Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6141",leadTitle:"Recent Research in",fullTitle:"Recent Research in Polymerization",title:"Polymerization",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The purpose of this book is to help you concentrate on recent developments in polymerization. The chapters collected in the book are contributions by invited researchers with a long-standing experience in different research areas. I hope that the material presented here is understandable to a broad audience, not only chemists but also scientists from various disciplines. The book contains nine chapters in three sections: (1) "General Information about Polymerization," (2) "Biomaterial Content Polymer Composites," and (3) "Mechanical Properties of Polymerization." The book provides detailed and current reviews in these different areas written by experts in their respective fields. This book is expected to be useful for polymer workers and other scientists alike and contribute to the training of current and future researchers, academics, PhD degree students, as well as other scientists.',isbn:"978-953-51-3747-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3746-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4044-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68265",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-research-in-polymerization",numberOfPages:216,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6253d53d2d87cf7917080428071127f0",bookSignature:"Nevin Cankaya",publishedDate:"January 17th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6141.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17704,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:90,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 12th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"175645",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nevin",middleName:null,surname:"Çankaya",slug:"nevin-cankaya",fullName:"Nevin Çankaya",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175645/images/4214_n.jpg",biography:"She is associated with Usak University since 2011. She received her PhD, master’s, and bachelor’s degrees from Fırat University, Turkey. She is an expert in polymer composite science, working with bio-nanocomposites, polymeric materials, and polymer-clay composites. She has published over 20 scientific articles, over 30 conference papers, a book chapter entitled “Cellulose Grafting by Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization Method,” Cellulose - Fundamental Aspects and Current Trends, another book edited by InTech Publication. Also, she has been a manager and researcher in many research projects. The editor is married and is a mother of two.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Usak University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"919",title:"Tissue Engineering",slug:"biomaterials-tissue-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"57833",title:"Emulsion Polymerization Mechanism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72143",slug:"emulsion-polymerization-mechanism",totalDownloads:3834,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Emulsion polymerization is a polymerization process with different applications on the industrial and academic scale. It involves application of emulsifier to emulsify hydrophobic polymers through aqueous phase by amphipathic emulsifier, then generation of free radicals with either a water or oil soluble initiators. It characterized by reduction of bimolecular termination of free radicals due to segregation of free radicals among the discrete monomer-swollen polymer particles. The latex particles size ranged from 10 nm to 1000 nm in a diameter and are generally spherical. A typical of particle consist of 1–10,000 macromolecules, where macromolecule contains about 100–106 monomer units.",signatures:"Abdelaziz Nasr Moawed Bakr El-hoshoudy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57833",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57833",authors:[{id:"201556",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelaziz",surname:"El-Hoshoudy",slug:"abdelaziz-el-hoshoudy",fullName:"Abdelaziz El-Hoshoudy"}],corrections:null},{id:"57790",title:"Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71085",slug:"ring-opening-metathesis-polymerization",totalDownloads:1715,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In recent years, the olefins metathesis has established itself as a powerful tool for carbon-carbon bonds forming and has found numerous applications in polymer chemistry. One of the important directions of metathesis is the polymerization with cycle opening. A study of new ruthenium catalysts, resistant to the many functional groups effects, has showed the possibility of synthesizing functionalized polymers with unique properties. In this chapter, reactivity and activation parameters of eight different norbornene dicarboxylic acid alkyl esters in the presence of a Hoveyda-Grubbs II catalyst for the ring opening metathesis polymerization were determined by 1H NMR analysis in-situ. The molecules of esters differ in the aliphatic radical structure and the location of the substituent groups. Kinetic studies have shown that effective polymerization constants and activation parameters strongly depend on the monomer structure. It is shown that the elongation of the aliphatic radical does not significantly affect the reactivity, but significantly changes the activation parameters. The branching of the aliphatic radical significantly affects both the reactivity of the corresponding ester and the activation parameters of the polymerization. The position of the substituents in the norbornene ring of the ester also has a significant effect on the activation parameters of metathesis polymerization.",signatures:"Alexey Lyapkov, Stanislav Kiselev, Galina Bozhenkova, Olga\nKukurina, Mekhman Yusubov and Francis Verpoort",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57790",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57790",authors:[{id:"140091",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Lyapkov",slug:"alex-lyapkov",fullName:"Alex Lyapkov"},{id:"208899",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Kiselev",slug:"stanislav-kiselev",fullName:"Stanislav Kiselev"},{id:"208900",title:"Dr.",name:"Galina",surname:"Bozhenkova",slug:"galina-bozhenkova",fullName:"Galina Bozhenkova"},{id:"208901",title:"Prof.",name:"Mekhman",surname:"Yusubov",slug:"mekhman-yusubov",fullName:"Mekhman Yusubov"},{id:"220997",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Kukurina",slug:"olga-kukurina",fullName:"Olga Kukurina"},{id:"220998",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Francis",surname:"Verpoort",slug:"francis-verpoort",fullName:"Francis Verpoort"}],corrections:null},{id:"57457",title:"Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Pharmaceutical Compounds: Synthetic Procedures and Analytical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71475",slug:"molecularly-imprinted-polymers-for-pharmaceutical-compounds-synthetic-procedures-and-analytical-appl",totalDownloads:1864,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the synthetic procedures for molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for pharmaceutical compounds are discussed. Regardless of its limitations, such as production of irregular particles and loss of sample during processing (crushing and sieving), bulk polymerization has been widely used compared to say precipitation and suspension polymerization partly due to its simplicity in synthesis and robustness. A comparison of indomethacin removal from aqueous solution by MIP particles prepared using bulk polymerization to those obtained from suspension polymerization showed that the particles from the former exhibited higher adsorption capacity. Furthermore, the chapter explores the strengths and limitations relating the use of pharmaceutical compounds as uni-templates, multi-templates and dummy templates. Also, the analytical applications of MIPs are discussed in more details with particular focus on molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) of pharmaceuticals from environmental samples. This application (MISPE) is currently the most exploited in literature as more pharmaceutical drugs find their way into environmental water bodies.",signatures:"Lawrence Madikizela, Nikita Tavengwa and Vusumzi Pakade",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57457",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57457",authors:[{id:"213147",title:"Dr.",name:"Lawrence",surname:"Madikizela",slug:"lawrence-madikizela",fullName:"Lawrence Madikizela"},{id:"214468",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikita",surname:"Tavengwa",slug:"nikita-tavengwa",fullName:"Nikita Tavengwa"},{id:"214469",title:"Dr.",name:"Vusumzi",surname:"Pakade",slug:"vusumzi-pakade",fullName:"Vusumzi Pakade"}],corrections:null},{id:"58086",title:"Plasma Polymerization for Tissue Engineering Purposes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72293",slug:"plasma-polymerization-for-tissue-engineering-purposes",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The ability of non-equilibrium plasmas to modify surfaces has been known for many years. And a promising way to perform surface modifications without altering the bulk properties is plasma polymerization since this technique is versatile and can be applied to a wide range of materials. Plasma polymer films usually show good biocompatibility when compared to classical biomaterials. The possible biomedical use of plasma polymers motivates the study of their behavior during storage and in aqueous environment. Therefore, it is of major importance to understand the change of properties of these plasma polymers over time and when in contact with certain fluids. Recently, plasma polymer gradients (surfaces that display a change in at least one physicochemical property over distance) have attracted significant attention from the biomedical filed where the interaction of cells with a material surface is of major interest. This chapter discusses biomaterial functionalization via plasma polymerization focusing on their use in the biomedical field as well as their aging and stability behaviors. Plasma polymer gradients as valuable tools to investigate cell-surface interactions will also be reviewed.",signatures:"Gaelle Aziz, Rouba Ghobeira, Rino Morent and Nathalie De Geyter",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58086",authors:[{id:"31411",title:"Prof.",name:"Nathalie",surname:"De Geyter",slug:"nathalie-de-geyter",fullName:"Nathalie De Geyter"},{id:"32004",title:"Prof.",name:"Rino",surname:"Morent",slug:"rino-morent",fullName:"Rino Morent"},{id:"171761",title:"MSc.",name:"Gaelle",surname:"Aziz",slug:"gaelle-aziz",fullName:"Gaelle Aziz"},{id:"180883",title:"Mrs.",name:"Rouba",surname:"Ghobeira",slug:"rouba-ghobeira",fullName:"Rouba Ghobeira"}],corrections:null},{id:"57665",title:"Sorption Properties of Clay and Pectin-Containing Hydrogels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71190",slug:"sorption-properties-of-clay-and-pectin-containing-hydrogels",totalDownloads:1280,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As is known, polymeric polyelectrolyte hydrogels are superabsorbents that are capable of absorbing moisture in amounts many times greater than their own mass. Numerous studies have shown that besides water absorption and retention, they can also be effectively used as sorbents to purify water from heavy metals. In many works, attempts are made to improve the sorption properties of polyelectrolyte hydrogels by creating polymer composites based on them. Organic/inorganic composite materials frequently exhibited desired hybrid performance superior to their individual components and cost-efficient characteristics. The composites derived from natural polysaccharides and inorganic clay minerals are of special interest by virtue of their unique commercial and environmental advantages, which means that the design and development of environmentally friendly superabsorbents, introducing natural ingredients, have long been necessary. In this paper, we consider polymer hydrogels based on a copolymer of acrylic acid and acrylamide filled with pectin and bentonite. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of chemical conditions on hydrogels and their composites, kinetic, and absorption behavior toward metal ions in the presence of the chelating agent. In this chapter, an investigation of the kinetic patterns of swelling, deswelling, and sorption of the hydrogels and their composites will be presented.",signatures:"Mayya V. Uspenskaya, Vera E. Sitnikova, Michael A. Dovbeta,\nRoman O. Olekhnovich and Igor Yu. Denisyuk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57665",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57665",authors:[{id:"12483",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Denisyuk",slug:"igor-denisyuk",fullName:"Igor Denisyuk"},{id:"215365",title:"Prof.",name:"Mayya",surname:"Uspenskaya",slug:"mayya-uspenskaya",fullName:"Mayya Uspenskaya"},{id:"215367",title:"Dr.",name:"Roman",surname:"Olekhnovich",slug:"roman-olekhnovich",fullName:"Roman Olekhnovich"},{id:"215371",title:"MSc.",name:"Michael",surname:"Dovbeta",slug:"michael-dovbeta",fullName:"Michael Dovbeta"},{id:"215372",title:"Dr.",name:"Vera",surname:"Sitnikova",slug:"vera-sitnikova",fullName:"Vera Sitnikova"}],corrections:null},{id:"57279",title:"Thermoplastic Foams: Processing, Manufacturing, and Characterization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71083",slug:"thermoplastic-foams-processing-manufacturing-and-characterization",totalDownloads:3349,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polymer foams have wide application area due to their light weight, resistance to impact, high thermal insulation, and damping properties. Automotive, packing industry, electronic, aerospace, building construction, bedding, and medical applications are some of the fields that polymer foams have been used. However, depending on their cell structure—open or closed cell—polymer foams have different properties and different application areas. In this work, the most used thermoplastic foams with closed cells such as polypropylene, polyethylene, and polystyrene or polylactic acid have been focused. Their melt strength, degree of crystallinity for semi-crystalline ones, and viscosity have great importance on cell morphology. Cells in small diameter with high dense in polymer matrix are preferable. However, obtaining fine cells is not easy in each case, and it is still under investigation for some polymers. There are several ways to improve cell morphology, and one of them is addition of nanoparticle to the polymer. During foaming process, nanoparticles behave like nucleating agent that cells nucleate at the boundary between polymer and the nanoparticle. Besides, foaming agents contribute the homogenous dispersion of the nanoparticles in the polymer matrix, and this improves the properties of the polymer foams and generates multifunctional material as polymer nanocomposite foams.",signatures:"Mihrigul Altan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57279",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57279",authors:[{id:"209557",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mihrigul",surname:"Altan",slug:"mihrigul-altan",fullName:"Mihrigul Altan"}],corrections:null},{id:"57617",title:"PRAP-CVD: A Novel Technique to Deposit Intrinsically Conductive Polymers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71736",slug:"prap-cvd-a-novel-technique-to-deposit-intrinsically-conductive-polymers",totalDownloads:1385,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polymers provide extraordinary opportunities for functionalizing surfaces integrated into flexible devices contributing to a significant advancement in thin-film technologies. Both the advantageous characteristics of conventional polymers (e.g. low weight, flexibility) and the functional physical properties of conventional semiconductors (e.g. absorption and emission of light and a tuneable conductivity) can be found in polymers providing innovative materials. Among polymers with heterocyclic structures, called conjugated polymers, polythiophene remains one of the most intensely researched materials in the field of so called organic electronics owing to the relatively facile and well-established synthetic modifications of the corresponding monomers and its derivatives. In particular, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) is one of the most promising owing to its exceptional stability, transparency, and electrical conductivity. Nevertheless it is difficult to process PEDOT into thin-films by traditional solution-based methods. Plasma Radicals Assisted Polymerisation via Chemical Vapour Deposition (PRAP-CVD) is a novel technique able to overcome the challenges caused by the conventional techniques.",signatures:"Bianca Rita Pistillo, Kevin Menguelti, Didier Arl, Renaud Leturcq and\nDamien Lenoble",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57617",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57617",authors:[{id:"178256",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",surname:"Lenoble",slug:"damien-lenoble",fullName:"Damien Lenoble"},{id:"210001",title:"Dr.",name:"Bianca Rita",surname:"Pistillo",slug:"bianca-rita-pistillo",fullName:"Bianca Rita Pistillo"},{id:"222307",title:"Mr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Menguelti",slug:"kevin-menguelti",fullName:"Kevin Menguelti"},{id:"222308",title:"Dr.",name:"Didier",surname:"Arl",slug:"didier-arl",fullName:"Didier Arl"},{id:"222309",title:"Dr.",name:"Renaud",surname:"Leturcq",slug:"renaud-leturcq",fullName:"Renaud Leturcq"}],corrections:null},{id:"57574",title:"Polymerizable Materials for Diffractive Optical Elements Recording",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71511",slug:"polymerizable-materials-for-diffractive-optical-elements-recording",totalDownloads:1501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The technologies based on holographic and photonic techniques related to the optical storage and optical processing of information are rapidly evolving. One of the key points of this evolution are the new recording materials able to perform under the most specific situations and applications. In this sense, the importance of the photopolymers is growing spectacularly. This is mainly due to their versatility in terms of composition and design together with other interesting properties such as self-processing capabilities. In this chapter, we introduce the diffractive optical elements (DOE) generation in these materials and some of the most important parameters involved in this process. The deep knowledge of the material is essential to model its behavior during and after the recording process and we present different techniques to characterize the recording materials. We also present a 3D theoretical diffusion model able to reproduce and predict the experimental behavior of the recording process of any kind of DOE onto the photopolymers. The theoretical results will be supported by experimental analysis using a hybrid optical-digital setup, which includes a liquid crystal on silicon display. Besides this analysis, we study a method to improve the conservation and characteristics of these materials, an index-matching system.",signatures:"Roberto Fernández Fernández, Víctor Navarro Fuster, Francisco J.\nMartínez Guardiola, Sergi Gallego Rico, Andrés Márquez Ruiz,\nCristian Neipp López, Inmaculada Pascual Villalobos and Augusto\nBeléndez Vázquez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57574",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57574",authors:[{id:"46619",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrés",surname:"Márquez",slug:"andres-marquez",fullName:"Andrés Márquez"},{id:"191593",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Martínez",slug:"francisco-javier-martinez",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martínez"},{id:"192588",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergi",surname:"Gallego",slug:"sergi-gallego",fullName:"Sergi Gallego"},{id:"192589",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Fernández",slug:"roberto-fernandez",fullName:"Roberto Fernández"},{id:"192592",title:"Prof.",name:"Inmaculada",surname:"Pascual",slug:"inmaculada-pascual",fullName:"Inmaculada Pascual"},{id:"192593",title:"Prof.",name:"Augusto",surname:"Beléndez",slug:"augusto-belendez",fullName:"Augusto Beléndez"},{id:"222305",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristian",surname:"Neipp López",slug:"cristian-neipp-lopez",fullName:"Cristian Neipp López"},{id:"222306",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Navarro Fuster",slug:"victor-navarro-fuster",fullName:"Victor Navarro Fuster"}],corrections:null},{id:"58226",title:"The Effects of Casting and Blending on Properties of Ionomer and the Electromechanical Responses of Ionic Polymer Metal Composite Actuators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72440",slug:"the-effects-of-casting-and-blending-on-properties-of-ionomer-and-the-electromechanical-responses-of-",totalDownloads:1360,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As one typical kind of ionic electroactive polymers (iEAPs), ionic polymer metal composites (IPMC) consist of an ionomer and two thin layers of metallic electrode on its both sides. The micro-properties of the ionomer, usually Nafion as the most used ionomer, exert strongly effects on the responses of IPMC actuator. Our works revealed the effects of casting process with different additives (ethylene glycol (EG), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), N, N′-dimethyl formamide (DMF) and N-methyl formamide (NMF)), and blending with sulfonated multi-walled carbon nanotube (sMWCNT) on properties of ionomer and the electromechanical responses of IPMC actuators. Some important properties of casting membrane and sMWCNT/Nafion blending membrane, such as surface morphology, water uptake and ionic exchange capacity, etc., were measured and evaluated. Among the casting membrane-based IPMC actuators, EG based IPMC actuator has larger deformation at 2 V DC voltage. And a trace amount of sMWCNT can improve the performances of IPMCs significantly for realistic applications.",signatures:"Yanjie Wang, Jie Ru, Denglin Zhu, Minzhou Luo, Xiaofeng Liu and\nHualing Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58226",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58226",authors:[{id:"219021",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanjie",surname:"Wang",slug:"yanjie-wang",fullName:"Yanjie Wang"},{id:"222559",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",surname:"Ru",slug:"jie-ru",fullName:"Jie Ru"},{id:"222560",title:"Prof.",name:"Denglin",surname:"Zhu",slug:"denglin-zhu",fullName:"Denglin Zhu"},{id:"222561",title:"Prof.",name:"Minzhou",surname:"Luo",slug:"minzhou-luo",fullName:"Minzhou Luo"},{id:"222563",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaofeng",surname:"Liu",slug:"xiaofeng-liu",fullName:"Xiaofeng Liu"},{id:"222564",title:"Prof.",name:"Hualing",surname:"Chen",slug:"hualing-chen",fullName:"Hualing Chen"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5919",title:"Elastomers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c1ca61ab151481bb9e7da3fd463cf14",slug:"elastomers",bookSignature:"Nevin Cankaya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5919.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175645",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nevin",surname:"Çankaya",slug:"nevin-cankaya",fullName:"Nevin Çankaya"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3420",title:"Advances in Biomaterials Science and Biomedical Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"381d506a331ddc9ae4d423dea265e0a2",slug:"advances-in-biomaterials-science-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Rosario Pignatello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3420.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64447",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Pignatello",slug:"rosario-pignatello",fullName:"Rosario Pignatello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1464",title:"Advanced Plasma Spray Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae66339c844ea8b473cc76ad34b38b04",slug:"advanced-plasma-spray-applications",bookSignature:"Hamidreza Salimi Jazi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1464.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102953",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamidreza",surname:"Salimi Jazi",slug:"hamidreza-salimi-jazi",fullName:"Hamidreza Salimi Jazi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2300",title:"Microwave Materials 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1. Introduction
The sun is a nuclear fusion reactor that contains gravity. It produces unimaginable quantities of energy. Solar energy is a very perfect source of power. It can be captured passively by solar panels or other collectors. When the collectors have been produced, there will be no carbon emissions or waste products [1]. There are no moving parts to hurt wildlife. There is no dependence on foreign entities. The energy is produced and delivered for free by the sun [2]. The uranium division begins progressing with the absorption of the smooth-moving neutron from the non-strong U-235 isotope. The obtained U-236 is split into Ba-139 and Kr-94 as well as three unfastened neutrons. The mass deficiency of approximately 20% of atomic mass units has also been converted into 210 MeV energy units [3, 4]. There were 447 nuclear fission power stations in service globally, 55 in construction and 111 in the design processes [5].
