Densities of standard materials used for the analysis of the BEMA density.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6435",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Gene Expression and Regulation in Mammalian Cells - Transcription From General Aspects",title:"Gene Expression and Regulation in Mammalian Cells",subtitle:"Transcription From General Aspects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'"Central dogma" was presented by Dr. Francis Crick 60 years ago. The information of nucleotide sequences on DNAs is transcribed into RNAs by RNA polymerases. We learned the mechanisms of how transcription determines function of proteins and behaviour of cells and even how it brings appearances of organisms. This book is intended for scientists and medical researchers especially who are interested in the relationships between transcription and human diseases. This volume consists of an introductory chapter and 14 chapters, divided into 4 parts. Each chapter is written by experts in the basic scientific field. A collection of articles presented by active and laboratory-based investigators provides recent advances and progresses in the field of transcriptional regulation in mammalian cells.',isbn:"978-953-51-3856-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3855-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4095-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70352",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"gene-expression-and-regulation-in-mammalian-cells-transcription-from-general-aspects",numberOfPages:334,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8573c44c537def5c800a0f6d4ed844d6",bookSignature:"Fumiaki Uchiumi",publishedDate:"February 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6435.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20879,numberOfWosCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:60,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 14th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 11th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 18th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 27th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"47235",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uchiumi",slug:"fumiaki-uchiumi",fullName:"Fumiaki Uchiumi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/47235/images/system/47235.jpg",biography:"Fumiaki Uchiumi, Professor of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, received his Bachelor\\'s degree (Chemistry) from Tokyo University of Science in 1987. In 1993, after obtaining his Ph.D. degree (Molecular Biology) from Tokyo University, he joined Professor S. Tanuma\\'s Laboratory at Tokyo University of Science as an Assistant Professor. He obtained his second Ph.D. (Pharmaceutical Science) from Tokyo University of Science in 1999 and in 2000 was promoted to the position of Lecturer at Tokyo University of Science. Professor Uchiumi then went abroad as a post-doctoral researcher for the United States-Japan Cooperative Cancer Research Program in Professor E. Fanning’s Laboratory at Vanderbilt University, 2000-2001. Professor Uchiumi was promoted to Associate Professor and then Full Professor at Tokyo University of Science in 2010 and 2016, respectively.",institutionString:"Tokyo University of Science",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Tokyo University of Science",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"400",title:"Molecular Genetics",slug:"human-genetics-molecular-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"57595",title:"Introductory Chapter: Current Studies in Transcriptional Control System; Toward the Establishment of Therapies against Human Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71701",slug:"introductory-chapter-current-studies-in-transcriptional-control-system-toward-the-establishment-of-t",totalDownloads:1329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Fumiaki Uchiumi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57595",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57595",authors:[{id:"47235",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumiaki",surname:"Uchiumi",slug:"fumiaki-uchiumi",fullName:"Fumiaki Uchiumi"}],corrections:null},{id:"58650",title:"Regulation of Mammalian Gene Expression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72848",slug:"regulation-of-mammalian-gene-expression",totalDownloads:1577,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Regulation of mammalian gene expression has been an ever growing subject in the field of Biology and the biomedical science research. In the last several decades, extensive amount of research together with the implementation of the latest technologies revealed that the whole process is regulated at the multiple stages with a series of interconnected complex biochemical and molecular pathways. Unearthing this complexity in one hand helps us in understanding the concerted effort put by the respective cellular machinery to regulate the whole process, and on the other hand, it provides a new insight about the development of several diseases where gene expressions play a pivotal role. Discussions here focus on the involvement of transcription factors or cofactors and the linkage of the transcription network with the signal transduction pathways. Besides proteins as a regulator, the role of the nucleic acids such as miRNA, chromosomal conformation and the modification of DNA bases or core histone proteins, in gene expression has also been explored. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the big picture of the diverse regulatory network and the phenomenal complexity of the regulation of gene expression.",signatures:"Partha P. Mitra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58650",authors:[{id:"219019",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Partha",surname:"Mitra",slug:"partha-mitra",fullName:"Partha Mitra"}],corrections:null},{id:"57922",title:"Mammalian Cis-Acting RNA Sequence Elements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72124",slug:"mammalian-cis-acting-rna-sequence-elements",totalDownloads:1827,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cis-acting regulatory sequence elements are sequences contained in the 3′ and 5′ untranslated region, introns, or coding regions of precursor RNAs and mature mRNAs that are selectively recognized by a complementary set of one or more trans-acting factors to regulate posttranscriptional gene expression. This chapter focuses on mammalian cis-acting regulatory elements that had been recently discovered in different regions: pre-processed and mature. The chapter begins with an overview of two large networks of mRNAs that contain conserved AU-rich elements (AREs) or GU-rich elements (GREs), and their role in mammalian cell physiology. Other, less conserved, cis-acting elements and their functional role in different steps of RNA maturation and metabolism will be discussed. The molecular characteristics of pathological cis-acting sequences that rose from gene mutations or transcriptional aberrations are briefly outlined, with the proposed approach to restore normal gene expression. Concise models of the function of posttranscriptional regulatory networks within different cellular compartments conclude this chapter.",signatures:"Irina Vlasova-St. Louis and Calandra Sagarsky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57922",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57922",authors:[{id:"211159",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",surname:"Vlasova-St. Louis",slug:"irina-vlasova-st.