A summary the types of protein kinases based on amino acid residue.
\r\n\toxygen-free atmosphere. Biochar has been used for many years as a soil amendment and in general soil applications. Nonetheless, biochar is far more than a mere soil amendment. In this review, we report all the applications of biochar including environmental remediation, energy storage, composites, and catalyst production. In this book, we intend to collect contributions from worldwide experts in the field of biochar production and utilization providing a general overview of the recent uses of biochar in material science, thus presenting this cheap and waste-derived material as a high value-added carbonaceous source. Furthermore, we are aiming to give readers a handy and effective tool to easily understand how this field is interesting and diverse. It is a goal that this book could be easily used by any reader with a strong scientific background ranging from scientific company advisors to academic members. Nonetheless, students enrolled in scientific undergraduate and graduate programs could be consulted to this text for any further and deeper investigation. In the end, we intend to propose a very high scientific content book that could represent the reference text for any consideration and future study about biochar for the next years.
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Protein kinases assume a crucial role in the intracellular transduction on account of their capability to phosphorylate plenty of proteins. In recent years, various protein kinase inhibitors have been recognized and are being utilized effectively in the clinical sector. In 2020, the FDA approved the following medications for the treatment of the diseases listed: gastrointestinal stromal tumors), Capmatinib (non-small cell lung cancer), Pemigatinib (cholangiocarcinoma), Pralsetinib and Selpercatinib (non-small cell lung cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, and distinguished thyroid cancer), Selumetinib (neurofibromatosis type I), and Tucatinib (neurofibromatosis type I) (HER2-positive breast cancer). About every part of cellular activity is implicated in protein kinases [1]. It controls the metabolism, cell division and motion, movement, as well as immune and nervous system function and programmed cell death. The transfer of -phosphate from ATP to its protein substrates is catalyzed by protein kinase [2]. Protein kinase is a high-energy phosphate donor enzyme that donates a phosphate to other proteins. Phosphorylation is the process of converting one substance into another. In the reaction below, the substratum receives a group of phosphates and a phosphate group is donated by the high-energy ATP molecule. Trans-esterification results in a phosphorylated substrate; dephosphorylation is generated if the phosphoryphorylated substrate donates a phosphate group, and the phosphorylated substrate is grouped with ADP [3]. Protein kinases catalyze the following reaction:
The human genome contains about 500 protein kinase genes, representing approximately 2% of all human genes [3]. Tyrosine kinases phosphorylate tyrosine hydroxyl groups in their targets, while serine/threonine kinases phosphorylate serine and threonine hydroxyl groups in their targets [4]. Protein kinases can be present in bacteria as well as plants. The majority of cellular pathways, especially those involved in signal transduction, are known to be regulated by kinases, and their actions can alter up to 30% of all human proteins. Protein kinases are enzymes that phosphorylate serine, threonine, tyrosine, or histidine residues in proteins. Phosphorylation can affect the role of a protein in a number of ways. It has the ability to alter the function of a protein, stabilise or kill it, localise it in a particular cellular compartment, and start or stop its association with other proteins. Protein kinases make up the majority of kinases which have had a lot of criticism. Phosphatases are involved in the regulation of proteins and enzymes, as well as cell signalling. Aside from allosteric regulation, the potential to affect protein behaviour is tremendous [3], and there are many methods for covalently altering a protein. Allosteric regulation evolved to react to signals from inside the cell, while phosphorylation evolved to respond to signals from outside the cell, according to Edwin Krebs’ Hopkins Memorial Lecture. The fact that eukaryotic cells phosphorylate proteins even more frequently than prokaryotic cells supports this theory, implying that the more complicated cell form has evolved to react to a broader spectrum of signals [5]. The chemical feature of a kinase is to covalently attach an ATP phosphate group to one of three amino acids with a free hydroxyl group. While most kinases bind to serine and threonine, some (dual-specificity kinases) often bind to serine and tyrosine [3]. Protein kinases use two types of interactions to identify their physiological substrates in cells: (i) the active protein kinase site recognises the consensus phosphorylation sequence in the protein substratum, and (ii) distal interactions between the kinase and the substratum are mediated by binding a docking motif spastically isolated from the phosphorylation site in the substratum to a substratum. Protein kinases use these interactions to identify their protein substrates with extreme precision. The identification of possible protein kinase physiological substrates should be aided by understanding the molecular basis for these interactions. Since protein phosphorylation is so important, researchers have spent a lot of time trying to figure out how protein kinase signal transduction mechanisms work. Dysregulation of protein kinases is seen in a wide range of illnesses, including cancer and inflammatory conditions.
Protein kinases are intracellular enzymes that regulate cell growth and proliferation as well as immune response triggering and control. Protein kinases are phosphotransferases that binds phosphate to the side chains of serine, threonine, or tyrosine residues in cells to phosphorylate them. Kinases are needed in the first phase of intracellular immune cell signalling. Kinases, for instance, bind to the intracellular component of receptors on T and B lymphocytes’ cell surfaces, and once these receptors are engaged with their extracellular ligands, they trigger intracellular signalling cascades within these cells. Phosphate (P) is transferred from ATP to a serine, threonine, or tyrosine residue in protein by protein kinases (Figure 1). Phosphorylation acts as a’molecular shift,’ enabling proteins to be triggered or deactivated directly. Protein phosphatases, on the other side, catalyze the elimination of the -phosphate from the target protein, which inhibits kinase function and reverses phosphorylation results [1, 3]. Serine (Ser or S), threonine (Thr or T), and tyrosine (Tyr or Y) residues account for more than one third of all protein phosphorylation events (O-phosphorylation) [3]. Just 1.8 per cent of tyrosine residues are phosphorylated, compared to 86.4 per cent of serine residues, 11.8 per cent of threonine residues, and 11.8 per cent of tyrosine residues [3, 4]. Tyrosine phosphorylation is peculiar among post-transitional modifications (PTM) in the EGFR band, including a tyrosine kinase domain. Histidine (His or H) and aspartate (Asp or D) metabolites may also be N-phosphorylated, but this process is less robust than other phosphorylation approaches. Since phosphorylation/dephosphorylation events mediated by different kinases and phosphatases trigger and deactivate several enzymes and receptors, protein phosphorylation is a central regulating mechanism in several cellular processes, including protein synthesis, cell division, signal transduction, cell forming, development, and ageing. In addition, the human genome contains 568 protein kinases and 156 protein phosphatases, both of which control phosphorylation events and thus play a key role in biological processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Phosphorylation stimulates the p53 receptor, which stops gene replication, stops the cell cycle, starts DNA repair, and, in certain instances, helps the cell die [2]. Chronic inactivation of the p53 protein due to excess in the phosphorylation/dephosphorylation pathway will turn a cell cancerous. The 568 human protein kinases are classified based on the amino acid residues that they phosphorylate. The majority of kinases (serine/threonine kinases, or STKs) operate on both serine and threonine, while others (tyrosine kinases, or TKs) only work on one of the three amino acids (dual-specificity kinases; DSKs) [2]. STKs and TKs can be phosphorylated by the latter [6], with STKs accounting for about a quarter of all human protein kinases [2, 7]. STKs phosphorylate serine or threonine’s OH group. DNA injury, as well as chemical signals like Ca2+/calmodulin, cyclic adenosine monophosphate/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cAMP/cGMP), and diacylglycerol [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16], trigger them. Protein kinase phosphorylation sets off a chain reaction that results in the phosphorylation of various amino acids [17]. Kinases may be programmed or deactivated in a variety of ways, including cis- or autophosphorylation, binding with activator or inhibitor proteins, or checking their localization in the cell with a substrate [3].