In the United States in 2018, 19.3% of the electricity supply was produced by 97 nuclear power plants. This amounts from zero percent to the other countries, for example, in New Zealand, and 71.7% in the European Union; the total global energy demand in 2018 was 10.3% [6].
With 11 new reactors under development, China has the most quickly expanding nuclear power program. Pakistan aims to construct three to four nuclear power stations by 2030 [7].
Several countries had nuclear installations in the past, but they still do not have nuclear plants in operation. Italy closed all the nuclear power stations between them by 1990, and, as a consequence of the referendums established by the Italians in 1987, nuclear power already has stopped [8]. A number of nations currently run nuclear power stations but are considering the process of nuclear technology. These countries are Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and Spain [3]. Also according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), solar power increased by 39% in the United States from 2014 to 2017 [4]. Starting at 10 GW and ending at 27, this growth trend for the field is very encouraging. In addition, carbon dioxide emissions have decreased by a few percent, the lowest since 1991 [5]. If it continues down this path, more study is likely to be carried out as a result of the growth in the market for efficient, cheap solar energy, in order to attempt to develop even more carbon-free or low-carbon fuels such as wind and nuclear power [6]. There are two big issues relating to nuclear plants: waste disposal and potential failure. Nuclear power plants produce dangerous wastes; for example, a 1-GW nuclear power plant can produce 300 kg of nuclear waste, with a half-life of almost 24,000 years, and cause environmental issues. The current methods for disposing of these kinds of waste are inadequate. The complete reprocessing of all radioactive waste and the chemical transformation of long fission products will be an ideal option. However, trends in this area have not progressed extensively [7]. The first and most critical problem is its disparity; the amount of solar energy that can be harvested depends widely on the time, location, season, weather, and several other factors. In order to improve this topic, engineers are exploring the development of new storage methods for large quantities of energy generated [5]. One of these storage techniques suitable for mountainous areas is pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES) that also uses excess energy generated during nonpeak hours of the day to pump water from a reservoir in a much high elevation. PHES is just one of the several potential storage methods used by many people, and it is so essential because it provides a clean, efficient use of solar energy when normally none is generated by replacing it with hydroelectricity [8]. Because of the good use and storage of solar energy, it becomes more difficult to determine whether to use solar energy or some other form of renewable energy for power companies and individuals. Despite the obvious cost of installing solar power, this is a higher investment opposed to the use of fossil fuels due to much lower maintenance and occasional overproduction of energy.
Solar energy is a key player in the sustainable power plan. In sunny places, many residents built panels on their roofs to support air-conditioning, heating, and other household needs and the panels were set up by themselves. Study in the collection and storage of solar energy should be a major effort worldwide [9]. But in less sunny areas, there are a few expensive homes which run 100% on solar power, using large battery banks to power them through the nights.
Solar energy has the capacity to boost everything we need; however our ability to turn the energy of the sun into electrical power and also to store energy is simply not fully developed. Energy storage in particular has proven to be challenging, as solar panels have a very irregular energy intake because it depends on season, climate conditions, time of day, and so on. The inability to use all solar power harvested efficiently is an issue that is likely to force even more development in the field to come soon after it has been resolved. The industry is full of possible innovations that have yet to be made and which can be recognized if time is taken to develop the innovative technology. Therefore, when looking at potential ways of storing the energy produced, PHES may not be the most cost-effective, but it is proven to be safe and can be added to some existing infrastructure at the same time as analysis seeks to make it more efficient.
2. Solar energy
Solar technology, i.e., renewable wind, offers a reliable and stable supply of solar energy during the year. As our natural resources are likely to decline in the years to come, it is necessary for the entire world to shift toward sustainable sources. Solar power is a reactive electromagnetic sunlight energy that can be used for a wide range of still-evolving applications, such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar electricity, solar thermal processing, artificial molten, salt power plants, and photosynthesis.
Solar energy is a significant source of green energy, and its techniques are generally characterized as either passive solar energy or active solar energy based on whether solar energy is absorbed and transmitted or transformed into solar energy. Strong solar technologies involve the use of photovoltaic devices, concentrating solar power and solar water heaters to harvest electricity. Passive methods include the alignment of a system or building to the sun, the use of products with desirable light properties or thermal mass, and the construction of spaces that automatically disperse air.
2.1 Advantages of solar energy
The biggest advantage of solar energy is that it can be quickly installed by both home and business consumers, because it does not involve any major construction, such as in the case of wind and geothermal power stations. Solar energy not only benefits individual owners but also benefits the environment. Figure 1 shows a simple model of a solar thermal system.
No pollution: Solar energy is a safe, nonpolluting, efficient, and green energy resource. This does not pollute the environment by producing poisonous pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and sulfur oxide. Solar energy does not need power and thus prevents the problems of shipping power or handling radioactive materials.
Long-lasting solar cells: Solar cells have two special features: first the lack of drive systems and second the minimal maintenance requirements. Then they have already got a longer life and they’re more noticeable.
Renewable source: Solar energy is a sustainable energy source that can continue to generate power as long as there is light. While solar energy cannot be generated during the night and rainy days, it can be used again and again throughout the day. Solar energy from the sun is a steady and continuous source of electricity which can be used to harvest strength in remote areas.
Low maintenance: Generally, solar cells do not need upkeep and operate for a long time. More solar panels can be installed from time to time if desired. While solar panels have an initial expense, there are no recurrent costs. The initial expense, which is paid once, may be recovered in the long run. Apart from this, solar panels do not create any noise and do not emit an unpleasant scent.
Easy installation: There is no need to install equipment such as cables, power supply, pipes, etc.; solar panels make solar tracking simpler. Unlike wind and geothermal energy harvesting systems that need land drilling equipment, solar panels do not need them and can be easily mounted on rooftops to insure that no additional infrastructure is needed, so residential home users can easily use this technology to supply electricity. In addition, they can be installed in a dispersed manner, meaning that no large-scale installations are required.
Figure 1.
Solar thermal system [10].
The technology of solar cells is developing, and as our nonrenewable supply decreases, it is necessary for the world to transition into renewable energy sources. There are, though, a range of issues that prohibit solar energy from being used more widely. Solar energy drawbacks are likely to be resolved as technology advances, and their use grows as people continue to realize the benefits of solar energy.
2.2 Disadvantages of solar energy
Solar energy can either be thermal or photovoltaic. The photovoltaic type is one of the most stable types of converting radiant energy into electrical energy. It really is suitable in many countries with adequate sunlight, such as Iran, and countries close to the equator, in terms of the quantity and availability of this technology. The energy source does not relate to someone and requires permission to use it. This feature has given rise to solar energy becoming special among renewable energy sources. Solar energy from ancient times is used by people using a magnifying glass to light the fire. Throughout this way, the sunlight was concentrated on dark wooden surfaces, and the fire became ignited. Also, solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells convert solar energy directly into DC electricity. This power source may be used to power solar clocks, calculators, or signals. These are also found in areas which are not linked to the power grid. Figure 2 shows a concentrated solar power (CSP) plant. Solar heat energy (SHE) can be used to heat water or air, which requires ventilation of the room inside the house.
Figure 2.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) plant [10].
Solar energy can be broadly categorized as active or passive solar energy depending on how they are captured and utilized. For active solar power, specific solar heating equipment is used to transform solar power into thermal energy, but there is no specialized equipment for passive solar power [11]. Active solar requires the use of mechanical devices such as photovoltaic panels, solar trap fans, and solar thermal collectors or reservoirs. Passive solar solutions transform solar energy into thermal energy without the usage of active mechanical devices. It is primarily a method to use curtains, doors, plants, positioning of buildings, and other basic methods to catch or block the sun for usage. Passive solar heating is a smart way to save electricity and optimize its consumption. An example of passive solar heating is what happens to your car on a hot summer day.
2.3 Environmental impacts of solar power systems
Although solar energy is recognized to be one of the cleanest and most renewable sources of energy today, it also has several environmental impacts. Solar energy uses photovoltaic panels to generate solar electricity. Nevertheless, the processing of photovoltaic cells to generate the energy includes silicon and to produce other waste products. Inappropriate handling of such materials can result in hazardous exposure to humans and the environment [12]. Installing solar power plants will entail a significant portion of land that may have an effect on established habitats. Solar energy does not pollute the air when converted to electricity by solar panels. It is found in abundance and does not help in global warming.
2.4 Solar energy’s potential
Solar power is now expected to play a greater position in the future due to recent developments that will result in lower costs and better efficiency. In fact, the solar photovoltaic industry is preparing to supply half of all future US power generation by 2025. More and more architects understand the importance of active and passive solar power and know how to successfully integrate it into building designs. Solar hot water systems can compete economically with conventional systems in some areas. Shell has predicted that by 2040, 50% of the world’s electricity supply would come from sustainable resources. Over recent years, the rate of generating photovoltaic cells has declined by 3% per year while policy subsidies have increased. While certain other information about solar energy is meaningless, this renders solar energy an even more efficient source of electricity. Solar energy is projected to be used by millions of households across the world in the next several years, as seen by developments in the United States and Japan. Aggressive financial incentives in Germany and Japan and China have made these countries global leaders in solar deployment for years [13].
A renewable resource that can be used to generate power is solar. The sun itself is a source of radiant, daylight, and other energy sources on Earth. Steam engines are a perfect illustration of radiant energy, by having sunrays magnified by mirrors guided to the turbine to heat water and produce steam, which in effect drives the turbine and causes steam to escape, and this pushes the piston. Calculators often work on solar power by storing light rays and transmitting energy to enable the calculator to function even though no light is present. Trevor Smith1 notes that “solar rays can be used to fuel or cool houses, supply hot water and produce steam for turbines generating energy. Sunlight can be converted directly into energy by photovoltaics, a fast-growing branch of solar technology.” This allows people to generate energy from renewable resources. James Bow notes that in 1977, 1 W of solar power costs $76.67. In 2014, the cost dropped to around $0.60. This suggests that modern solar power projects are far more economical, which means that renewable energy has come a long way and will continue to grow. One of the greatest declines in solar power is that, first, the sun is still growing and dropping, ensuring that the energy provided and processed is confined to the location of solar panels. Second, the batteries used to store electricity generated by the sun are expensive and produce a large amount of emissions. Third, in order to allow the best of the light, wide quantities of solar panels or mirrors need to be installed, which could be a function of restricted resources. The energy generated by the solar is a type of renewable energy used by today’s society.
