González‐Aguilera",authors:[{id:"11086",title:"Prof.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-Aguilera",slug:"diego-gonzalez-aguilera",fullName:"Diego Gonzalez-Aguilera"},{id:"11099",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Gonzalvez",slug:"pablo-rodriguez-gonzalvez",fullName:"Pablo Rodriguez-Gonzalvez"},{id:"21157",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Nieto",slug:"angel-munoz-nieto",fullName:"Angel Muñoz-Nieto"},{id:"185892",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Zancajo-Blazquez",slug:"sandra-zancajo-blazquez",fullName:"Sandra Zancajo-Blazquez"}]},{id:"72362",title:"Autopsy in Foetal Infant Deaths",slug:"autopsy-in-foetal-infant-deaths",totalDownloads:759,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Child autopsies are not more difficult than adult autopsies, but do require a number of extra techniques to be performed routinely. This chapter aims to cover the basic techniques required for foetal, perinatal, and infant post mortems. Post mortem examinations of children older than 2 years of age do not differ greatly from adult autopsies.",book:{id:"7821",slug:"criminology-and-post-mortem-studies-analyzing-criminal-behaviour-and-making-medical-decisions",title:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies",fullTitle:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies - Analyzing Criminal Behaviour and Making Medical Decisions"},signatures:"Luv Sharma",authors:[{id:"316701",title:"Prof.",name:"Luv",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"luv-sharma",fullName:"Luv Sharma"}]},{id:"72207",title:"Postmortem Examination",slug:"postmortem-examination",totalDownloads:575,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter titled “Postmortem Examination” will highlight the importance of a postmortem examination, provide a basic overview of what a postmortem examination should involve, and guide the reader through the steps required to perform a complete autopsy. Subsections of special procedures as well as additional testing methods are included for those who are interested in extending their examinations to answer selected questions in selected scenarios. This chapter can act as a guideline to those who are unfamiliar with the process of an autopsy, or a review, and reinforcement to those who wish to build on top of their previous experience.",book:{id:"7821",slug:"criminology-and-post-mortem-studies-analyzing-criminal-behaviour-and-making-medical-decisions",title:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies",fullTitle:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies - Analyzing Criminal Behaviour and Making Medical Decisions"},signatures:"Carol K. Lee",authors:[{id:"317041",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol K.",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"carol-k.-lee",fullName:"Carol K. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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