Phosphorylation by protein kinase.
The catalytic domain of a protein kinase is divided into two parts: N-terminal and C-terminal. A peptidic strand connects the two, forming an active site with a front pocket (catalytic residues) and a back pocket. A stored lysine residue and a residue “gatekeeper” control access to the back pocket. The catalytic domain is unavailable while activated since the propellers of the N- and C-terminal sub domains move inward. Non-catalytic domains of the kinases allow substrate attachment and signalling protein recruitment [3]. Kinases have gained in popularity in recent years, thanks to their functions in signal transduction and amplitude modulation, as well as their importance in signalling [18, 19, 20]. Many databases have been created to aid in the analysis of phospho-signalling networks [21, 22]. According to a review, protein kinases have been linked to over 400 diseases, either directly or indirectly. As a consequence, protein kinases are regarded as one of the most significant drug targets. Small molecular compounds that inhibit protein phosphorylation and thus resist activation can be used to target kinases. These small molecule inhibitors reduce kinase gene expression by disrupting ATP-kinase binding, intervening with kinase-protein interactions, and disrupting ATP-kinase binding. Protein kinase targets (SYK) include Janus kinase (JAK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and spleen tyrosine kinase [1, 2, 3].
The transmission of information from the cell’s membrane to internal targets (within the cell) initiates a chain of molecular events that culminate in a biological response to the affector molecule (Figure 2). Advances in biochemical and molecular biological techniques have enabled the discovery of essential enzymes involved in the transduction phase, as well as the production of several natural and synthetic modulators of biological processes, over the last decade [5, 23]. Researchers have better understood molecular events in both natural and pathological settings because of these techniques. As new information regarding molecular interactions that regulate cellular responses has become accessible, the potential for designing and creating new drugs to cure cancer, central nervous system disorders (Alzheimer’s disease), cardiovascular disorders (hypertension), skin disorders (inflammation), diabetes mellitus, and other chronic diseases has grown.
The event of signal transduction.
Second messengers such as cyclic AMP (adenosine monophosphate) and calcium are needed for the majority of isozymes to act [24, 25]. Kinases and phosphatases are known as “third messengers” because of this. Signal transduction is the process by which an extracellular primary signal is converted into an intracellular second messenger. In ligand-gated (ion channel) receptors, ion influx serves as a second messenger. G-protein-linked receptors can stimulate not only a second, but also a third and fourth messenger while they are activated. The ultimate end-point could be the manipulation of gene transcription to generate messenger RNA (mRNA) and then mRNA translation to produce a protein specific to that gene. When a receptor attaches to a signalling molecule, it activates a signal transduction process. The four forms of messenger systems are as follows:
The first messengers are G-protein-linked messengers, kinases, and phosphatases, followed by phospho-calcium/cyclic AMP response element-binding (CREB) protein as the fourth messenger.
Protein kinases play a number of roles in the body [26, 27]. Protein kinases are involved in variety of cellular signalling pathways Figure 3 (phosphorylation). Protein kinases have different physiological functions in various systems, such as the cardiovascular system [27]. Troponin is triggered when PKA is activated, increasing the binding of excitation contractions. It also increases the contractility of the heart muscle. PKC activation phosphorylates other proteins in smooth muscles, despite the fact that cytosolic Ca++ combines with calmodulin (CAM) to activate myosin light chain kinase, causing smooth muscle contraction [25, 28]. Protein kinase A causes an increase in membrane water permeability by increasing the rate of exocytosis of water-containing vesicles (WCVs) into the apical membrane and decreasing the rate of endocytosis of WCVs from the apical membrane in the kidneys. The mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway is activated by angiotensin I receptors (At1) in the kidney, which promotes cell development, especially in vascular and cardiac cells. It raises proton changes, particularly C-fos and C-jun, which regulate the transcription of several genes involved in cell growth [23]. At1 activates Protein Kinase A, which causes phosphorylation of proteins involved in aldosterone synthesis, neurotransmission facilitation, CNS outcomes, and renal impact.
The protein kinase sequence of signaling process.
Protein kinases assign a phosphate group from the ATP gamma location to specific amino acid residues in proteins and peptides. Protein phosphorylation is implicated in a variety of physiological processes, including glucose absorption, signalling, epigenetic modifications, and cell cycle progression. Diabetes, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and cancer, to name a few illnesses, have all been linked to phosphorylation deficiencies. Monitoring protein kinase activity is crucial for better understanding disease molecular mechanisms and determining whether or not a treatment is successful. Inhibiting pathological phosphorylation can aid in the treatment of these diseases as well [29]. The desire to solve the three-dimensional structures of many of these enzymes sparked interest in academia and the pharmaceutical industry due to these factors [30]. According to Steinberg SF, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are a form of serine/threonine kinase whose activity is mediated by cyclin, a protein regulatory subunit. Eukaryotic cell division and transcription are aided by CDKs. PKC is a serine/threonine kinase that regulates a variety of natural cellular responses and also plays a role in the pathogenesis of ischemia–reperfusion injury. The Abelson murine leukaemia virus (Abl) proto-oncogene is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase that is activated by both extrinsic ligands such as growth factor receptors and intrinsic signals such as DNA damage and oxidative stress. c-Abl shuttles between the cytosolic and nuclear compartments, phosphorylates a variety of cellular substrates (including adaptor proteins, other kinases, cytoskeletal proteins, transcription factors, and chromatin modifiers), and controls signalling pathways implicated in actin polymerization and cytoskeletal remodelling, cell adhesion and motility, transcriptional regulation, and the DNA structure [30]. The mitogen-activated protein kinase 4 (MKK4) has been discovered to be a central regulator of liver regeneration, according to Klövekorn P et al., and could be a valuable drug goal for treating liver diseases by restoring the organ’s intrinsic regenerative potential. According to Wüstefeld et al., MKK4 is a primary promotor for liver regeneration, with positive results on hepatocyte regeneration, robustness, fibrosis, and Fas-mediated apoptosis [31]. The primary intracellular energy sensor, according to Jovanovic-Tucovic et al., is AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which triggers ATP-generating catabolic pathways while inhibiting ATP-requiring processes in response to the increase in the AMP/ATP ratio and/or oxidative stress. Depending on the form of stimuli and the intensity/length of AMPK activation, this serine/threonine kinase may be neuroprotective or neurotoxic, and its dysregulation has been attributed to neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson’s disease. Serine/threonine-protein kinase B/Akt is another crucial protein kinase for neuronal cell metabolism and survival. Phosphodiesterase 5A inhibitors, such as Sildenafil, have been shown to protect against ischemic injury by decreasing cardiac Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE1) activity, which is regulated by protein kinase G, as mentioned by Diaz RG et al. [32]. In 1954, Burnett and Kennedy discovered the Casein Kinase 2 (CK2) catalyst. It’s a Ser/Thr protein kinase that’s acidophilic and pleiotropic, and it’s crucial for cell viability. When coupled with CK1, it acts as a catalyst, phosphorylating Casein protein in vitro (but not in vivo) [32]. The use of enacted AMP protein kinase as a therapeutic target for ischemia–reperfusion injury was identified by Rong Ding et al. [33].