3. Nuclear energy
Nuclear power is the energy of an atom. Atoms are very tiny objects which make up a single body in the universe. There is enormous power in the links that connect the nucleus unchanged. Power is generated when the ties are disbanded. Nuclear energy may be used to create electricity, but it must be produced first. Nuclear power can be produced by both nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fission, atoms are separated into smaller atoms, which generate steam. Nuclear power stations have been used for electricity generation. Another method of generating nuclear energy is through nuclear fusion. The combination of atoms to each other and the creation of heavier atoms are established. When atoms are coupled, a lot of energy is released. These reactions occur together in the sun to generate thermal energy to radiation. Numerous studies are currently underway, although this technique has not yet been commercialized and it is not known if it is possible to generate electricity from this method. Uranium (U-235) is the most commonly produced nonrenewable material for nuclear fission. Plants use a particular type of U-235, as the atoms are readily isolated. During nuclear fission, the neutron hits and splits the uranium atom, releasing a large sum of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released as the uranium atom is separated. Some neutrons proceed to hit other uranium atoms, and the process begins over and over again. It’s a chain reaction, too. Although uranium is around 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is extremely scarce. Most of the US uranium is extracted in the western United States, but only 17 percent of the plutonium reactors is generated abroad. Uranium provided to US reactors in 2013 arrived from a number of nations, including Russia, Australia, and several other African countries. Figure 3 displays the map of uranium mines in the world [14].
Figure 3.
Map of uranium mines in the world.
There are 648 nuclear power stations in the world. There are 61 nuclear power stations and 99 research facilities in the United States. Nuclear plants are found in 30 states, and 46 are situated east of the Mississippi River. After 1990, nuclear power has supplied around one-fifth of US electricity annually. Nuclear power provides as much electricity as all the fuel consumed in California, New York, and Texas together. Nuclear energy plants supply more than 20% of US energy. Figure 4 shows the map of nuclear power stations in the world.
Figure 4.
Map of nuclear power stations in the world.
3.1 Nuclear power is the result of nuclear fission
Uranium fission occurs with the capture of the slow neutron by the non-isotope U-235. The resultant U-236 generates three free neutrons and separates into Kr-94 and Ba-139. The mass defect of roughly 0.2 atomic mass units is converted into 210 MeV energy units. U = 1.66 × 10−27 gk for the atomic mass unit, and eV equals 1.60 × 10−27J, the radioactive energy unit.
Many power stations, like nuclear power plants, use heat to produce electricity. Power plants rely on steam from hot water to drive massive turbines, which then produce electricity. Because of using fossil fuels to produce electricity, nuclear power plants employ nuclear fission energy. The fission occurs in the nuclear power plant reactors. Nuclear reactors are devices which contain and regulate nuclear chain reactions while releasing heat at a regulated rate. The nucleus of the device, which includes nuclear fuel, is at the top of the plant. The uranium fuel is constructed of ceramic pellets. Each ceramic pellet contains at about the same amount of energy as 150 gallons of gasoline. Such energy-rich pellets are packaged in 12 foot wire fuel pipes. The array of fuel rods, sometimes hundreds of them, is called a burn unit.
The heat generated during the fission at the center of the reactor is used to boil water to steam, which turns the turbine blades. The energy can be generated while the rotor blades rotate. Afterwards, the steam is pumped back into the atmosphere in a different power plant system called a cooling tower. The product will be collected.
Nuclear power plants do not emit carbon dioxide emissions during operation compared to fossil fuel-fired power stations. Methods for the extraction and refining of uranium oxide and the processing of nuclear fuel, however, require a large amount of power. Nuclear power stations supply large quantities of metal and concrete which also require a substantial amount of energy to be produced. When fossil fuels are used for the production and refining of uranium oxide or for the installation of a nuclear power plant, the emissions generated by the burning of these fuels may be associated with the energy emitted by nuclear power plants. The main environmental concerns linked to nuclear power include the processing of toxic waste such as uranium mine tailings, expended reactor fuel, and other nuclear waste. These materials can stay radioactive and dangerous to human health for thousands of years. Animals are subject to strict laws governing their care, delivery, preservation, and treatment for the protection of human health and the environment. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates the operations of nuclear power plants. Nuclear waste is classified as small and large rates of emissions. Radioactivity of these materials may range from just over natural background rates, including in mill tailings, to much higher amounts, such as spent nuclear fuel or sections of a nuclear plant. Radioactivity of toxic waste is decreased as time passes by a process called nuclear decay. The period of time taken to reduce the radioactivity of hazardous material to half of the original level is considered the contaminated half-life of the substance. Short-lived radioactive waste is also treated permanently prior to disposal in order to mitigate the future danger of contamination to staff handling and carrying waste, as well as to the amount of pollution at production sites.
Nuclear waste stored in tanks is very dangerous. These vessels are kept under special conditions in the water with safety shields until their half-life exceeds the standard of security. Various countries have specific laws on the processing of nuclear waste. The United States has set out strict rules on the storage and management of radioactive fuel and waste. Some nuclear power plant fuels can be stored in dry storage tanks. In this way, nuclear fuel tanks are stored in separate rooms with cement or steel air-conditioning devices.
Typically, once a nuclear reactor stops, it shifts. It involves the controlled extraction of the reactor and other devices that have been damaged from operation and the elimination of radioactivity to a degree that permits other uses of the site. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has stringent regulations regulating the decommissioning of nuclear power facilities, including the washing up of radioactively polluted reactor processes and equipment, including the disposal of atomic waste.
Uncontrolled nuclear reactions in a nuclear reactor will potentially contribute to extensive pollution of air and water. The probability of this occurring at nuclear power plants in the United States is known to be very low due to the complex and robust safeguards and multiple protection measures in effect at nuclear power plants, the preparation and expertise of reactor workers, the monitoring and service operations, and the legislative standards and oversight of the United States. A wide-field near nuclear power plant is controlled and supervised by trained security forces. Some of the reactors have containment vessels that are designed to withstand extreme weather events and earthquakes.
3.2 Advantages of nuclear energy
According to the laws of physics, energy is neither produced nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one kind to another, including the transfer of electrical energy into mechanical energy of electric motors. From the structure of the atom, much of its mass exists in a part called the core, and this mass contains protons with a positive electric field and neutrons with an ineffective or neutral electric field. Studies and experiments have indicated that neutrons weigh a lot more than protons. Nuclear energy is the energy generated by a nuclear explosion or a nuclear fusion under the specific conditions of the nucleus of an atom. A lot of energy can be released as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion happens. Once the heavy element, uranium, was exploded with neutrons, it was found that something special occurred instead of causing radioactivity as other materials. This cycle has been called fission. When nuclear fusion or nuclear fission happens as a product of neutron impacts, not only are two lighter elements produced and many radiations released, but more neutrons are generated, as can be seen in Figure 5. It is therefore obvious that concurrently released neutrons can start a chain reaction by acting on released light atoms, increasing the intensity of the reaction. This reaction may spread throughout uranium.
Figure 5.
Uranium-235 radioactive fission.
A lot of energy would be produced through the fission of the uranium-235 nucleus (see Figure 5). To consider the amount of this energy, it’s enough to remember that this amount is around 60,000,000 times greater than when a carbon atom burns. During a nuclear fission reaction, the atom decomposes and releases a lot of kinetic energy into the environment. Obviously, kinetic energy is directly related to the generation of heat. The first reactors to generate a functional volume of electricity were installed in the Calder Hall in England. Atomic bombs may be produced of mere fissionable material. Of the two bombs dropped on Japan to end the World War 2, one contained plutonium and the other very highly enriched uranium-235.
3.3 Advantages of nuclear energy
Lower greenhouse gas emissions: As recorded in 1998, the production of greenhouse gasses has been projected to have declined by almost half owing to the success of the usage of nuclear power. Nuclear processing has by far the lowest environmental impacts, because it does not release greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide, a fuel that is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. Thanks to its application, there is no harmful impact on water, soil, or other environment, although certain greenhouse gasses are emitted when shipping fuel or harvesting uranium oil.
Powerful and efficient: The other major benefit of having nuclear technology is that it is more effective and efficient than other potential forms of electricity. Technology advances have rendered it more competitive than most. That is one of the reasons that many nations are spending extensively in nuclear power. At least, a tiny part of the world’s energy is flowing into it.
Reliable: In comparison to conventional energy sources such as solar and wind, which involve sun or wind to generate electricity, nuclear energy may be generated from nuclear power plants even under extreme weather conditions. They also can provide 24/7 power and need to be shut down for maintenance purposes only.
Cheap electricity: Similar to traditional energy sources such as sun and wind, which require solar or wind power production, nuclear electricity may be produced from nuclear power plants even under severe weather conditions.
Low fuel cost: The key factor behind the low cost of fuel is that it takes a limited amount of uranium to generate oil. When a nuclear reaction happens, it produces millions of times more hydrogen than normal energy sources.
Supply: There are other economic benefits of building up nuclear power stations and utilizing renewable electricity instead of traditional oil. It’s one of the nation’s biggest producers of energy. The greatest part of it is that this electricity has a constant availability. This is readily accessible, has large supplies, and is projected to last about 100 years, whereas electricity, oil, and natural gas are small and are likely to disappear early.
Easy transportation: Electrical power generation requires much fewer raw contents. This implies that just 28 g of U-235 produces as much energy as 100 metric tons of coal. As it is needed in limited amounts, the transport of fuel is much simpler than that of fossil fuels. Optimal use of natural resources in energy production is a rather careful approach for every country. This not only strengthens the socioeconomic climate but provides a precedent for other countries as well.