-louis",fullName:"Irina Vlasova-St. Louis"},{id:"224532",title:"Ms.",name:"Calandra",surname:"Sagarsky",slug:"calandra-sagarsky",fullName:"Calandra Sagarsky"}],corrections:null},{id:"57738",title:"Influence of Endogenous Viral Sequences on Gene Expression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71864",slug:"influence-of-endogenous-viral-sequences-on-gene-expression",totalDownloads:1363,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Endogenous viral elements (EVEs) are the heritable sequences present in eukaryotic genomes that have originated from viral nucleotide sequences. EVEs are subdivided into two groups, according to the presence or absence of long terminal repeats (LTRs). EVEs with LTRs are called endogenous retroviruses (ERVs), and they account for approximately 8% of the human genome. EVEs without LTRs seem to be related to non-reverse-transcribing RNA and DNA viruses, and recent studies have revealed that numerous vertebrate genomes contain these non-LTR EVEs. Such EVEs are proposed to play essential roles in gene expression. EVEs can regulate gene expression as cis-regulatory DNA and RNA elements. EVE-derived non-coding RNAs and/or proteins can also influence cell transcriptomes in trans. To maintain cell integrity, cells epigenetically silence the expression of most EVEs, making these elements generally biochemically inert. These epigenetic alterations around the EVE loci can also affect host transcriptomes. Here, we highlight the current knowledge available on the regulatory activities of ERVs and non-retroviral EVEs, especially the EVEs derived from bornaviruses, which are known as endogenous bornavirus-like elements (EBLs). Better knowledge of this area will improve our understanding of gene regulation and also the co-evolution of viruses and their hosts.",signatures:"Kozue Sofuku and Tomoyuki Honda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57738",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57738",authors:[{id:"162606",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomoyuki",surname:"Honda",slug:"tomoyuki-honda",fullName:"Tomoyuki Honda"},{id:"225422",title:"Dr.",name:"Kozue",surname:"Sofuku",slug:"kozue-sofuku",fullName:"Kozue Sofuku"}],corrections:null},{id:"58193",title:"Cross-Talk Categorisations in Data-Driven Models of Signalling Networks: A System-Level View",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72408",slug:"cross-talk-categorisations-in-data-driven-models-of-signalling-networks-a-system-level-view",totalDownloads:1044,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Data-driven models of signalling networks are becoming increasingly important in systems biology in order to reflect the dynamic patterns of signalling activities in a context-specific manner. State-of-the-art approaches for categorising and detecting signalling cross-talks may not be suitable for such models since they rely on static topologies of cell signalling networks and prior biological knowledge. In this chapter, we review state-of-the-art approaches that categorise all possible cross-talks in signalling networks and propose a novel categorisation specific to data-driven network models. Considering such models as undirected networks, we propose two categories of signalling cross-talks between any two given signalling pathways. In a Type-I cross-talk, a signalling link {gi\n,gj\n} connects two signalling pathways, where gi\n and gj\n are signalling nodes that belong to two distinct pathways. In a Type-II cross-talk, two signalling links {gi\n,gj\n} and {gj\n,gk\n} meet at the intersection of two signalling pathways at a shared signalling node gj\n. We compared our categorisation approach with others and found that all the types of cross-talks defined by those approaches can be mapped to Type-I and Type-II cross-talks when underlying signalling activities are considered as non-causal relationships. Next, we provided a simple but intuitive algorithm called XDaMoSiN (cross-talks in data-driven models of signalling networks) to detect both Type-I and Type-II cross-talks between any two given signalling pathways in a data-driven network model. By detecting cross-talks in such network models, our approach can be used to analyse and decipher latent mechanisms of various cell phenotypes, such as cancer or acquired drug resistance, that may evolve due to the highly adaptable and dynamic nature of signal transduction networks.",signatures:"A.K.M. Azad, Alfons Lawen and Jonathan M. Keith",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58193",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58193",authors:[{id:"218398",title:"Dr.",name:"A K M",surname:"Azad",slug:"a-k-m-azad",fullName:"A K M Azad"},{id:"223155",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfons",surname:"Lawen",slug:"alfons-lawen",fullName:"Alfons Lawen"},{id:"223156",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan M.",surname:"Keith",slug:"jonathan-m.-keith",fullName:"Jonathan M. Keith"}],corrections:null},{id:"57735",title:"Interplay between Transcription and RNA Degradation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71862",slug:"interplay-between-transcription-and-rna-degradation",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Amount of mRNA depends on the both the rates of mRNA transcription in the nucleus and mRNA degradation in the cytoplasm. Although each of the processes was studied independently, recent studies demonstrated the interplay between transcription and mRNA degradation in various cellular processes, such as cell-cycle, cellular differentiation, and stress responses. In this review, we discuss the benefit of the interplay in the gene expressions and the mechanisms how these two processes are coupled. We also review recent genome-wide methods to measure the rates of transcription and degradation.",signatures:"Toshimichi Yamada, Masami Nagahama and Nobuyoshi Akimitsu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57735",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57735",authors:[{id:"217710",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshimichi",surname:"Yamada",slug:"toshimichi-yamada",fullName:"Toshimichi Yamada"},{id:"217711",title:"Dr.",name:"Nobuyoshi",surname:"Akimitsu",slug:"nobuyoshi-akimitsu",fullName:"Nobuyoshi Akimitsu"},{id:"221818",title:"Prof.",name:"Masami",surname:"Nagahama",slug:"masami-nagahama",fullName:"Masami Nagahama"}],corrections:null},{id:"57916",title:"Post-Transcriptional Control of RNA Expression in Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71861",slug:"post-transcriptional-control-of-rna-expression-in-cancer",totalDownloads:1448,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Approximately 80% of the human genome contains functional DNA, including protein coding genes, non-protein coding regulatory DNA elements and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). An altered transcriptional signature is not only a cause, but also a consequence of the characteristics known as the hallmarks of cancer, such as sustained proliferation, replicative immortality, evasion of growth suppression and apoptotic signals, angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis, evasion of immune destruction and metabolic re-wiring. Post-transcriptional events play a major role in determining this signature, which is evidenced by the fact that alternative RNA splicing takes place in more than half of the human genes, and, among protein coding genes, more than 60% contain at least one conserved miRNA-binding site. In this chapter, we will discuss the involvement of post-transcriptional events, such as RNA processing, the action of non-coding RNAs and RNA decay in cancer development, and how their machinery may be used in cancer diagnosis and treatment.",signatures:"Carlos DeOcesano-Pereira, Fernando Janczur Velloso, Ana Claudia\nOliveira Carreira, Carolina Simões Pires Ribeiro, Sheila Maria\nBrochado Winnischofer, Mari Cleide Sogayar and Marina\nTrombetta-Lima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57916",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57916",authors:[{id:"217772",title:"Prof.",name:"Mari",surname:"Sogayar",slug:"mari-sogayar",fullName:"Mari Sogayar"},{id:"217856",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Trombetta-Lima",slug:"marina-trombetta-lima",fullName:"Marina Trombetta-Lima"},{id:"222764",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"DeOcesano-Pereira",slug:"carlos-deocesano-pereira",fullName:"Carlos DeOcesano-Pereira"},{id:"222765",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Velloso",slug:"fernando-velloso",fullName:"Fernando Velloso"},{id:"222766",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Carreira",slug:"ana-carreira",fullName:"Ana Carreira"},{id:"222767",title:"Ms.