The most popular drug targets include BCR-Abl, B-Raf, vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFR), epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR), and ALK. The bulk of small molecule protein kinase antagonists adhere to the protein kinase domain and treat cancers such as myelofibrosis, polycythemiavera, persistent immune thrombocytopenia, rheumatoid arthritis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and glaucoma [34].
Human eukaryotic protein kinases (ePKs) have been divided into nine classes, according to Gaji et al. The following are examples of these: (1) the AGC group, which includes PKA, PKB (At1, At2, At3) PKG, and PKC; (2) the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CAMK) group, which includes calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (CAMK) and mitogen activated protein kinase activating protein kinases (MAPKAPKs); (3) the casein kinase 1 (CK1) group, which has 12 members; (4) the CMGC group, which has 6161members including cyclin-dependent protein kinases (CDK), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) and cyclin dependent kinase like (CDKL) families; (5) The STE group (related to yeast non-mating or sterile genes) has 47 members who are MAPK upstream regulators; (6) the tyrosine kinase (TK) group has 90 members, including 58 receptor protein kinases (RTKs) and 32 non-receptor tyrosine kinases; (7) the tyrosine kinase like (TKL) group has 43 members, and proteins in this family; (8) the receptor guanylylcyclase (RGC) group consists of five members; and (9) the ‘other’ group has 83 members. In addition, 40 kinases are known as atypical kinases, one of which is the mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase [35]. For types and classes of protein kinases refer Tables 1 and 2. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) senses energy levels and controls metabolic processes to maintain homeostasis. The function of AMPK is influenced by the supply of nutrients such as carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids. AMPK function is impaired by overnutrition, inflammation, and hypersecretion of certain anabolic hormones, such as insulin, which is exacerbated by food shortages and inhibited by obesity. According to Zhao and Saltiel, activating AMPK in the liver inhibits de novo lipogenesis, promoting fatty acid oxidation (β -oxidation). Furthermore, AMPK activation prevents hepatic steatosis by inhibiting the production of free fatty acids from adipose tissue (Figure 4) [36]. On the other side, Alghamdi et al. investigated the function of AMPK in nutrient absorption by tissues, especially glucose and fatty acid uptake. Because of its impact on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, rising FA oxidation and decreasing lipogenesis, AMPK activation has been proposed as a therapeutic goal for nutrient overload. In NAFLD/NASH (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/non-alcoholic steatohepatitis), nutrient overload induces hepatic steatosis, which leads to fibrosis and liver injury. Hepatic steatosis is the accumulation of ectopic lipids in the liver and is closely linked to obesity, insulin resistance and type-2-diabetes.
Types | Examples | Functions |
---|---|---|
Serine/threonine-specific protein kinases | Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) | Phosphorylate serine or threonine\'s –OH (hydroxyl) functional group. |
Tyrosine-specific protein kinases | Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) receptor Epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor1 Insulin growth factor (IGF1) receptor Stem cell factor (scf) receptor | Processes alzheimer\'s amyloid precursor protein, epithelial cell migration and carcinoma invasion, spermatogonia osmoregulation, and antiaging survival factor |
Histidine-specific protein kinases | Histidine kinase | The histidine kinase family is structurally similar to the pyruvate dehydrogenase family of kinases in animals. |
Mixed kinases | Muscle action potential kinase (MAPK) | Involved in the cascade of muscle action potential kinase |
A summary the types of protein kinases based on amino acid residue.
Types | Functions | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Protein kinase A (PKA) | Acts as a catalyst, allowing intracellular proteins to be catalysed. Glycogen, sugar, and lipid metabolism are all regulated by this protein. Phosphorylate acetyl-CoA carboxylase and pyruvate dehydrogenase in adipocytes, myocytes, and hepatocytes, resulting in acetyl-CoA-lipogenesis. The dopamine signal is translated into cells in the nucleus acumens neurons. | |||
Protein kinase B (PKB) | Akt | Akt1 | Akt2 | Akt3 |
Cell proliferation, apoptosis, transcription, and cell migration are all involved in glucose metabolism. Cell survival - both actively and indirectly facilitate growth factor-mediated cell survival. Glycogen synthesis is aided by metabolism. Angiogenesis is linked to tumour growth and angiogenesis. | Is implicated in: cellular survival pathways, by inhibiting apoptosis processes. skeletal muscle hypertrophy and general tissue growth. the transforming retrovirus as the oncogene | The insulin signalling pathway has been linked to this protein. Glucose transport induction is a term used to describe the process of causing glucose | It tends to be expressed primarily in the brain. The brains of mice lacking Akt 3 are weak. | |
Protein kinase C (PKC) | Phosphorylation of intracellular proteins is catalysed by this enzyme, which changes their activities. Controls cellular growth and differentiation. |
Summary of classes of protein kinases [34].
Regulation of hepatic steatosis by AMPK.
De novolipogenesis (DNL) from carbohydrates or increased FA absorption and triglyceride synthesis cause lipid accumulation in the liver. Increased hepatic FA oxidation, on the other hand, reduces steatosis [37]. Li et al. results suggest that AMPK may be used as a clinical therapy for the treatment of cholestatic liver damage. The ability to evaluate the dose- and time-effects of AMPK activation in various models representing various stages of cholestatic liver injury is critical not just for determining the efficacy of AMPK as a targeted therapy for treating cholestatic liver injury, but also for providing crucial scientific proof for clinical practice and translational studies of existing AMPK inducers [38].