There is no question that nuclear technology has found its way into the future; however, like most electricity forms, it still suffers from certain significant disadvantages.
3.4 Disadvantages of nuclear energy
Radioactive waste: Waste generated by nuclear reactors must be disposed of in a secure location because it is highly dangerous and may leak radiation if it is not properly treated. Any kind of pollution releases radiation from tens to hundreds of years. Collection of toxic waste has become a significant obstacle in the growth of nuclear programs. Nuclear waste includes radioisotopes with lengthy half-lives. This ensures that the radioisotopes exist in one shape or another in the atmosphere. Such aggressive radicals pollute the sand or the sea. It’s classified as mixed waste. Mixed waste induces toxic chemical reactions, which create harmful problems. Radioactive waste is normally covered beneath sand and is classified as proof, although the material is going to be used to produce atomic weapons or chemical bombs.
Nuclear accidents: While too many modern measures have been placed in motion to insure that such a tragedy will not arise again as Chernobyl or, more recently, Fukushima, the danger associated with it remains fairly high. Just slight radiation exposure may have disastrous consequences. There are some symptoms that induce fatigue, vomiting, diarrhea, and exhaustion. Many operating in nuclear power plants that live in these areas are at risk of obtaining the toxic radiation on what they are consuming.
Nuclear radiation: There are power reactors that are called breeders. They’re making plutonium. It is an element that is not present in nature but is a fissionable product. It is a by-product of a chain reaction which, once added in nature, is very toxic. It is mainly used for the development of nuclear weapons. Very definitely, it’s considered a dirty gun.
High cost: Another realistic drawback to utilizing nuclear technology is that a lot of money is required to put up a nuclear power plant. This is not often feasible for developed nations to support such an expensive renewable energy source. Nuclear power plants usually take 5–10 years to build, because there are a variety of legal formalities to be done, so they are often protested by those residing nearby.
National risk: Nuclear technology has provided humanity the ability to create more bombs than to generate anything that will render the planet a safer community to stay in. They ought to be more cautious and diligent when utilizing nuclear technology to prevent any big incidents of any sort. They are soft sites for terrorists and extremist groups. Health is a big concern here. A little weak protection will prove to be deadly and barbaric to humans and even to this world.
Impact on aquatic life: Eutrophication is another consequence of nuclear waste. There are several workshops and conferences that take place every year to find a common answer. As of yet, there is no result. Studies claim the nuclear waste requires nearly 10,000 years to return to its original state.
Big impacts on health and medicine: We still remember the horror that unfolded during the World War 2, after the atom bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Still after five decades of mishap, children were born with defects. This is partly due to the nuclear influence. Will we have some treatments for that? The response is no.
Availability of fuel: Given the abundance of fossil fuels in most countries around the planet, uranium deposits are so hazardous that they are only available in a few countries, as the map of accessibility to uranium resources depicts in Figure 3. Permissions from a variety of foreign bodies are needed before anyone would even conceive about constructing a nuclear power plant.
Nonrenewable: Nuclear technology requires plutonium, which is a limited resource that has not been produced in many nations. Most countries depend on other countries for the continuous supply of this gasoline. It’s extracted and shipped like any other tool. Supply should be secure as long as demand is accessible. Once all the nuclear reactors have been dismantled, they would not be of much benefit. Due to its dangerous effects and restricted availability, it cannot be identified as renewable.
Various nuclear energy projects are ongoing in both developed and emerging countries, such as India. Not to note, the benefits of nuclear technology are well ahead of the drawbacks of fossil fuels. That’s why energy generation technology has been the most preferred technology.
4. Conclusions
By concatenating uranium extraction from seawater, manifestly safe breeding reactor technology, and borehole disposal of nuclear waste, a viable, planetary-scale nuclear energy network can be developed, i.e., another that is capable of supplying such an enormous quantity of energy at such a high degree of intensity that it can be relied on to sustain much—and possibly much—of the human society in virtually much possible scenarios of significant concern. For that way, nuclear technology is qualitatively distinct from other consumable technology options and must be assumed to be completely renewable in other respects. Throughout the immediate future, it is possible that the opportunity to build and demonstrate manifest protection for the latest generation of modern nuclear plants would be necessary to establish the basis for a prosperous future focused on nuclear technology.
Human civilization needs fossil energy because of its current facilities and its basic needs. This need and the high use of fossil fuels in the industrial, commercial, and residential sectors have contributed to major rapid climate change. The challenge of global warming is one of the massive problems confronting governments around the world. Earth heating may change the ecosystems and create many long-term problems. Greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide are rising water levels in the oceans. Some droughts are in risk of extinction. These concerns are so significant that crisis analysts have described the modern century as a fuel for sustainability and protection of the planet.
Many countries have adopted official targets for the share of renewable energy in their grids, and others are considering them (Figure 6). Now that the governments of the world have a common issue, human beings will take collaborative action. Global organizations have been set up to manage this issue. The usage of renewable resources is one of the proposals created by global organizations to manage this crisis. Those alternative sources of energy include renewable energy and nuclear power. Countries must make decisions based on the long-term future to determine and improve the energy structures of the nation and calculate the various costs. At present, taking into account the cost factor, it is not possible to fulfill all energy demand from clean energy sources. But the good news is that this is possible with the cooperation of nuclear and renewable energy. Several countries have, in their perspective, made the energy demand share dependent on renewable and nuclear energy. Specific planners engage in predicting future projects and their costs. Figure 6 constitutes some of the OECD-calculated costs. The key competition today is between solar and nuclear energy. The cost of using solar energy over active nuclear energy continues to be substantial and significant. They are also ideal for all levels of challenging electricity. Costs for involvement in the energy market are assessed by the OECD per year. In Figure 6, the authors made the data comprehensible. Six countries pioneered the use of nuclear energy and renewable energy sources. Figure 6 shows that the United States has been able to keep the cost of participating energy resources low, with the highest level of technology.
Figure 6.
Costs of combining nuclear technology with renewable energy.
If the nuclear energy program is properly and sustainable way installed and the cost limit is eliminated, supplying electricity from nuclear energy resources will be reasonable and resolve these critical challenges for decades to come. It therefore seems necessary that we, as founders and citizens of a global society, begin to lay down the technological and structural foundations that will enable a viable, full-scale nuclear energy network to become operational in the immediate future while at the same time doing the same with regard to other realistic types of renewable energy supply on a scale [14].
One of the problems for nuclear power plants, as discussed earlier, is the difficulty of supplying 100 percent of electricity through these power plants. If we allow the setup and control share to be 10 percent and that share is given by solar energy, then the problem will be solved. However, if their share is assumed to be relatively large, then the cost of the system will increase, presenting another challenge.
These are rather heroic calculations given the paucity of sources, but they do indicate plausible effects. Increasing the penetration of renewable has small effect on backup costs since they tend to increase in direct proportion to the renewable capacity (MW) that needs backup and the increased capacity adds proportional MWh. However, balancing costs increase because more spinning reserve capacity is required at lower load factors. Since research is lowering the price of the solar-connected grid, the next problem is network costs. When renewable sources of energy such as photovoltaic systems manage to meet a district or village’s full demands, then there will be a crisis. Power plants continue to use energy for spending networks indefinitely, and it is not clear how cost-effective these networks are. In this case, it would be illogical to establish and to develop a network [15]. (As a side note, backup and balancing are less costly in the United States because the dispatchable power is typically gas fired, which is less costly there.)
Another inference can be drawn from these results: the marginal cost of the system will generally increase with increased penetration of renewables, essentially due to their intermittentness and tendency toward remote locations. In addition to marginal system cost per MWH, there is another critical metric: marginal cost per ton of CO2 emissions reduced by increased deployment of renewables. After all, that is a primary policy driver for renewable targets.
The United States has set ambitious targets for renewable penetration: 33% by 2020, not including hydro. Further consideration (up to 51% in the legislative proposal) has been given for the future. The 33% level is thought to result in an implicit cost of $50/ton carbon reduction. Some energy companies have carried out important research on target utilization of 50% nuclear power and 50% solar energy. This research includes researching this topic in both scientific and economic terms. It was represented in Figures 6 and 7. If the target is 50%, the lowest cost is $403, and the lowest cost is $340 for 40%. When energy storage technologies, such as nighttime high-altitude storage, are planned for solar energy, then the scenario will be more complex. This scenario shows that the size of large power plants can be utilized with good systems. For plants larger than 5000 mW, $636 per ton saves economic power [16]. Figure 7 shows the costs involved with combining nuclear and renewable energy.
Figure 7.
The cost of getting a combination of nuclear energy and renewable energy paid by different countries.
The next challenge is solar and nuclear energy competition. Although solar power plants will fall in price each day, in most countries the price of renewable energy is still higher than in nuclear power plants. The cost of integrating and merging systems is also important. Currently, the value of building nuclear power plants in many countries is very high due to the companies concerns of moment, technology, sanctions, security, and safety hazards. It is possible to eliminate those limitations in solar energy. The same problems may not be as wide for state-owned companies or regulated markets that services have ready access to cheap capital, and that partly explains why Asia’s enthusiasm for nuclear reactors is far stronger than it is in the United States or Europe. Researchers are working to reduce the costs of technology, but the nuclear industry is not strong, although that could improve small modular reactors if they can be developed in the process. According to Figure 7, given the right facilities, the United States has to pay the lowest costs for involvement in nuclear and solar energy. South Korea also has the right structure to take this scenario forward.
Nuclear and renewable energies qualify for subsidies that vary from country to region. Some subsidies are direct, such as feed-in imports for renewable energy sources, while others shift the risks from utilities to customers.
The final guidelines would help to better compensate for nuclear and renewable costs and could help to reduce the costs of both:
Comparisons of nuclear and renewables costs should account for systems integration and differences in capacity factors.
In order to estimate nuclear costs, more attention should be given to the choice sensitivity of discount rate, as the discount rate drastically impacts the relative economic attractiveness of a nuclear project.