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"carolina-ribeiro",fullName:"Carolina Ribeiro"},{id:"222769",title:"Prof.",name:"Sheila",surname:"Winnischofer",slug:"sheila-winnischofer",fullName:"Sheila Winnischofer"}],corrections:null},{id:"57821",title:"Current Status for Application of RNA Interference Technology as Nucleic Acid Drug",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71965",slug:"current-status-for-application-of-rna-interference-technology-as-nucleic-acid-drug",totalDownloads:1492,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"RNA interference (RNAi) is a convenient and useful gene suppression technology induced by small interfering RNA (siRNA) composed of 21-nucleotide long double-stranded RNA. The successful application of RNAi for clinical use is expected for a long time. Although siRNA drug is categorized into a nucleic acid drug, it has a prominent advantage that genetic function can be suppressed by destroying mRNA at the posttranscriptional level without wounding genomic DNA. Nevertheless, unfortunately there are no siRNA certified as pharmaceuticals passing through clinical trials, since there are several problems, such as gene suppression efficiency, stability in blood stream, or other undesirable effects. Here, we describe the current status and future prospects for clinical application of the siRNA nucleic acid drug.",signatures:"Tomoko Takahashi, Yuko Nakano and Kumiko Ui-Tei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57821",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57821",authors:[{id:"217566",title:"Dr.",name:"Kumiko",surname:"Ui-Tei",slug:"kumiko-ui-tei",fullName:"Kumiko Ui-Tei"},{id:"220531",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomoko",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"tomoko-takahashi",fullName:"Tomoko Takahashi"},{id:"222246",title:"Ms.",name:"Yuko",surname:"Nakano",slug:"yuko-nakano",fullName:"Yuko Nakano"}],corrections:null},{id:"58103",title:"Gene Expression during the Activation of Human B Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71863",slug:"gene-expression-during-the-activation-of-human-b-cells",totalDownloads:1600,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Human B lymphocytes not only play a critical role in the humoral immunity to generate antibodies, but also are equally important to cellular immunity as B lymphocytes can present antigens to T lymphocytes and can release a range of potential immune-regulating cytokines after stimulations. Human immunoglobulin class switch recombination (CSR) in activated B cells is an essential process in the humoral immunity and the process is complicated and tightly controlled by many regulators. The recent genomic and genetic approaches in CSR identified novel genes that were actively involved in the process. Understanding the roles of the novel genes in CSR will bring new insights into the mechanisms of the process and new potential therapeutic targets for immunoglobulin-related disorders such as allergic asthma and autoimmune diseases.",signatures:"Youming Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58103",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58103",authors:[{id:"217452",title:"Dr.",name:"Youming",surname:"Zhang",slug:"youming-zhang",fullName:"Youming Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"58760",title:"The Interplay between Transcription Factors and Epigenetic Modifications in Th2 Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73027",slug:"the-interplay-between-transcription-factors-and-epigenetic-modifications-in-th2-cells",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Functionally polarized CD4 T helper (Th) cells, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, are essential for the regulation of acquired immunity. Differentiation of naïve CD4 T cells into Th2 cells is characterized by chromatin remodeling and the induced expression of a set of Th2-specific genes, which include Th2 cytokine genes. In the first stage of this differentiation, a Th2-skewing cytokine environment, especially IL-4, induces STAT6 activation. Activated STAT6 increases the expression of GATA3, a master regulator of Th2 cell differentiation, via direct binding to the Gata3 gene locus. This transcriptional induction of Gata3 mRNA during Th2 cell differentiation is accompanied by dynamic changes in the binding patterns of two epigenetic modification proteins such as Polycomb and Trithorax complexes. Consequently, expressed GATA3 epigenetically modifies and upregulates Th2-specific genes to establish Th2 cell identity. This identity is maintained by high-level expression of the Gata3 gene controlled by Menin, which is a member of the Trithorax proteins, after cycles of cultivation in vitro and a long-term resting state in vivo. Thus, the Menin-GATA3 axis handles the Th2-specific gene regulatory network.",signatures:"Atsushi Onodera, Kota Kokubo and Toshinori Nakayama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58760",authors:[{id:"217925",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshinori",surname:"Nakayama",slug:"toshinori-nakayama",fullName:"Toshinori Nakayama"},{id:"228572",title:"Dr.",name:"Atsushi",surname:"Onodera",slug:"atsushi-onodera",fullName:"Atsushi Onodera"},{id:"228573",title:"Mr.",name:"Kota",surname:"Kokubo",slug:"kota-kokubo",fullName:"Kota Kokubo"}],corrections:null},{id:"59101",title:"Post-Transcriptional and Translational Mechanisms of Regulation of Gene Expression in T Cell Subsets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73319",slug:"post-transcriptional-and-translational-mechanisms-of-regulation-of-gene-expression-in-t-cell-subsets",totalDownloads:1295,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The immune system is under strict regulatory control to ensure homeostasis of inflammatory responses, lying dormant when not needed but quick to act when called upon. Small changes in gene expression can lead to drastic changes in lineage commitment, cellular function, and immunity. Conventional assessment of these changes centered on the analysis of mRNA levels through a variety of methodologies, including microarrays. However, mRNA synthesis does not always correlate directly to protein synthesis and downstream functional activity. Work conducted in recent years has begun to shed light on the various post-transcriptional changes that occur in response to a dynamic external environment in which a given immune cell type encounters. In this chapter, we provide a critical review of key post-transcriptional and translational mechanisms of regulation of gene expression in the