In recent pharmacological study, protein kinases have become one of the most widely researched therapeutic targets, especially in cancer and inflammation studies. For the treatment of cancer and inflammation, the US Food and Drug Administration has licenced 32 small-molecule protein kinase inhibitors. However, no medication successfully treats neuroinflammation and/or neurodegenerative conditions due to a lack of protein kinase drug targets for CNS disorders. According to new findings, some protein kinases have recently been established as promising drug targets in the treatment of neuroinflammation and/or neurodegenerative diseases. Lee and Suk investigated a number of protein kinases that are increasingly being seen as potential therapies in microglia-mediated neuroinflammation (Figure 5). Because of their critical roles in neuronal toxicity, some of these kinases, such as LRRK2, MST1, and tyrosine kinases (c-Abl, Src, and Fyn), have been proposed as potential drug targets, while others were presented here as novel protein kinase drug candidates because of their critical roles in microglial activation [39]. Many neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and stroke, are due to microglia-mediated neuroinflammation. Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation has been compared to protein kinases such as leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) and mammalian Ste20-like kinase 1 (MST1), Src family protein tyrosine kinases (SFKs), a cellular homolog of the Abelson murine leukaemia virus oncogene (c-Abl), and TAM family receptor tyros TLRs, TNFR, CD11b, and P2Y12 protein kinases are all known to play a role in microglial activation by relaying signals from different exogenous inducers through cell surface receptors. Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease all have protein aggregates as a pathological function (a-synuclein [a-SYN] in PD and Ab peptides in AD). These protein aggregates bind to TLR, CD11b, and other microglial receptors, triggering a number of intracellular signalling pathways. They are activated as a consequence of neuronal death or other proliferation mechanisms. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), tumour necrosis factor (TNF), and RNA virus are among the other triggers that activate microglia through TLRs, P2Y12, and TNFR. TAM receptor tyrosine kinases including Axl and Mer are involved in several areas of microglia-mediated neuroinflammatory pathology in PD. As a consequence of their activation, activated microglia produce a broad variety of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS). In response to stimuli and intracellular protein kinases, activated microglia increased migration and phagocytic action. Several studies have linked protein kinases to neuronal toxicity and microglial activation. In comparison to neurons, only a few protein kinases (PKs) have arisen as critical signalling components modulating microglial activation. Some kinases, such as Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), mammalian Ste20-like kinase 1 (MST1), tyrosine kinases, and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), tend to be involved in both neuronal toxicity and microglial activation, while TAM receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) like Axl and Mer also recently emerged as new targeted therapies for inflammation caused by microglia [39].
Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation.
According to Simon Diering et al., the modulation of the b1-adrenoreceptor (AR) signalling pathway regulates the contraction and relaxation of the heart by activating cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and subsequent cardiac protein phosphorylation. The key cardiac protein phosphatases, PP2A and PP1, prevent phosphorylation. Intra molecular disulfide formation in the catalytic subunits of both kinases and phosphatases inhibits their function [40]. Hashemol hossein discovered that CK2 is involved in a number of phases in the biology of striated skeletal muscle, including myogenesis and homeostasis in adult muscle, as well as neuromuscular junctions, which connect muscle fibres and motor nerves. CK2 regulates protein import in myotube organelles, as well as the consistency and dignity of the postsynaptic machinery in neuromuscular junctions and the muscular cytoskeleton [40]. It’s also becoming clear that CK2’s function in processes that dynamically regulate the phosphoproteome of muscle cells is significant, and that it’s likely to play a role in maintaining muscle homeostasis at the molecular level.
A wide range of protein kinase inhibitors (PKIs) have entered various stages of clinical development in the last two decades, with various properties and potential applications, such as different selectivity and modes of binding to kinases, and some have been licenced by the FDA. PKIs have therefore developed themselves as a significant class of cancer medicines, and their therapeutic ability continues to attract attention. In fact, studying kinase biology in relation to PKI development is an essential part of targeted therapies. The resistance of cancer cells to PKI therapies necessitates the development of new therapeutic options. As a result, new generation PKIs have been built and tested in the hopes of overcoming resistance. According to Ghione et al., NO may directly or indirectly regulate protein kinases involved in essential cancer signalling pathways, as seen with PKIs. The NO donor NTG has been studied in a growing number of clinical trials as an anticancer treatment when combined with radiotherapy or chemotherapy.
NO’s ambivalent impact on PKI (encouraging or inhibiting PKI’s anticancer potential) and the action of protein kinases are summarised (regulated at the transcriptional or the post-translational level by NO) Figure 6 [41].
Impact of NO on protein kinases and PKIs activities.
According to several reports, the intracellular production of NO by NOS is needed for the phosphorylation and subsequent activation of EGFR signalling pathways. Overexpression of iNOS in a number of tumours, including breast cancer, has been related to tumour development and angiogenesis. Indeed, high iNOS expression has been linked to EGFR phosphorylation, activation, and poor prognosis in various breast cancer subtypes.
NO has been shown to have a detrimental regulatory impact on protein kinases in many experiments, which is compatible with its unclear role in cancer. By inhibiting the activity of many protein kinases, NO may inhibit pathways implicated in cancer cell proliferation and survival. For some of these protein kinases, selective protein kinase inhibitors (PKIs) are currently being investigated [41].
Mori et al. investigated whether the biguanide anti-hyperglycemic medication metformin dilates retinal blood vessels in rats.
AMPK activated protein kinase.
Rho kinase inhibitors have shown in limited preclinical studies to have a high potential for preventing the development of ALI. Inflammation, immune cell migration, apoptosis, coagulation, contraction, and cell adhesion were all inhibited, which had positive effects.
Endothelium barrier impairment and edoema was reduced as a result of increased pulmonary endothelial cells. Inhibition of Rho kinase seems to be a successful new method for treating ALI [ARDS]. However, more clinical trials are needed to back up this hypothesis [44].
p38 MAP kinase inhibitors in signalling pathways as possible neuroprotective drugs were studied by Ahmed et al. The discovery of p38 MAP kinase’s connection to TNF- and IL-1 synthesis in 1994 established the fact that the net biological effect of p38 activation is the downstream development of various inflammatory mediators that initiate the activation and recruitment of leukocytes. p38 MAP kinase signalling is linked to excitotoxicity (glutamine aggregation in synapses) in astrocytes, synaptic plasticity, and tau phosphorylation in neurons, and it leads to neuroinflammation. The activity of the p38 MAP kinase may play a role in the pathophysiology of a variety of neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson’s disease (both hereditary and sporadic) and multiple sclerosis. There are four different isoforms of the p38 MAP kinase, all of which share roughly 60% homology. The p38a MAP kinase is a major isoform of p38 that is activated under inflammatory conditions and is a key player in the synthesis of inflammatory mediators. Upstream MAP3Ks normally trigger downstream MAP kinases (MKK3 and MKK6). MKK3 and MKK6 trigger p38 MAPK through dual phosphorylation on Tyr182 and Thr180 once enabled. In neurodegenerative diseases, p38 MAP kinase may control hyperphosphorylation of Tau (PHFTau), leading to its dissociation from the cytoskeleton and self-aggregation. PHF-Tau is a significant component of the neurofibrillary tangles, which are one of the most common aberrant forms seen in Alzheimer’s cases. In the astrocytoma cell line U373 MG, p38 MAP kinase mediates substance P (SP)-induced IL-6 expression independently of NF-B activation. SP caused p38 MAP kinase phosphorylation, which was independent of p42/44 MAPK and protein kinase C activation [45]. Gordon et al. found that stimulation of protein kinase c delta in response to neurotoxic stressors (a-synuclein, TNF-, LPS) plays a crucial role in the induction of dopaminergic neuronal failure. Protein kinase c delta deficiency was shown to reduce locomotor deficiencies and decrease proinflammatory reaction in the mouse substantianigra in an experimental model of Parkinson’s disease. The function of p38 MAP kinase inhibitors in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders has been investigated, with a particular emphasis on their regulatory pathways [46]. According to Lund et al., CEP-1347 inhibits cytokine synthesis in human or murine microglia primary cultures as well as monocyte or macrophage-derived cell lines stimulated with Ab140 or endotoxins. The MLK inhibitor CEP-1347 inhibited the activation of the cJun/JNK signalling pathways in stressed neurons.