Findings on problems that may restrict the use of a nuclear reactor in “load-following” phase are important and should be given high priority.
Priority should be given to new reactor technologies like SMRs and regulatory reform in order to reduce nuclear capital costs. The final results of this section will include the following explanation. These explanations will help in choosing and policy making in the field of solar and nuclear energy. The outlook for these results is for the next 10 years. This outlook may change by changing conditions and creating critical conditions such as dramatically lower fossil fuel prices.
Nuclear power is dirty, dangerous, expensive, and not carbon-free and encourages nuclear proliferation. The nuclear power plant itself does not release toxic gasses such as CO2. Nevertheless, nuclear power leads to climate change; for any phase in the fuel chain used to produce electricity at the end of the day, a lot more energy is required, such as uranium extraction and uranium enrichment, which are highly energy-intensive methods. The life study of the whole fuel chain clearly indicates the relation to nuclear electricity to climate change. In a pioneering study [17], more than 100 studies have identified important but simple results, analyzing the life cycle of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to greenhouse gasses produced at nuclear power plants around the world. The results show that if the life expectancy of a plant is equal to the greenhouse gas emission equivalent to that energy production, then the emission equals 1.4 g of carbon dioxide per kilowatt hour (gCO2e/kWh) up to 288 gCO2e/kWh is variable. The mean greenhouse gas emissions equate to 66 gCO2e/kWh.
As a first conclusion, the extensive use of solar energy services for at least the next decade may be out of the issue. Photovoltaic and solar thermal systems, especially large thermal, wind, and biomass systems, will enter and expand energy networks quickly. Other renewable energy systems will be developed and priced to reduce consumption, such as biogas (wastewater, landfills, and livestock), geothermal, and possibly wave and tidal energy. This growth will be high in the next 10 years, but market with conventional systems will still take time [18]. Nuclear power is also an option when contemplating a transition from the dirtiest of fossil fuels, and thus nuclear power should be debated together with renewables. Nuclear time for building, risk, waste, and, in particular, costs must be tracked, because nuclear costs are increasing when solar energy costs are dropping. Small- and large-scale renewable energy projects and emerging storage systems are being increasingly developed by communities and nations. Also China, probably the most ambitious nation in terms of nuclear power, is introducing more wind and solar power relative to nuclear power—and not just nameplate capacity—which is actually produced. Last year alone, China installed 20.72 GW of wind (4.8 GW of production while its power factor is just 23%) and 28 GW of renewable energy (10.6 GW of production), with about 90% of its solar installations coming from utilities. In the same year, more than five nuclear plants (5.7 GW output) were added to the existing wind and solar power. China is only one example of how wind and solar power can be installed quickly while producing more electricity. At the period (and if) China finishes its 28 nuclear power plants (many are still behind schedule), with an estimated potential of 34 GW, further wind and solar power would be installed around the same timeframe—again, taking into account efficiency factors [19].
For the coming 10 years, here in the United States, the five US nuclear power facilities are 2 years behind track and have a budget of billions of dollars. Once live, they will produce 5.1 GW while renewables would produce a rather modest 131 GW.
The other two factors are systems for the energy, safety and security systems. In a nuclear power plant, when things go awry, it can be really bad because of accidents, threats, or critical situations that happen. It should be noted that the smallest incident in a nuclear power plant can often incapacitate or destroy a city or a country. Is it likely? Who knows for sure? Could you foresee the next earthquake in Southern California or somewhere else in the United States or Japan or the rest of the world? What about the next wave washing down a coastline? How about the next cyber threat or the Middle East militant organization? Compare a tragedy for a nuclear power plant against a solar power plant. When you ask me why I’m against constructing new reactors, it’s about economy, health and protection, and the reality that we can expand on current hydro and nuclear power facilities with all the renewables—and we can do it quicker.
\n',keywords:"solar energy, nuclear energy, renewable, power plants, technology",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72177.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72177.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72177",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72177",totalDownloads:673,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:2,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:63,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"January 20th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 14th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2020",datePublished:"February 24th 2021",dateFinished:"May 15th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Both solar energy and nuclear energy face significant economic challenges. Sustainable energy costs have traditionally been greater than any of those associated with the growth of fossil fuel power generation, although the costs of renewable energy technologies (especially photovoltaic) have dropped. Furthermore, capital costs remain a big challenge in the nuclear generation. In many nations, the cost of building small nuclear power plants is quite large due to time, technology, and environmental and safety challenges for consumers. Such problems might not be as big for state-owned corporations or controlled industries for which utilities have quick access to cheap resources, and this partially explains why the interest for nuclear reactors in Asia is far greater than in the United States or Europe. Learning could help decrease costs for both types of technologies, but the track record for learning-by-doing in the nuclear sector is not good.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72177",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72177",book:{id:"9888",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave"},signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan and Farzaneh Ghasemzadeh",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",email:"mostafa.esmaeili@modares.ac.ir",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317852/images/12163_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Tarbiat Modares University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"319145",title:"Prof.",name:"Farzaneh",middleName:null,surname:"Ghasemzadeh",fullName:"Farzaneh Ghasemzadeh",slug:"farzaneh-ghasemzadeh",email:"fgh.7192@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Iran University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Solar energy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Advantages of solar energy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Disadvantages of solar energy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Environmental impacts of solar power systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Solar energy’s potential",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Nuclear energy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Nuclear power is the result of nuclear fission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Advantages of nuclear energy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3 Advantages of nuclear energy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.4 Disadvantages of nuclear energy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Esmaeili Shayan M, Najafi G, Ahmad BA. Power quality in flexible photovoltaic system on curved surfaces. Journal of Energy Planning and Policy Research. 2017;3:105-136'},{id:"B2",body:'Esmaeili MS, Najafi G. Energy-economic optimization of thin layer photovoltaic on domes and cylindrical towers. International Journal of Smart Grid. 2019;3:84-91'},{id:"B3",body:'Ogland-Hand JD, Bielicki JM, Wang Y, et al. The value of bulk energy storage for reducing CO2 emissions and water requirements from regional electricity systems. Energy Conversion and Management. 2019;181:674-685'},{id:"B4",body:'Norman C. Nuclear Safety. Butterworth Heinemann. Elsevier Ltd.; 1974'},{id:"B5",body:'Alonso G. Desalination in Nuclear Power Plants. UK: Woodhead Publishing; 2020'},{id:"B6",body:'Yu Q , Zhang T, Peng X, et al. Cryogenic energy storage and its integration with nuclear power generation for load shift. In: Storage and Hybridization of Nuclear Energy: Techno-economic Integration of Renewable and Nuclear Energy. Elsevier Ltd.; 2018. pp. 249-273'},{id:"B7",body:'Ojovan MI, Lee WE, Kalmykov SN. An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation. Elsevier Ltd.; 2013. pp. 1-362'},{id:"B8",body:'Biberian J-P. Cold Fusion Advances in Condensed Matter Nuclear Science. Elsevier Ltd.; 2020'},{id:"B9",body:'Murray RL, Holbert KE. Nuclear Energy: An Introduction to the Concepts, Systems, and Applications of Nuclear Processes. Elsevier Ltd.; 2019'},{id:"B10",body:'Esmaeili Shayan M, Najafi G, Gorjian S. Design Principles and Applications of Solar Power Systems (In Persian). 1st ed. Tehran: ACECR Publication-Amirkabir University of Technology Branch; 2020'},{id:"B11",body:'Aleixandre-Tudó JL, Castelló-Cogollos L, Aleixandre JL, et al. Renewable energies: Worldwide trends in research, funding and international collaboration. Renewable Energy. 2019;139:268-278'},{id:"B12",body:'Kerlin TW, Upadhyaya BR. Dynamics and Control of Nuclear Reactors. Elsevier Ltd.; 2019. pp. 95-125'},{id:"B13",body:'Fundamentals of Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation. Elsevier Ltd.; 2020'},{id:"B14",body:'Sanders MC, Sanders CE. Nuclear waste management strategies: An international perspective. 2019'},{id:"B15",body:'Zhong RZ, Cheng L, Wang YQ , et al. Effects of Anthelmintic Treatment on Ewe Feed Intake, Digestion, Milk Production and Lamb Growth. Singapore: Springer Verlag; 2017'},{id:"B16",body:'Suman S. Hybrid nuclear-renewable energy systems: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;181:166-177'},{id:"B17",body:'Lima MA, Mendes LFR, Mothé GA, et al. Renewable energy in reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Reaching the goals of the Paris agreement in Brazil. Environmental Development. 2020;33:105-115'},{id:"B18",body:'Azadbakht M, Esmaeilzadeh E, Esmaeili-Shayan M. Energy consumption during impact cutting of canola stalk as a function of moisture content and cutting height. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences. 2015;14:147-152'},{id:"B19",body:'Review and outlook of world energy development. 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1. Introduction
In 1969, while introducing the electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings of sleep stages, Barbara Long [1] wrote, “We know that patients in hospitals, away from their usual sleeping environments and beset by the problems created by illness, frequently have difficulty meeting one of their most basic physiologic needs—the need for sleep—at a time when they require it most.” In this commentary, Long briefly introduced insomnia as one of the health problems suffered by hospitalized patients. Subsequent reports by Williams [2] and Walsleben [3] passingly mentioned other sleep disorders, but failed to elaborate on somnambulism (in the lay term, sleepwalking).
In one of the anonymous early reports [4] that appeared on somnambulism in 1834, the recommendation offered for treating somnambulism was “to seize the arms suddenly, and halloo in the ears until the sleep awake: of the application of a jug of cold water, by pouring it suddenly upon the head. In this latter case, however, care should be taken to have the body well rubbed with dry towels after the operation.” Whether somnambulism will be permanently cured by this sort of crude treatment is open to doubt.