immune system, with an emphasis of these regulatory processes in various CD4+ T cell subsets and their related effector functions.",signatures:"Roman Istomine and Ciriaco A. Piccirillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59101",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59101",authors:[{id:"157580",title:"Dr.",name:"Ciriaco",surname:"Piccirillo",slug:"ciriaco-piccirillo",fullName:"Ciriaco Piccirillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"58408",title:"Phosphorylation of PRH/HHEX by Protein Kinase CK2 Regulates Cell Proliferation and Cell Migration in Diverse Cell Types",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72902",slug:"phosphorylation-of-prh-hhex-by-protein-kinase-ck2-regulates-cell-proliferation-and-cell-migration-in",totalDownloads:1158,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Disruption of the regulatory mechanisms that control cell proliferation and cell migration results in multiple disease states including cancer and leukaemia. The proline-rich homeodomain protein (PRH)/haematopoietically expressed homeobox protein (HHEX) is a transcription factor that controls cell proliferation and cell migration in a variety of tissues in the adult and in the embryo. Phosphorylation of PRH by Protein Kinase CK2 (Casein Kinase II) stops PRH from binding to DNA and regulating the transcription of its direct target genes. In leukaemic cells, phosphorylation also results in the production of a transdominant-negative truncated PRH phosphoprotein by the proteasome. Phosphorylation of PRH is increased in breast and prostate cancer cells and the consequent loss of PRH activity increases cell proliferation and migration. PRH also regulates the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells and CK2-dependent phosphorylation of PRH in these cells accompanies increased cell proliferation during intimal thickening. Thus the ability of PRH to regulate cell behaviour and the control of PRH by CK2 is not limited to a specific cell type or tissue. This raises the possibility that the PRH-CK2 axis could be targeted in a variety of disease states ranging from multiple cancers to the intimal thickening that occurs in vein bypass graft failure and restenosis.",signatures:"Padma-Sheela Jayaraman, Kerry S. Wadey, Sarah J. George and\nKevin Gaston",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58408",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58408",authors:[{id:"217321",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Gaston",slug:"kevin-gaston",fullName:"Kevin Gaston"},{id:"218470",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheela",surname:"Jayaraman",slug:"sheela-jayaraman",fullName:"Sheela Jayaraman"},{id:"228510",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarah",surname:"George",slug:"sarah-george",fullName:"Sarah George"},{id:"228511",title:"Dr.",name:"Kerry",surname:"Wadey",slug:"kerry-wadey",fullName:"Kerry Wadey"}],corrections:null},{id:"58607",title:"Dual Role of METCAM/MUC18 Expression in the Progression of Cancer Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72742",slug:"dual-role-of-metcam-muc18-expression-in-the-progression-of-cancer-cells",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The altered expression of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) correlates with the malignant progression of many epithelial tumors. MUC18/CD146/A32/MelCAM/S-endo 1, a CAM in the immunoglobulin gene superfamily, is an integral membrane glycoprotein. MUC18 is not a mucin, resulting from its misleading nomenclature by the original discoverer. We re-named it as METCAM (metastasis-regulating CAM), based on its very interesting biological roles in tumor formation and metastasis of many epithelial tumors. Initial findings show that METCAM/MUC18 expression has a positive effect (as a tumor and metastasis promoter) on the progression of breast cancer, most melanoma cell lines, nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) type II, and prostate cancer. Later research results show that METCAM/MUC18 expression has a negative effect (as a tumor suppressor and metastasis suppressor) on the progression of ovarian cancer, one mouse melanoma cell line, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma type I, and perhaps hemangioma. Since the above dual function of METCAM/MUC18 occurs only in different cell lines from the same cancer type or in those from different cancer types, we suggest that the different effect of METCAM/MUC18 on tumor formation and metastasis of different cancer cell line may be due to different intrinsic properties (co-factors) in each cancer cell line that modify the biological functions of METCAM/MUC18 in the intrinsic properties of tumor cells and their interactions with the tumor microenvironment. This chapter will review the published work and present some possible mechanisms for the METCAM/MUC18-mediated cancer progression for future studies.",signatures:"Guang-Jer Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58607",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58607",authors:[{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"58197",title:"Methylation of NF-κB and its Role in Gene Regulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72552",slug:"methylation-of-nf-b-and-its-role-in-gene-regulation",totalDownloads:1357,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) is one of the most pivotal transcription factors in mammalian cells. In many pathologies NF-κB is activated abnormally. This contributes to the development of various disorders such as cancer, acute kidney injury, lung disease, chronic inflammatory diseases, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. This book chapter focuses on how methylation of NF-κB regulates its target genes differentially. 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Deregulation of these gene expression programs can lead to a broad range of diseases including cancer. SOX transcription factors are a conserved group of transcriptional regulators that mediates DNA binding by a highly conserved high-mobility group (HMG) domain. Numerous evidence has recently demonstrated that SOX transcription factors critically control cell fate and differentiation in major developmental processes, and that their upregulation may be important for cancer progression. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the role of SOX genes in cancer.",signatures:"Li Cui, Xinyuan Zhao and Shen Hu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58186",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58186",authors:[{id:"218403",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shen",surname:"Hu",slug:"shen-hu",fullName:"Shen Hu"},{id:"223890",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",surname:"Cui",slug:"li-cui",fullName:"Li Cui"},{id:"223891",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinyuan",surname:"Zhao",slug:"xinyuan-zhao",fullName:"Xinyuan Zhao"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7204",title:"Gene Expression and Regulation in Mammalian Cells",subtitle:"Transcription Toward the Establishment of Novel Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10030057b2e2dee7d800ff27658c3a69",slug:"gene-expression-and-regulation-in-mammalian-cells-transcription-toward-the-establishment-of-novel-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Fumiaki Uchiumi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7204.