In PD animal experiments, the inhibitor also reduced neurodegeneration. It is important to provide a thorough understanding of the signal transduction mechanisms involved in microglia-mediated inflammation in order to find therapies that can be used to cure neurological disorders. The p38 MAP kinase inhibitors and JNK signalling pathways specifically allow a better choice to be investigated further due to their potential to decrease proinflammatory cytokines production and their intracellular signalling pathway [47]. Watts et al., [48] and Wu et al., [49] recently published studies that say MAP4K4. According to Wu et al. [49], factors secreted in motor neuron cultures trigger MAP4K4.Following MAP4K4 activation, motor neurons die. As a result, MAP4K4 reduction will affect motor neuron viability through I attenuation of the c-Jun apoptotic pathway, and (ii) activation of autophagy mediated by FoxO1 that reduces protein aggregate accumulation and depicts that the activation of the p38 MAP kinase pathway in various cell types and pathways in neurodegenerative diseases.
In a single cell method, Basken et al. used phosphoproteomics to compare molecular responses to inhibitors that target protein kinases in several tiers of the MAPK cascade. They learned a lot regarding oncogenic BRAF signalling in melanoma cells, as well as new knowledge about MAPK pathway organisation, phosphorylation specificity, and off-target responses to therapeutics that are currently in use or being developed. The following results may be drawn from the study’s findings:
First, there is a lot of variation between the phosphosites that are substantially influenced by MKK1/2 and ERK1/2 inhibitors. There were no answers that were specific to MKK1/2 or ERK1/2 inhibitors. This indicates that the signalling system is mostly absent of MKK1/2 targets that split upstream of ERK1/2. Comparing the BRAF inhibitor vemurafenib to the MKK1/2 inhibitor selumetinib in a previous analysis from our lab revealed identical results. The observed results suggest that signalling downstream of oncogenic BRAF requires a linear organisation of protein kinases, from BRAF to MKK1/2, and from MKK1/2 to ERK1/2, rather than a bifurcation in the pathway.
Second, the 161 sites controlled by all four MKK1/2 and ERK1/2 inhibitors revealed phosphorylation sites most likely to be bona fide targets of the MAPK pathway, allowing us to recognise phosphorylation sites most likely to be bona fide targets of the MAPK pathway. Moreover, hundreds of phosphosites have been identified as possible new ERK targets. Just 20% of the 103 phosphosites with Ser/Thr-Pro sequence specificity for ERK met existing ERK targets, implying 82 additional direct phosphorylation targets. A subset of 47 previously unreported phosphosites is prioritised as probable ERK1/2 substrates by searching for markers of MAPK substrates, such as proximity to Pro at position P-2 and the inclusion of DEF or DEJL docking motifs. The importance of this study is that, considering the fact that more than 700 ERK phosphorylation sites have been identified
Third, they discovered that 21 of the phosphosites observed to react to at least one of four kinase inhibitors only reacted to one of the four compounds, whilst the other three were obviously unresponsive. This serves as a useful filter for detecting inhibitor off-target results. Surprisingly, the majority of unambiguous off-target phosphosites reacted to the ERK1/2 inhibitor GDC0994, while responses to other kinase inhibitors were scarce. This is something to think about if you’re looking at ERK1/2 inhibitors as a way to tackle resistance to BRAF and MKK1/2 inhibitor combinations. The inhibition of MKK6 by the clinically important MKK1/2 inhibitor trametinib suggests that even a single off-target may be significant. Depending on the cell type or stimulus, blocking the p38 MAPK pathway may influence survival by promoting oncogenic or tumour suppressive results. Despite the fact that trametinib’s IC50 for p38 MAPK inhibition was higher than that of MKK1/2-ERK1/2, this concentration range is often used in literature studies. SB203580, a p38 MAPK inhibitor, increased the cell inhibitory response to selumetinib, implying that inhibiting p38 synergizes with MKK1/2 inhibitors to compromise cell viability in melanoma cell lines. CA-MKK6 and p38 MAPK signalling have been shown to shield melanoma cells from UV-induced apoptosis, according to previous research. When SB203580 was combined with trametinib, the synergistic impact was reduced, which we believe is due to trametinib’s off-target influence on MKK6. The findings indicate that trametinib’s impact on p38 MAPK may enhance the drug’s effectiveness in some circumstances.