Nevertheless, medical knowledge on somnambulism, especially after the discovery of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in 1953 [5] and the use of polysomnographic detection methods [6, 7], has accumulated in the past 65 years. Though it was widely believed until 1956, that somnambulism occurs during the dream phase (i.e., REM sleep stage), Jacobson et al. [8] demonstrated in nine subjects (seven men and two women, aged 9–23 years) that somnambulistic episodes occur during the N3 stage of slow-wave sleep (SWS) or non-rapid eye movement sleep (non-REM sleep). Specific electroencephalogram features of the N3 stage of SWS include delta waves (0.5–2 Hz, amplitude >75 μV) and slow oscillations (<1 Hz) [9]. For what is known about somnambulism until now, five reviews [9, 10, 11, 12, 13], with over 50 citations can be consulted profitably.
The objective of this chapter is to review recent developments on the presumed etiology, associated disorders, and treatment strategies currently available for somnambulism. The interdisciplinary relevance of somnambulism between medicine and law is also highlighted.
2. Etiology
Somnambulism or sleepwalking is one of the 15 parasomnias among the 81 recognized major sleep disorders. It is characterized by sudden arousal occurring at the SWS stages, resulting in walking behavior during a state of altered consciousness [14]. Somnambulism prevalence of 1–6% was indicated by Kleitman [15], “depending on whether the survey applied to the general public, hospital patients or to limited to children with sleep abnormalities.” Thirty years later, Shapiro and Dement [16] offered a wider range (1–15%) of somnambulism prevalence, with children at the higher end of the range, relative to adults.
According to Kleitman [15], French physiologist Georges Henri Roger (1860–1946) had provided a good description of a typical sleepwalker, in his 1932 book Les Troubles du Sommeil—Hypersomnies, Insomnies, parasomnies. To paraphrase Kleitman [15],
“The sleeper performs various acts with a certain degree of dexterity and can avoid obstacles. But his behavior is characterized by a rigidity, which gives him the appearance of an automaton. He can answer questions correctly and is quite receptive to suggestions. He obediently carries out rather bizarre orders and tends to preserve attitudes passively imposed on him, exhibiting cataleptic properties. At the end of 15 to 30 minutes of activity, he goes back to bed, sometimes fully clothed, and wakes up next morning, quite surprised to find himself dressed. He can carry out dangerous tasks, like walking along the edge of a roof, which he would be afraid to do when awake” [15].
Hereditary factors in the prevalence of somnambulism were first recorded in a short note, appearing in Gazzetta degli Ospitali 1930 by Clerici in a six-member Italian family (comprising of husband, cousin-wife, and their four children), all suffering from somnambulism. This fact was subsequently confirmed in other countries as well [6, 7, 17].
Among a sample of 60 Caucasian subjects with somnambulism disorder, distributed in three countries (France, Switzerland, and Germany), Lecendreux et al. [18] reported that compared to eight (13.3%) age-matched controls, 21 (35%) somnambulists were positive for DQB1 allele of HLA-DQB antigen, and claimed this finding as a first genetic maker for somnambulism. HLA stands for human leukocyte antigen. Subsequently, Licis et al. [19] studied a four-generation Caucasian family in the USA consisting of 22 members, among whom nine were somnambulists and 13 were unaffected. Genome-wide linkage analysis from gathered DNA samples revealed the following facts—(1) genetic locus for somnambulism is present at chromosome 20q12-q13.12; (2) sleepwalking may be transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait with reduced penetrance; (3) seven among the nine somnambulists were males; (4) adenosine deaminase gene (ADA) is the most likely candidate gene in the chromosome 20q12-q13.12 linkage interval due to its association with SWS during with somnambulism occurs.
Since 1956, polysomnographic studies in somnambulist patients have been conducted in the USA, Canada, and a few European countries [7, 8, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. A chronological compilation of significant polysomnographic studies is presented in Table 1. Two recognizable features revealed were, (1) Earlier studies, with two exceptions, did not have proper control groups; (2) Until 2015, the total number of somnambulist patients was less than 40. In the studies reported by Hurwitz et al. [21] and Oudiette et al. [28], the higher number of patients suffered from sleepwalking and sleep terror. The earliest study by Andre-Balisaux and Gonsette [6] in Belgium was omitted in Table 1, due to my lack of access in checking the complete text of the original paper.
Significant polysomnographic studies in somnambulist patients.
n.r = not reported, presumed to be in late teens to 20s, as the subjects were naval recruits and Electronics school students.
Patients suffered from sleepwalking only.
Patients suffered from both sleepwalking and sleep terror.
Patients suffered from sleepwalking without sexsomnia.
Patients suffered from sleepwalking and sexsomnia.
Among the specific environmental factors precipitating somnambulistic episodes in adults, prescription medication use [33], alcohol [34], emotional stress [35], sleep deprivation [27], and certain psychiatric trauma [36] have been suggested. As such, a multifactorial etiology for somnambulistic disorder deserves recognition.
3. Associated disorders
Somnambulism-associated disorders/syndromes are presented in Table 2. These include alcoholism [34], brain tumor [37], bulimia [38, 39], epilepsy [40, 41, 42, 43], hyperthyroidism [44], migraine [45, 46, 47, 48], nocturnal hypoglycemia [49, 50], Parkinson’s disease [29, 51, 52], sexsomnia [32], sleep-disordered breathing [53, 54, 55], and Tourette’s syndrome [56, 57]. In a cross-sectional case–control study conducted in Montpellier, France, with 100 adult sleepwalkers (55 men and 45 women, aged 18–59 years), Lopez et al. [48] found 44% suffered from chronic pain, compared to 20% of controls. Those sleepwalkers with chronic pain were more likely to be older and had higher daytime sleepiness. As one of the limitations in this study, Lopez et al. [48] had noted that pain sensitivity was not measured. Di Fabio et al. [29] reported that 9% of their 417 Parkinson’s disease patients were somnambulists, and concluded that sleepwalking in Parkinson’s disease is associated with depression, higher disease severity, and higher functional disability.
Compared to age and gender-matched control group, in 14 drug-free polysomnographically confirmed adult somnambulists (age range 21–39 years), an MRI study reported by Heidbreder et al. [58] showed significant decreases of gray matter in the left dorsal posterior cingulate cortex and posterior midcingulate cortex. The mean disease duration of adult somnambulists was reported as 19.2 ± 7.7 years (range 6–33 years). Though this finding is of interest, it remains to be replicated [59] in other sleep laboratories with children somnambulists as well. Whether children somnambulists also show similar significant gray matter decrease in the cingulate cortex areas deserves clarification. This is because, while the prevalence of somnambulism peaks in childhood, its percentage decreases in adulthood.
5. Treatment strategies: pharmacological and other treatments
No drug has been developed specifically to cure somnambulism [60]. However, based on case histories, clonazepam—a tranquilizer of benzodiazepine class patented in 1960, at 0.25–0.5 mg dose to be taken 1–2 h before sleeping [61, 62, 63], imipramine—a tricyclic antidepressant [64], paroxetine—a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor [65] and ramelteon, a melatonin receptor agonist, at a dose of 4 mg/day [66] have been suggested for successful treatments. Though clonazepam has been the most widely used medication for non-REM sleep parasomnias with reported success, its use has been restricted in France, for the reason that it may increase sleep-disoriented breathing and induce sedation the following day [32].
In a recent review on medication-induced somnambulism, Stallman et al. [33] had identified 29 medications that are possible triggers for sleepwalking. For convenience, these medications have been categorized into five classes as follows—(1) benzodiazepine receptor agonists and other gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) modulators, (2) antidepressants and other serotonergic agents, (3) antipsychotics, (4) β-blockers, and (5) “others,” including antibiotic ciprofloxacin.
Other types of treatments include hypnosis [67, 68], psychotherapy, aversive behavioral therapy [69], and the use of customized bed alarms. A recent review with 60 references by de Cock [70] is recommended for additional details on this theme.
6. Interdisciplinary relevance to medicine and law
While studying the records of 20 patients admitted to intensive care units, who had a diagnosis of self-injurious sleep behavior disorders, between 1982 and 1990, at the Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders Center, USA, Schenck and Mahowald [62] recognized that three among the 20 suffered from chronic night terrors/sleepwalking abnormality. The influence of various stressors commonly found in the intensive care units (such as sleeping in an unfamiliar setting, sleep disruption/deprivation, medication administration/withdrawal, and psychologic distress) may aggravate the condition of sleepwalkers is one inference from this study. From a retrospective chart review study of patients older than 15 years, admitted to the emergency department at a university hospital in Berne, Switzerland, Sauter et al. [71] inferred that life-threatening injuries associated with somnambulism may occur. As such, when patients present with falls of unknown origin, the possibility of somnambulistic cause should be considered. The 11 trauma patients, Sauter et al. [71] encountered, had injuries identified as contused facial lacerations, head injury, contusion of ribs, cervical spinal dislocation, and paraplegia below the thoracic vertebral body.
Self-caused injuries [71, 72] not-withstanding, to a confused public, somnambulism seems to be a puzzling phenomenon that flirts between the boundaries of medicine and the law. The pros and cons of the rights and penalties for this class of sleep disorder patients who commit serious crimes, including homicides [73], during somnambulistic episodes, continue to be debated without any resolution [74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. A controversial issue is the use of somnambulism defense in cases involving alcohol-induced homicides. In reviewing the scientific evidence and forensic considerations, Pressman et al. [85] had inferred that a defense of alcohol-induced sleepwalking or confusional arousal becomes a very attractive legal strategy with the potential of acquittal for the defendant. This, despite the fact “there is no direct experimental evidence that alcohol predisposes or triggers sleepwalking or related disorders.”
Quite a number of reports have appeared in the last three decades, implicating somnambulism with sexual misconduct as well [86, 87, 88]. Among the nine cases of sleep-related violence and nine cases of sexual behavior in sleep, published between 1980 and 2012, the sleepwalking defense was proposed in 11 among these 18 cases [89]. In their review of these 18 cases, Ingravallo et al. [89] indicated that the trial outcome was in favor of the defendant in 14 of 18 cases. As the forensic evaluations widely differed from case to case, they had concluded that “an international multidisciplinary consensus for the forensic evaluation of sleep-related violence and sexual behavior in sleep need to be developed as an urgent priority.” Though clinical descriptions of somnambulists with sexsomnia as anecdotal case reports show an increase in this century [32], probably due to its titillating factor in the digital mass media, it is not easy to replicate somnambulist-sexsomnia episodes in hospitalized setting, except on unusual conditions that such patients have a bed sharer of the same sex or opposite sex, during the observation period.