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"47235",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumiaki",surname:"Uchiumi",slug:"fumiaki-uchiumi",fullName:"Fumiaki Uchiumi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7566",title:"Gene Expression and Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d5e33453f41aee5b90bc6f6301820b89",slug:"gene-expression-and-control",bookSignature:"Fumiaki Uchiumi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7566.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"47235",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumiaki",surname:"Uchiumi",slug:"fumiaki-uchiumi",fullName:"Fumiaki Uchiumi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1282",title:"DNA Repair",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fd9649a587843768849e0ae8ef79cf35",slug:"dna-repair",bookSignature:"Inna Kruman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1282.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40791",title:"Dr.",name:"Inna",surname:"Kruman",slug:"inna-kruman",fullName:"Inna Kruman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"267",title:"DNA Replication",subtitle:"Current Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7098366ef9c3671e3699a9528f8a310c",slug:"dna-replication-current-advances",bookSignature:"Herve Seligmann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/267.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"118814",title:"Dr.",name:"Herve",surname:"Seligmann",slug:"herve-seligmann",fullName:"Herve Seligmann"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"723",title:"Meiosis",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Cytogenetic Diversity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2943f3b51b4256fe3a7d949e8488b6c1",slug:"meiosis-molecular-mechanisms-and-cytogenetic-diversity",bookSignature:"Andrew Swan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/723.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"119027",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Swan",slug:"andrew-swan",fullName:"Andrew Swan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3141",title:"Apoptosis and Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42aa17cdb57c3b0a54443cc3dadddaaf",slug:"apoptosis-and-medicine",bookSignature:"Tobias M. 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Chapters address microwave digestive techniques of wastewater treatment, advanced ozone oxidative and photo processes, and reactive distillation for various applications. The book is a useful resource for choosing applicable processing techniques and design parameters.",isbn:"978-1-83881-901-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-900-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-902-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87732",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"promising-techniques-for-wastewater-treatment-and-water-quality-assessment",numberOfPages:458,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"59ea12a5ea4a235dc8123537effc7cf1",bookSignature:"Iqbal Ahmed Moujdin and J. 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He graduated from the Centre of Hydrogen Energy (ChE), University of Technology Malaysia and has more than sixteen years of research and teaching experience in the field of chemical engineering. Dr. Ahmed specializes in microwave synthesized materials and membrane technology (fabrication to application). He has authored more than sixty journal articles and fifty research papers in a variety of journals and international conferences. He has also contributed more than six book chapters.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1354",title:"Wastewater Engineering",slug:"technology-environmental-engineering-wastewater-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"73083",title:"Evaluation and Quantification of Anionic Surfactant in the Gomti River at Lucknow City, India",slug:"evaluation-and-quantification-of-anionic-surfactant-in-the-gomti-river-at-lucknow-city-india",totalDownloads:158,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"223774",title:"Dr.",name:"Markandeya",surname:null,slug:"markandeya",fullName:"Markandeya null"},{id:"325368",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinay",surname:"Kumar",slug:"vinay-kumar",fullName:"Vinay Kumar"},{id:"325369",title:"Dr.",name:"Pokhraj",surname:"Sahu",slug:"pokhraj-sahu",fullName:"Pokhraj Sahu"},{id:"325370",title:"Dr.",name:"Pramod",surname:"K. 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Diamond-like carbon (DLC) film is one of the attractive carbon materials due to its outstanding properties which have wide applications in mechanical, electrical, optical, and chemical fields [1]. In general, DLC films have complex structures composed of the “diamond-like”
Nowadays, not only the structural analysis but also the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties have been used to distinguish the types of DLC films. Especially, the optical constants in terms of the refractive indices (
In this chapter, we discuss the application of SE in the current classification of DLC films through two parts of experiments. In part one, DLC films were assumed to be represented by the superposition of the standard materials, for which the BEMA theory was applied to reproduce the experimental result of SE. From these analyses, the different types of DLC films can be represented by varying the superposition coefficients of the standard materials. We have selected five standard materials to build ten kinds of optical models after considering the feasibility of each model. In order to verify the reliability of the results, we used the X-ray reflectivity (XRR) method to measure the film densities as well as the NEXAFS method to evaluate the
In the part one experiment, 13 DLC films were prepared by different deposition methods which included samples provided by the other research groups upon the request by the authors. All the samples were deposited on a (100)-oriented p-type single silicon wafer substrate. Samples #01–03 were the provided samples which were deposited by a filtered cathodic vacuum arc (FCVA) method, and the detail conditions were unclear (to obtain ta-C films). Samples #04–06 were made by a FCVA method, where the graphite target (The Nilaco Co., Ltd., purity of 99.9%) was used as the carbon precursor at a negative bias voltage in the range of 1.0–2.0 kV, a deposition time of 10 min with a working pressure of 0.5 Pa, and an arc voltage of 800 V (to obtain a-C or ta-C:H films). Samples #07 and #08 were prepared by a radio-frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering method at a negative bias voltage of 0.3 kV, a deposition time of 5 and 3 min with a working pressure of 10 Pa, and a RF power of 150 W (to obtain ta-C:H or a-C:H films). Samples #09 and #10 were deposited by an electron-cyclotron-resonance chemical vapor deposition (ECRCVD) method at a negative bias voltage of 0.3 and 0.5 kV, a deposition time of 10 min with a working pressure of 0.5 Pa, and an RF power of 100 W (to obtain a-C:H or PLC films). Samples #11–13 were prepared by a plasma-enhanced (PE)-CVD method at the same 10-min deposition time and applied negative bias voltage in the range of 0.0–0.5 kV (to obtain a-C:H or PLC films). In the part two experiment, various types of DLC films were also deposited on a (100)-oriented p-type single silicon wafer substrate. Samples A–C were prepared by the FCVA deposition which is provided by the other research group upon the request of the authors. Samples D and E were deposited by RF magnetron sputtering at a negative bias voltage of 0.3 kV, a deposition time of 3 and 5 min with a working pressure of 20 Pa, and an RF power of 150 W. Samples F–K were synthesized by RF-PE-CVD methods at the same 10-min deposition time and applied negative bias voltage in the range of 0.0–0.5 kV.