Finally, they discussed the problem of differential modulation of phosphorylation targets downstream of BRAF-MKK-ERK signalling. Different proteomics studies sometimes see differences in phosphosite responses to the same pathway, but cannot differentiate if such results are due to unequal signalling responses or experimental heterogeneity. The findings revealed that various cell systems had different reactions to the same pathway. However, some of the reported inconsistencies may be explained by methodological differences between laboratories or off-target inhibitor results, which the study could not rule out. The authors were able to re-address this issue more rigorously after comparing four inhibitors using data obtained by one lab in one cell system. Finally, it was discovered that certain, but not all, validated ERK1/2 targets are protected from phosphorylation in cell system. The significance of this discovery is that nothing is known regarding why certain phosphorylation sites that are usually supervised by ERK are bypassed under some conditions but are repeatedly attacked under others. Awareness the processes that regulate variability in cellular responses may include an understanding of the fundamental mechanisms that contribute to differential regulation within the phosphoproteome. The gain of new insight into new targets for control by the oncogenic BRAF driver pathway in cancer cells by comparing different inhibitors of multiple kinase tiers utilising phosphoproteomics, which is a valuable method for assessing the specificity of drugs and drug candidates [50]. The Bender and colleagues have shown that significant effect on CK2 and it has a proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells from the sub ventricular region in a sample. They reported that proliferative ability is significantly reduced when the enzyme is inhibited [51]. CK2 inhibition interrupts the neuronal and glial lineages within a three-day time window during differentiation. CK2 kinase function seems to be redundant at later levels of differentiation. While it has been established that CK2 plays a role in nervous system production, knowledge on the role of kinase-dependent pathways in neurogenesis is scarce. This may be attributed to the CK2 or CK2 knockout mice’s extreme and fatal neurodevelopmental phenotypes. Huillard et al. found that disrupting the CK2 subunit induced oligodendrogenesis to be negatively regulated. The bHLH transcription factor Olig2, which is one of the main regulators of oligodendrocyte growth [52], interacts with CK2. It was also discovered that embryonic stem cells lacking tCK2 had a viability deficiency. They also discovered that CK2 is needed for neurosphere oligodendroglia differentiation. In the absence of CK2, the effect of CK2 is attributed to a defect in the holo enzyme’s CK2 kinase activity. Those substrates that are only phosphorylated by the holo enzyme cannot be phosphorylated without CK2. It also explains how Drosophila CK2 is involved in cell proliferation and survival during brain growth. The nucleolar mushroom body miniature (mbm) protein is one of the potential substrates. This protein is thought to be involved in nutrient-dependent signalling processes that regulate ribosomal expression. The observed findings with inhibitors of CK2 kinase activity clearly support the theory that the holo enzyme is the functional type of CK2 involved in neurosphere proliferation and differentiation. Furthermore, hereditary disruption in embryonic neurogenesis results in decreased neural stem cell proliferation and self-renewal. These results are in line with our findings from postnatal neural stem cells originating from the subventricular region that were inhibited. The issue of lethality can be solved by using knock-down methods or CK2 inhibitors, which allows researchers to explore the postnatal function of CK2 in the nervous system. The function of CK2 in the nervous system may be investigated further using these methods. As a result, it was discovered that CK2 plays a role in ion channel organisation and synaptic transmission [51]. CX-4945 [Silmitasertib] is a powerful inhibitor of CK2’s kinase function that was developed as an anticancer medication. CX- 4945 has been shown to have cytotoxic properties in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia cells, inhibit pro survival signalling in human breast cancer cells, and may be used to treat cancer stem cells in glioblastomas. CX-4945 also appears to control osteoblast differentiation
As a result, the effect on neurogenesis at this concentration is due to apoptosis rather than a particular inhibition. Despite this, the remaining cells maintain their cell cycle distribution. We were able to demonstrate that inhibiting CK2 contributes to a significant suppression of neurogenesis as well as a reduction in gliogenesis by focusing on the surviving cells during differentiation. We have also seen that the effect of CK2 persists for many days during separation and that this effect degrades slowly and steadily. The lack of apoptosis was observed when a dosage of 10 M CX-4945 was used, indicating that this concentration is non-toxic. In this scenario, we found that gliogenesis was inhibited but not neurogenesis, indicating that neuronal precursors are more susceptible to apoptosis at higher inhibitor concentrations. Using various concentrations of quinalizarin, they were able to achieve either heavy apoptosis or no inhibition of the CK2 kinase activity. The CK2 kinase function was inhibited by about 40% when 40 M quinalizarin was used. In this event, neurogenesis was inhibited but gliogenesis was not. The findings obtained with the two inhibitors lead me to believe that neurogenesis inhibition is somehow linked to apoptosis activation, whereas gliogenesis inhibition is specifically linked to CK2 inhibition. This hypothesis is confirmed by Huillard and Ziercher’s findings, which showed that disrupting CK2 subunit expression causes oligo-dendrogenesis to be negatively controlled. It appears that the period when CK2 kinase activity is needed for differentiation is critical. Although knocking out CK2 in embryonic stem cells causes overall developmental failure, lineage finding can benefit from timely activation or inhibition of the enzyme within a particular organ system, particularly when the enzyme is partially up- or down-regulated. The results indicate that inhibiting CK2 for 1–3 days prevents stem cell differentiation. The interdependencies of the specific partners, such as neurons and glial cells, are also a significant feature of CK2’s function in neurogenesis. Glial cells are well known for producing a wide variety of trophic factors and cytokines that can aid in the survival and differentiation of neurons. The current observations in the nervous system are consistent with the osteoclast separation results obtained with CX-4945. Furthermore, CX-4945 was found to suppress RANKL-induced osteoblast differentiation. CX-4945, on the other hand, increased BMP2-induced osteoblast differentiation. Another research looked at the differentiation of pre-adipocytes into adipocytes and found that the activation of the CK2 kinase increased at the start of the differentiation phase and decreased as the differentiation progressed. Furthermore, inhibiting CK2 kinase activity at the start of differentiation for up to 6 days inhibits differentiation, although there was no inhibition of differentiation after day 6. As a consequence, these findings are in strong harmony with the neural differentiation evidence discussed here. Future experiments with graded up- and down-regulations of CK2 will reveal whether CK2 is still active in the differentiation fate decision of neurons and glial cells [51].
Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors (GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors) have a well-established thrombolytic role in myocardial infarction. Despite this, there is a scarcity of information on the mechanism of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors’cardioprotective function in ischemic-reperfusion injury (IR). 120 minutes of coronary ischemia and 180 minutes of reperfusion were provided to Sprague–Dawley rats. PKC (chelerythrine), PI3 kinase and Akt (wortmannin), p38 MAPK (SB203582), p42/44 MAPK (PD98059), and ERK1/2 (u0126) inhibitors were provided by continuous intravenous infusion at a rate of 2 ug/kg/min 30 minutes prior to reperfusion with/without inhibitors of PKC (chelerythrine), PI3 kinase and Western blot analysis was used to isolate and analyse proteins. The apoptotic index (AI) was determined as the percentage of myocytes positive for terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick-end labelling of all myocytes stained with 4′, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole and the ratio of myocardial necrotic region to the area at risk (AAR). The GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor decreased the ratio of myocardial necrotic region to AAR and AI, as well as exerting an immediate cardioprotective impact by phosphorylating and triggering multiple signalling pathways such as PKC, PI3 kinase, Akt, p38 MAPK, p42/44 MAPK, and ERK1/2. Raf and MEK1/2 phosphorylation, on the other hand, did not show any major rises. Chang et al., found that inhibiting GP IIb/IIIa decreased the level of cardiac IR and greatly reduced myocyte apoptosis in rats. Furthermore, the cardioprotective influence was induced by several signal transduction pathways activation [53].
Linagliptin-induced vasodilation was studied by Seo et al., in a concentration-dependent manner. The absence of endothelium, as well as pre-treatment with a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor (L-NAME) or a small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel inhibitor, had little impact on the vasodilatory effect of linagliptin (apamin). Furthermore, the adenylyl cyclase inhibitor SQ22536, the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor KT5720, the guanylylcyclase inhibitor ODQ, and the protein kinase G (PKG) inhibitor KT5823 had no impact on linagliptin’s vasodilatory effect. Y-27632, on the other hand, greatly reduced linagliptin-induced vasodilation by inhibiting Rho-associated protein kinase. The function of ion channels in linagliptin’s vasodilatory effect was also examined. Glibenclamide (ATP-sensitive K+ channels), Ba2+ (inwardly rectifying K+ channels), 4-AP (voltage-dependent K+ channels), and paxilline (large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels) were not found to influence linagliptin-induced vasodilation. Furthermore, nifedipine, an inhibitor of L-type Ca2+ channels, and thapsigargin, an inhibitor of the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) pump, had no impact on linagliptin’s vasodilatory effect. The inhibition of Rho-associated kinase, but not the endothelium, cAMP-PKA or cGMP-PKG-dependent signalling pathways, K+ channels, Ca2+ influx, or the SERCA pump, could be responsible for linagliptin-induced vasodilation [54].