7. Conclusions
As somnambulism has not been recorded in non-human primates, no animal model exists to study somnambulism under controlled settings for elucidation of its biochemical mechanism of origin [90]. As such, the available pharmacological treatments have to be considered as the scatter-shot approach of case studies without appropriate controls [91]. Thus, partial or total alleviation of somnambulistic symptoms in children and adults deserves the attention of health researchers. Adequately powered, well-designed clinical trials remain the need of the moment. The plea made by Chinthapalli [92], an associate editor of the British Medical Journal, that medical schools should consider sleep medicine education seriously in their curriculum also deserves recognition.
Conflict of interest
I declare no conflict of interest.
Notes
I became interested in the somnambulism phenomenon while serving as a Visiting Professor at Kyoto University, Primate Research Institute, Inuyama (Japan) and studying the activity-sleep behavior of New World and Old World Monkeys, between 2002 and 2006. I appreciate the discussions I have had with veterinarians, Dr. Kiyoaki Matsubayashi and Dr. Juri Suzuki, during that period.
\n',keywords:"parasomnia, sleepwalking, treatment, trauma, violence",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80531.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80531.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80531",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80531",totalDownloads:46,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 20th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 3rd 2022",datePrePublished:"February 19th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 18th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Somnambulism is characterized as a parasomnia occurring during slow-wave sleep stages. It is also an autosomal dominant disorder, and its genetic locus has been identified at chromosome 20 q12-q13.12. The prevalence of somnambulism among children and adults has been estimated as 1–6%. Among the specific environmental factors precipitating somnambulistic episodes in adults, prescription drug use, alcohol, emotional stress, sleep deprivation, and certain psychiatric conditions have been suggested. Somnambulistic patients frequently cause injuries to themselves, family members who sleep nearby, and in-hospital settings to nurses who attend on them. Even cases of homicidal somnambulism have been reported. The lack of a suitable animal model to study somnambulism in controlled settings hinder appropriate pharmaceutical protocols to prevent this disorder among humans. Partial or total alleviation of somnambulistic symptoms in children and adults deserves the attention of health researchers.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80531",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80531",signatures:"Sachi Sri Kantha",book:{id:"11222",type:"book",title:"Nursing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nursing",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Victor Chaban",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11222.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-517-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-516-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-518-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"83427",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Chaban",slug:"victor-chaban",fullName:"Victor Chaban"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Etiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. 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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12380,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:83,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10144,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"51065",doi:"10.5772/63499",title:"Role of the Biofilms in Wastewater Treatment",slug:"role-of-the-biofilms-in-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:6802,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"Biological wastewater treatment systems play an important role in improving water quality and human health. This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4671,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:57,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9161,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7230,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:86,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4358,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5380,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6143,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82438",title:"Mosquito Excito-Repellency: Effects on Behavior and the Development of Insecticide Resistance",slug:"mosquito-excito-repellency-effects-on-behavior-and-the-development-of-insecticide-resistance",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105755",abstract:"Mosquito’s resistance to avoiding insecticide-treated surfaces (“excito-repellency”) has two effects: irritation from direct contact with a treated area and repellency as an avoidance response to contact with treated surfaces. Nowadays, this behavior appears to reduce the success of mosquito control programs, particularly those based on insecticide-driven strategies. Different systems have been designed to assess the excito-repellency, evaluating numerous insecticides’ irritants, deterrents, and toxic properties at different concentrations. The information provides valuable insights regarding the patterns of mosquito behavior based on their physiological conditions, such as the age of the mosquitoes and the duration of the tests. However, the physiological processes resulting from chemical stimulus contact “chemoreception”) are still poorly explored and understood. This review provides an overview of insecticide effects on mosquito behavior and describes the mechanisms involved in chemical stimuli uptake, translation, and recognition.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Yamili J. Contreras-Perera, Abdiel Martin-Park, Henry Puerta-Guardo, Azael Che-Mendoza, Silvia Pérez-Carrillo, Irám P. Rodrígez-Sánchez, Pablo Manrique-Saide and Adriana E. Flores"},{id:"82423",title:"Removal of Divalent Nickel from Aqueous Solution Using Blue Green Marine Algae: Adsorption Modelling and Applicability of Various Isotherm Models",slug:"removal-of-divalent-nickel-from-aqueous-solution-using-blue-green-marine-algae-adsorption-modelling-",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103940",abstract:"The adsorption of Ni(II) onto blue green marine algae (BGMA) in batch conditions is being investigated. The highest adsorption capacity of BGMA was found to be 42.056 mg/g under ideal testing conditions, where the initial Ni(II) metal ion concentration was adjusted from 25 ppm to 250 ppm. The optimal pH, biomass loading, and agitation rate for maximum Cu(II) ion removal have been determined to be 6, 2 g and 120 rpm, respectively. For the equilibrium condition, 24 hours of contact time is allowed. At room temperature, all of the experiments are conducted. The isotherm has a L shape, based on the equilibrium experimental data. It indicates that there is no considerable competition for active sites between the solvent and Ni(II). There is no strong competition between the solvent and Ni(II) for the active sites of BGMA, indicating that there is no strong competition between the two. It also suggests that the BGMA’s Ni sorption ability is restricted (II). The experimental data is validated using multiple isotherm models, and the mechanism of adsorption is then discovered, as well as the process design parameters. The Fritz-Schlunder-V isotherm model is particularly relevant in defining the mechanism of Ni(II) adsorption under the conditions used in this study, according to modelling studies. This model’s qmax of 41.89 mg/g shows that it matches experimental data more closely.",book:{id:"11366",title:"Microalgae",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg"},signatures:"Ramsenthil Ramadoss, Durai Gunasekaran and Dhanasekaran Subramanian"},{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic – Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82419",title:"Effect of the Mass Distribution of ITNs in an Endemic Area with a High Entomological Index, the Case of Bandundu-City, Kwilu, DRC",slug:"effect-of-the-mass-distribution-of-itns-in-an-endemic-area-with-a-high-entomological-index-the-case-",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105021",abstract:"The bio-efficacy of Yorkol-branded ITNs collected from Bandundu-city was assessed on the Kisumu strain and wild specimens of Anopheles gambiae. The susceptibility of the wild An. gambiae s.l. was tested to select insecticides. Adult An. gambiae s.l. sampled by PSC and HLC were screened for the presence of Plasmodium falciparum. Blood samples were diagnosed by microscopy and RDTs. ITN distributed in Bandundu-city were fully effective on the Kisumu strain, but on wild An. gambiae s.l. population (22.3 ± 11.5%). Anopheles gambiae s.l. was the main vector in Bandundu. No significant difference was observed between the entomological indices before and after the deployment of nets (OR = 0.8; p = 0.39). Wild An. gambiae s.l. populations were resistant to pyrethroids and DDT, with the restoration of the susceptibility to pyrethroids post pre-exposure to PBO. Plasmodium falciparum was the main parasite species and was found alone or mixed with. P. malariae or P. ovale. The confirmation rates by microscopy and RDT were respectively 57.9% and 53.6%. Nets deployed in Bandundu-city were not effective on wild An. gambiae s.l. populations. This operational failure is likely explained by the observed resistance to pyrethroids. In the future only PBO-net should be deployed Bandundu-city.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Emery Metelo-Matubi, Josue Zanga, Victoire Nsabatien, Aimé Mbala, Solange Ngamukie, Fiacre Agossa, El Hadji Amadou Niang, Jean Maniania-Nguya-Kalenga and Mulenda Basimike"},{id:"82435",title:"Vector-Parasite Interactions and Malaria Transmission",slug:"vector-parasite-interactions-and-malaria-transmission",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105025",abstract:"Malaria remains one of the world’s most devastating vector-borne diseases. During the complex sexual development of the malaria parasite in the mosquito, it is faced with physical and physiological barriers which it must surmount before it can be transmitted to a human host. Proof-of-concept studies using RNAi have unearthed several parasite molecules which are important for countering the immunity of its vector. Understanding the counter-adaptations between the parasite and its vector could inform novel public health intervention strategies. For instance, it could guide the transgenic construction of resistant mosquitoes in which mosquito factors that restrict the parasite growth have been enhanced and/or factors promoting parasite growth deleted so as to make them refractory to malaria parasite infection. Such strategies, when deemed feasible, could be combined with conventional vector control methods as well as treatment of infection with effective malaria therapy, to actualize the malaria eradication goal.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Nekpen Erhunse and Victor Okomayin"},{id:"82397",title:"Gut Microbiota Potential in Type 2 Diabetes",slug:"gut-microbiota-potential-in-type-2-diabetes",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105616",abstract:"Appropriate metabolic regulation is vital for health. Multiple factors play important roles in maintaining the metabolic system in different physiological conditions. These factors range from intestinal metabolism of food and absorption of nutrients, pancreatic hormones and their interplay under feeding and fasting, hepatic regulation of macronutrient formation and metabolism storage of macronutrients in skeletal muscles. Intestinal metabolism of ingested food and subsequent nutrient absorption depends on the symbiotic microbial community residing in the gut. The specific ratio of different microbial phyla in the gut has proved to be extremely important for the beneficial role of the gut microbiome. The importance of gut microbiome in the regulation of metabolism has been highlighted with reports of the abnormal ratio of gut microbial community resulting in different metabolic disturbances ranging from obesity to the development of diabetes mellitus. The physiological impact of insulin on the metabolic regulation of macronutrients has recently been shown to be augmented by the secondary metabolites produced by anaerobic fermentation. The current chapter aims to highlight recent findings in the regulation of extraintestinal metabolism by gut microbiome with a specific emphasis on the physiology and pathophysiology of the pancreas in health and disease.",book:{id:"11631",title:"Gut Microbiota - Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11631.jpg"},signatures:"Shahzad Irfan, Humaira Muzaffar, Haseeb Anwar and Farhat Jabeen"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:105},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. 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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"
\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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