All the DLC samples and the selected standard materials of PG and GC plates were measured with an ellipsometer (HORIBA, Jobin-Yvon, UVISEL NIR 23301010I). The incident angle of the source radiation was set to 70°; each measurement was carried out in the spectral range between 0.6 and 4.8 eV with a step of 0.05 eV at 293 K. The values of Tauc-band gap (
As described above, the main constituents in the structure of DLC films are C(
SE is an optical technique for investigating the dielectric properties of thin films, from which the film properties such as thickness, roughness, optical constants, electrical conductivity, compositions, and other material properties can be obtained. SE is an indirect method, that is, the measured amplitude component (
Optical models applied to BEMA equation (TL + Drude models, PG = HOPG, GC: glassy carbon, D: diamond, PE: polyethylene, and V: void). The models (a) and (b) are used for the simulation of PG and GC standard materials, the models (c)–(h) are used for the simulation of all types of DLC films, and the models (i)–(l) are used for the high hydrogen DLC films.
The simulation analyses of standard materials (PG and GC) were carried out before that of DLC films. For the PG, as shown in Figure 1(a), the substrate was modeled by TL + Drude and the layer on the substrate was (TL + Drude) + void (50%). For the simulation of GC, which is considered to consist a certain amount of void and three-dimensional structural
Simulation analysis of (
In the simulation of DLC films, we have assumed ten optical models as shown in Figure 1(c)–(l). The crystalline silicon (c-Si) was used as the substrate in each optical model. The first layer of each optical model was assumed to consist of a mixed phase which was composed of several standard materials. The diamond or PE was assumed to be the standard materials of C(
In Eq. (1),
Standard material | PG | GC | Diamond | PE | void |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Density (g/cm3) | 2.26 | 1.69 | 3.52 | 0.95 | 0 |
Densities of standard materials used for the analysis of the BEMA density.
In the part one experiment, the commercial software (Rigaku, GXRR) was used to simulate the logarithmic data of the reflection intensity, from which the density and thickness of GC and DLC films can be obtained. Figure 3 shows the XRR profiles of the standard material of GC on a semilogarithmic scale. The solid curve represents the experimental profile, and the dotted curve the simulation analysis. In the high angle side (> 0.5°), there is a large discrepancy between the simulation and experimental curves. Nonetheless, the true density obtained from XRR method is generally determined by the critical angle, whose simulated value 0.358° is in good agreement with the experimental value 0.360°. The true density can be determined by the critical angle, and the thickness analyses by the fringe pattern which are obtained with GXRR software based on the Parrat’s method [28]. Therefore, the discrepancy mentioned above in the large-angle region has no effect on the determination of the GC density. From the above measured critical angle of GC plate, the density is estimated to be 1.67 g/cm3. Another measurement point yielded the density to be 1.71 g/cm3. Then, the final density of standard GC was the arithmetic average of the two densities as 1.69 g/cm3 in this chapter.
XRR profiles of GC (solid line: experimental profile, dotted line: fitted profile).
The XRR profiles of DLC films deposited from (a) FCVA #6, (b) sputtering #8, (c) ECRCVD #9, and (d) PECVD #12.
The examples of the XRR profiles and simulation results for the samples of #06, #08, #09, and #12 made by FCVA, sputtering, ECRCVD, and PECVD methods, respectively, are shown in Figure 5. The critical angles of these samples were 0.43, 0.40, 0.38, and 0.35°, from which the XRR densities (
The RBS/ERDA spectra of DLC films deposited by (a) FCVA #6, (b) sputtering #8, (c) ECRCVD #9, and (d) PECVD #12.