PKCs are thought to control certain pancreatic functions in natural acinar cells, ductal cells, and islets, as well as in disease states such as insulin tolerance, diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, according to Fleming and Storz (PDA). PKCs control secretory processes in the regular pancreas, as shown by amylase secretion in acinar cells, bicarbonate secretion in ductal cells, and glucagon and insulin secretion in islets. PKCs play a role in the production of insulin tolerance and diabetes mellitus by regulating -cell proliferation and activity, as well as insulin secretion and cell death. PKCs play a crucial role in pancreatic injury and inflammation, as well as trypsinogen activation and basolateral exocytosis, during pancreatitis. PKCs eventually play a role in the growth of PDA by promoting acinar cell dedifferentiation (PKC) and acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (PKC). PKC control proliferation and promote anchorage-independent development throughout the progression of PDA. Atypical PKCs have also been linked to the regulation of metastasis. In conclusion, PKC isoforms play a variety of roles in normal pancreatic regulation, but they may also play a role in the onset and development of pancreatic disease [55].
Mitochondrial ATP synthase, a significant ATP supply in respiring cells, should be regulated in both quantity and action to react to differing ATP demands. Sugawara et al
PIM (proviral insertion in murine) Kinases are a kind of proto-oncogene that phosphorylates the target proteins’ serine/threonine residues. PIM-1, PIM-2, and PIM-3 are the three groups that play an important regulatory function in signal transduction cascades by facilitating cell survival, proliferation, and drug tolerance. These kinases are overexpressed in a variety of solid and hematopoietic tumours, supporting malignant cell growth and survival
In this study, we have addressed the role of protein kinase in human cells and the effects of protein kinase inhibitors in the treatment of various diseases and disorders. Protein kinase is a type of kinase enzyme that adds phosphate groups to other proteins chemically (i.e. phosphorylation). Many biochemical signalling pathways within cells (i.e. signal transduction) and effectors in cellular functions, such as cell proliferation and necrosis, are influenced by this enzyme. Protein kinases are the third messenger mechanism, and most of their isoforms depend on second messengers like cAMP and calcium to function. Overexpression of protein kinase, on the other hand, causes life-threatening diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease (hypertension), central nervous system disease, skin disease (inflammation), diabetes mellitus, and so on. Moreover, the findings of various researchers has also added to the fact. There are currently a range of protein kinase inhibitors in the market that inhibit protein kinase activity. They can be used to regulate the cellular responses that protein kinase activity causes. As a result, there is scope for the design and production of new medicines that inhibit protein kinase overexpression for the prevention and treatment of associated disorders. The functions of protein kinases in signal transduction, the effects of overexpression, and the therapeutic roles of various protein kinase inhibitors are all discussed here. As a result, further research into the protein kinase is needed in order to develop more potent and effective prophylactics for disease treatment.
ATP | Adenosinetriphosphate |
ADP | Adenosinediphosphate |
PTMs | Post-transitional modifications |
JAK | Januskinase |
MAPK | Mitogen-activated protein kinase |
CDKs | Cyclin-dependent kinases |
Abl | Abelsonmurine leukaemia virus |
MKK4 | Mitogen-activatedproteinkinase4 |
AMPK | AMP-activated protein kinase |
VEGFR | Vascular endothelial growth factor receptors |
EGFR | Epidermal growth factor receptors |
NAFLD/NASH | Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis |
LRRK2 | Leucine-richrepeatkinase2 |
NO | Nitricoxide |
PKI | protein kinase inhibitor |
ALI | Acute lung inflammation acute lung inflammation |
ERK | Extracellular signal related kinase |
PD | Parkinson’s disease |
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Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11072",title:"Sample Preparation Techniques for Chemical Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38fecf7570774c29c22a0cbca58ba570",slug:"sample-preparation-techniques-for-chemical-analysis",bookSignature:"Massoud Kaykhaii",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11072.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"349151",title:"Prof.",name:"Massoud",middleName:null,surname:"Kaykhaii",slug:"massoud-kaykhaii",fullName:"Massoud Kaykhaii"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10443",title:"Accenting Lipid Peroxidation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"783b476008fbd1917ab059fb9f07b93c",slug:"accenting-lipid-peroxidation",bookSignature:"Pınar Atukeren",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10443.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54960",title:"Dr.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Atukeren",slug:"pinar-atukeren",fullName:"Pınar Atukeren"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10776",title:"Cellulose Science and Derivatives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"947660259ce1915c3cac58bf7d990424",slug:"cellulose-science-and-derivatives",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Sangita Banga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10776.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287032",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10701",title:"Alkenes",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6dd394ef1ca2d6472220de6a79a0d9a",slug:"alkenes-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Reza Davarnejad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88069",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Davarnejad",slug:"reza-davarnejad",fullName:"Reza Davarnejad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:190,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"36171",doi:"10.5772/36942",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:9225,totalCrossrefCites:130,totalDimensionsCites:375,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko"}]},{id:"36178",doi:"10.5772/36323",title:"Applications of FTIR on Epoxy Resins - Identification, Monitoring the Curing Process, Phase Separation and Water Uptake",slug:"applications-of-ftir-on-epoxy-resins-identification-monitoring-the-curing-process-phase-separatio",totalDownloads:20806,totalCrossrefCites:84,totalDimensionsCites:254,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"María González González, Juan Carlos Cabanelas and Juan Baselga",authors:[{id:"107857",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Baselga",slug:"juan-baselga",fullName:"Juan Baselga"},{id:"138113",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"González",slug:"maria-gonzalez",fullName:"María González"},{id:"138114",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas",fullName:"Juan C. Cabanelas"}]},{id:"53973",doi:"10.5772/66927",title:"Phenolic Compounds in Water: Sources, Reactivity, Toxicity and Treatment Methods",slug:"phenolic-compounds-in-water-sources-reactivity-toxicity-and-treatment-methods",totalDownloads:7253,totalCrossrefCites:74,totalDimensionsCites:158,abstract:"Phenolic compounds exist in water bodies due to the discharge of polluted wastewater from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities into water bodies. They also occur as a result of natural phenomena. These compounds are known to be toxic and inflict both severe and long‐lasting effects on both humans and animals. They act as carcinogens and cause damage to the red blood cells and the liver, even at low concentrations. Interaction of these compounds with microorganisms, inorganic and other organic compounds in water can produce substituted compounds or other moieties, which may be as toxic as the original phenolic compounds. This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. Govender",authors:[{id:"195237",title:"Dr.",name:"Messai",middleName:"A.",surname:"Mamo",slug:"messai-mamo",fullName:"Messai Mamo"},{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku"},{id:"196466",title:"Dr.",name:"Penny",middleName:null,surname:"Govender",slug:"penny-govender",fullName:"Penny Govender"}]},{id:"36184",doi:"10.5772/36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",totalDownloads:7792,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:150,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández"}]},{id:"53128",doi:"10.5772/66368",title:"Phenolic