For all the other samples,
Sample | Method | H content (at.%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
#01 | FCVAI | 181.0 | 3.10 | 3.23 | 0.3 |
#02 | FCVAI | 66.3 | 3.02 | 3.14 | 0.5 |
#03 | FCVAI | 210.8 | 3.25 | 3.17 | 1.0 |
#04 | FCVAII | 29.8 | 2.53 | 2.30 | 4.5 |
#05 | FCVAII | 26.9 | 2.01 | 2.01 | 4.5 |
#06 | FCVAII | 21.4 | 2.62 | 2.39 | 5.0 |
#07 | Sputtering | 312.0 | 2.17 | 2.15 | 19.0 |
#08 | Sputtering | 188.8 | 2.21 | 2.26 | 19.0 |
#09 | ECRCVD | 256.0 | 2.00 | 2.05 | 26.0 |
#10 | ECRCVD | 250.0 | 1.26 | 1.19 | 33.0 |
#11 | PECVD | 104.8 | 1.74 | 1.73 | 31.0 |
#12 | PECVD | 220.0 | 1.50 | 1.45 | 36.0 |
#13 | PECVD | 50.7 | 1.23 | 1.23 | 42.0 |
Summary of
Figure 5 shows the typical RBS and ERDA spectra of DLC films deposited by (a) FCVA #06, (b) sputtering #08, (c) ECRCVD #09, and (d) PECVD #12 methods. For the RBS spectra, the peaks that He+ ions backscattered according to carbon atoms in DLC films are observed around 200–450 ch. For the ERDA spectra, the peaks of hydrogen atoms recoiled from the sample by the irradiation of He+ ions emerged around 180–420 ch. The C and Si peaks on RBS spectra of the DLC films and the substrates are profiled using an RBS fitting calculation package. The H peaks on ERDA spectra of the DLC films are profiled using an ERDA fitting calculation package to compare the peak intensities of C and H. The estimating error of the present fitting process is around 5%. The hydrogen contents of DLC films of #06, #08, #09, and #12 were 5.0, 19.0, 26.0, and 36.0 at.%, respectively. Table 2 lists the other results obtained from the above peak fittings. The hydrogen content of DLC film of type made by FCVA method was in the range of 0.3–1.0 at.% and that of type in the range of 4.5–5.0 at.%. The hydrogen content of DLC films obtained from sputtering method was 19.0 at.%. The hydrogen contents obtained from the ECRCVD and PECVD methods were in the range of 26.0–42.0 at.%.
Figure 6 shows the examples of the carbon
The carbon
Sample/group | Film type | H (at.%) | (%) | (eV) | (eV) | (eV) | (nm) | (g/cm3) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | I | t | 0.3 | 47.9 | 2.65 | 0.13 | 3.45 | 0.70 | 0.68 | 207 | 3.25 |
B | I | t | 0.5 | 45.6 | 2.66 | 0.22 | 2.55 | 0.65 | 0.62 | 66 | 3.14 |
C | I | t | 1.0 | 44.3 | 2.75 | 0.30 | 2.00 | 0.75 | 0.71 | 181 | 3.23 |
D | II | 19 | 56.6 | 2.34 | 0.31 | 1.60 | 0.65 | 0.61 | 312 | 2.17 | |
E | II | 19 | 59.1 | 2.42 | 0.29 | 1.90 | 0.80 | 0.76 | 186 | 2.21 | |
F | III | 31 | 58.5 | 2.17 | 0.17 | 2.40 | 1.05 | 0.71 | 491 | 1.73 | |
G | III | 32 | 67.1 | 2.15 | 0.19 | 2.20 | 1.00 | 0.89 | 501 | 1.72 | |
H | III | 36 | 62.0 | 2.04 | 0.07 | 2.65 | 1.30 | 1.05 | 476 | 1.49 | |
I | III | 37 | 64.9 | 1.97 | 0.05 | 2.30 | 1.15 | 0.92 | 457 | 1.43 | |
J | III | 41 | 57.5 | 1.86 | 0.05 | 3.35 | 1.95 | 1.36 | 350 | 1.35 | |
K | IV | PLC | 45 | 63.0 | 1.65 | 0.00 | 4.80 | 2.60 | 2.55 | 254 | 1.21 |
Hydrogen contents,
The commercial software (HORIBA DelaPsi2) was used to simulate the SE data of standard materials and DLC films. Figure 7 shows the typical fitting results of Ψ and Δ spectra of SE method with the application of the BEMA equations with different optical models. In the first stage, the optical models (c)–(h) using diamond as one of the basic standard materials were applied to the DLC films. The simulation results of sample #06 which has low-hydrogen content are shown in Figure 7(a) and (b). The solid lines represent the experimental data, and the dashed lines the fitted data in each optical model. Except for
Representative simulation results of Ψ and Δ spectra of SE method applied BEMA equation with first six optical models (models (c)–(h) for FCVA #6 (a, b), PECVD #11 (c, d) methods). The other four optical models (models (i)–(l) for PECVD #13 (e, f) methods).