Compounds: Functional Properties, Impact of Processing and Bioavailability",slug:"phenolic-compounds-functional-properties-impact-of-processing-and-bioavailability",totalDownloads:9318,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:142,abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss the influence of the processing methods on the content of phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables. The intake of fruits and vegetables based‐foods are associated with delayed aging and a decreased risk of chronic disease development. Fruits and vegetables can be consumed in natura, but the highest amounts are ingested after some processing methods, such as cooking procedures or sanitizing methods. These methods are directly methods are directly related to alteration on the phenolic content. In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12377,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6879,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3051,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4493,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:7983,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82385",title:"Cyclodextrins as Bricks for Tuning Polymer Properties",slug:"cyclodextrins-as-bricks-for-tuning-polymer-properties",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105688",abstract:"Cyclodextrins are natural cyclic oligosaccharides with a cone shape delimiting a hydrophobic cavity. The rims of cyclodextrins can be functionalized in order to improve their properties. Based on this, cyclodextrins can be linked to polymer chains, which further allows the tuning of the polymer properties. This review describes the methods of polymer functionalization with cyclodextrins and highlights the changes in the physicochemical properties of these materials. This chapter is focused on polymers in solution and in gel states. Cyclodextrin-based polymers are evaluated by various physicochemical methods, such as rheology, calorimetry, and spectroscopy (electron paramagnetic resonance, fluorescence, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), etc.). Both natural and synthetic polymers are considered in this chapter.",book:{id:"11901",title:"Cyclodextrins - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11901.jpg"},signatures:"Ludmila Aricov, Anca Ruxandra Leontieș, Iulia Matei and Gabriela Ioniță"},{id:"82358",title:"Water Defluoridation Methods Applied in Rural Areas over the World",slug:"water-defluoridation-methods-applied-in-rural-areas-over-the-world",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105102",abstract:"Overexposure to fluoride (F) through drinking water is the most widespread water problem in the world, but it has now exacerbated due to rapid population growth rates, adverse climatic changes, and increasing levels of water scarcity. Thus, despite the large amounts of data, which has accrued on mitigation methods of high F is still the primary impediment to drinking water programs among many developing nations. The current review chapter on F mitigation techniques applied world-over is aimed at providing a succinct overview of water defluoridation techniques and strategies being used to combat the impact of human F overexposure. It represents a starting point to understand the prospects of reducing the global F impact. It is anticipated that this work will lay a strong foundation for this and also inform strategies for safeguarding public health and the environment from F pollution.",book:{id:"11209",title:"Fluoride",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11209.jpg"},signatures:"Enos Wamalwa Wambu, Franco Frau, Revocatus Machunda, Lilliane Pasape, Stephen S. Barasa and Giorgio Ghiglieri"},{id:"82221",title:"Solvent Catalysis in the Sensitizer-Mediator Redox Kinetics",slug:"solvent-catalysis-in-the-sensitizer-mediator-redox-kinetics",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105393",abstract:"The sensitizer-mediator redox reaction is a vital component of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The efficiency and stability of dye-sensitized solar cells are aided by the kinetics of this redox process. Several reaction parameters influence the kinetics of a reaction, and if those parameters are controlled, the rate of the process and its results can be controlled. One of the most important aspects of the sensitizer-mediator interaction is the reaction medium. Aqueous DSSCs are unquestionably a good replacement when it comes to taking a green approach to avoiding toxic, flammable, and volatile organic solvents and their mixtures, which are commonly used in DSSCs and are known to harm the environment while also reducing the lifetime and stability of the DSSCs. The catalytic role of a small volume fraction of organic solvent in the aqueous electron transfer kinetics of a few putative sensitizer-mediator reactions is discussed in this chapter. In binary solvent media including dilute tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA)-water and dilute 1,4-dioxane-water, the reduction of dicyanobis(2,2′-dipyridyl)iron(III) and dicyanobis(1,10-phenanthroline)iron(III) was investigated. The reactions were carried out in a 10% TBA or dioxane to water media with a volume-volume fraction of both solvents using iodide as a reducing agent. The effect of several parameters on the rate constant was also calculated and analyzed.",book:{id:"11217",title:"Recent Advances in Chemical Kinetics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11217.jpg"},signatures:"Rozina Khattak"},{id:"82282",title:"Pyridine Nucleus as a Directing Group for Metal-Based C–H Bond Activation",slug:"pyridine-nucleus-as-a-directing-group-for-metal-based-c-h-bond-activation",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105544",abstract:"Carbon-hydrogen (C–H) bond activation involves a methodology for the construction of carbon-X (C–X) bonds where X can be carbon (C), oxygen (O), or the nitrogen (N), allowing the formation of C–C, C–O, or C–N bonds. Among them, the construction of the C–C bond within the aromatic moiety has remained a bottleneck because the abundance of C–H bonds in aromatic molecules possesses almost similar bond dissociation energies comparable to the C–C bond allowing leading to the poor reactivity and selectivity. Secondly, C–H bonds possess low polarity and thus confer them inertness. Considering this, directing group strategy came into existence, where the coordination ability of the heteroatoms such as O and N atoms within the ring was utilized for the direction of the reaction. The use of the heteroatom for the regioselective C–H bond activation is quite advantageous that could be explored immensely for their functionalization. In this chapter, we have congregated the information and put forth the evidence of C–H activation leading to the C–C bond formation in pyridine and pyridine-containing entities.",book:{id:"11562",title:"Chemistry with Pyridine Derivatives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11562.jpg"},signatures:"Purohit Priyank, Joshi Gaurav and Aggarwal Meenu"},{id:"82236",title:"Alternatives to Soluble Phosphorus Fertilizers in Indian Context",slug:"alternatives-to-soluble-phosphorus-fertilizers-in-indian-context",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105561",abstract:"Phosphorus is one of the primary nutrients required in crop production. Rock phosphate is the raw material required for the manufacturing of soluble phosphorus fertilizers, which is nonrenewable in nature and expected to last for 50–400 years. The restriction of resources to few geographical locations makes its supply more vulnerable. In India, 90% of the rock phosphate for fertilizer manufacturing is imported. However, the low quality of rock phosphate deposits available in India can be utilized with certain modifications in the form of addition of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, addition of gypsum, and in the form of phospho-enriched compost. Agriculture, livestock, urban and industrial waste can also prove to be a source of phosphorus through crystallization of struvite. There are encouraging results of struvite compared with soluble phosphorus fertilizers. 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Organic chemists may find this book chapter valuable in formulating the mechanistic pathways involving the sulphate radical anion, as well as in the quick and environmentally friendly synthesis of novel chemical species.",book:{id:"11211",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg"},signatures:"Bilal Ahmad Mir and Suresh Rajamanickam"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:77},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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