In part two experiment, the RBS/ERDA, XRR, and NEXAFS analysis are also performed on all samples. All the results are summarized in Table 3. The film thicknesses are in the range of 66–501 nm. Samples A–C are hydrogen free (under 1.0 at.%) DLC films with high true density (exceed 3.10 g/cm3). Samples D and E have the same hydrogen content of 19 at.% and almost the same true density of 2.20 g/cm3. As the substrate bias decreases from 0.5 to 0 kV, the hydrogen contents of samples E and F increase from 31 to 45 at.% and their densities decrease from 1.73 to 1.21 g/cm3. The estimated errors of these present fitting process are around 5% (e.g., sample F is 31 ± 2 at.%), ± 0.05 g/cm3, and ±5 nm, respectively. According to our previous classification scheme, the present films can be well classified into three types: t
Figure 8(a) shows the results of spectra of
The spectra of
Except for sample K with a maximum value of
Figure 9 shows the comparisons of
Comparison of
Table 4 shows the
Sample | Type | Optical model | Volume fraction (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C( | C( | Void | BEMA | NEXAFS | |||
#01 | I | c | 77 | 23 | – | 0.77 | 0.65 |
#02 | I | c | 70 | 30 | – | 0.70 | 0.58 |
#03 | I | c | 72 | 28 | – | 0.72 | 0.71 |
#04 | II or III | d | 39 | 61 | – | 0.39 | 0.49 |
#05 | II or III | f | 26 | 65 | 9 | 0.29 | 0.38 |
#06 | II or III | d | 32 | 68 | – | 0.32 | 0.47 |
#07 | II or IV | e | 34 | 42 | 24 | 0.44 | 0.50 |
#08 | II or IV | e | 39 | 39 | 22 | 0.50 | 0.57 |
#09 | IV | h | 33 | 35 | 32 (PE) | 0.49 | 0.29 |
#10 | VI | k | 68 (PE) | 24 | 8 | 0.74 | 0.42 |
#11 | IV | f | 21 | 58 | 21 | 0.27 | 0.38 |
#12 | IV | e | 7 | 54 | 40 | 0.11 | 0.42 |
#13 | VI | k | 49 (PE) | 34 | 17 | 0.59 | 0.44 |
Volume fraction and
Figure 10(a) shows the relationship between the present classification scheme based on
The relationship of (a)
We analyzed various types of DLC films with different structure and hydrogen contents in the range of 0.3–42% fabricated by FCVA, sputtering, ECRCVD, and PECVD techniques. The structural analysis of a variety of DLC films was performed by using a combination of SE, BEMA, RBS/ERDA, NEXAFS, and XRR. In part one, from the comparisons of the density (
The rapid global economic growth and population explosion resulted in increased consumption of nonrenewable energy resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas which not only reduces these fossil fuels sources but also leads to major global environmental issues like CO2 emission, and global warming and air pollution. If the world energy requirements totally depend on fossil fuel which is continuously exhausting will results in energy crisis in the near future. To minimize the reliance on fossil fuels for energy production, the development of renewable energy resources and the enrichment of energy efficiency have been deliberated as the alternative strategy that could be adopted [1, 2]. The scientific development of thermal energy storage by utilizing phase change materials (PCMs) to store latent heat has been considered as a worthy solution for reducing the worldwide energy scarcity as these materials provide viable ways of keeping thermal energy and offering reliable energy management by controllable heat release in suitable environments [3]. PCMs are a class of heat storage materials, able to absorb and release sufficient amounts of latent-heat energy at a constant temperature when a state change occurs from a solid form to the liquid one and vice-versa. In addition to higher thermal energy-storage density compared to conventional heat-storage materials, PCMs can bridge the gap between energy availability and energy use to reduce energy waste [4].
The application of PCMs as a means of thermal-energy storage has been practiced since 1970s, and PCMs have been developed and designed to fulfill the desired requirements. Nowadays, PCMs have not been only applied in renewable energy effective utilization such as solar thermal energy and low-temperature waste heat utilization but also used for thermal regulation and thermal management in the fields of photovoltaic-thermoelectric systems, temperature-sensitive electronic parts or devices requiring cool or thermal protection, biological products or pharmaceutical needing cool storage, smart fibers and textiles with a thermoregulatory function, telecom shelters in tropical regions, thermal buffering of Li-ion batteries, energy-saving buildings, thermal comfort in vehicles, etc. [5].
Though PCMs due to their desirable properties is widely used in both domestic and industrial areas in recent years, their phase transition brings some difficulties during their application for thermal energy storage and management. After fusion PCMs are converted to low viscous liquids which can then easily diffuse or flow over other materials and thus cause difficulty in handling the process in the liquid state [6]. Other problems associated with the commonly used PCMs include the need of using special latent heat devices, the hysteresis of thermal response due to low thermal conductivity and supercooling, the poor heat transfer during the charging and recovery processes, absorb moisture from the atmosphere or lose water through evaporation, the leakage and loss of PCMs, etc. [7]. Due to these problems, pristine PCMs are generally not recommended for thermal energy storage applications. To avoid the problem, microencapsulation technology was introduced which involves the packing/encapsulation of PCMs into tiny closed ampules that not only protect the liquid PCMs from the interference and interaction of the surrounding materials but also give them a stable form in the liquid state. The product obtained as a result of this packing technology was named microcapsule. The microcapsules which pack the PCM core individually with a firm shell can, therefore, handle even liquids as a solid material [8]. Additionally, the development of a microcapsule shell provides a large heat transfer surface to the encapsulated PCMs and hence considerably increases the heat transfer and thermal response [9]. Thus, microencapsulation of PCMs has been accepted as a more consistent technology for liquid PCMs compare to form stable composite PCMs. Microencapsulation technology of solid–liquid PCMs has received great attention for over 20 years, and several studies can be found in the literature on this topic [10]. Usually, the microencapsulated PCMs could be prepared by making a polymeric shell via coacervation, in-situ polymerization, interfacial polymerization and suspension polymerization techniques, for which the commonly used shell materials include polyureas, poly (methyl methacrylate), melamine-formaldehyde resins, polystyrene, urea-formaldehyde resins, and bio-based polymers such as Arabic gum, agar and gelatin. Moreover, many inorganic materials such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), silica (SiO2), calcium carbonate and aluminum oxide have been reported in the recent literature that could also be used as shell materials for encapsulating PCMs [11, 12, 13]. These inorganic shells have shown much higher mechanical strength and rigidity than the polymeric ones and can form a much more secure barrier around PCMs to protect them from damaging interaction with the environment.
Currently, the researchers are interested in the design and development of multifunctional microencapsulated PCMs. One of the potential approaches to achieve the additional functionality involve the use of inorganic functional shell assembly on the microencapsulated PCM core. In this way, not only the additional functions for microencapsulated PCMs along with the wall materials is achieved but also allows the establishment of signal or multilayered shells with various designed functions. Pointing at the high-tech designs and versatile applications of microencapsulated PCMs for thermal energy storage and thermal management, this chapter provides a reliable source of information on recent progress and development in microencapsulation technology for solid–liquid PCMs and especially introduces the diverse designs for PCMs-based microcapsules with various special functions. Moreover, a thorough analysis of the trend in the development and applications of microencapsulated PCMs is also presented. The chapter also highlights the design of bi- and multi-functional PCM-based microcapsules by fabricating various functional shells in a multilayered structure to offer a great potential to meet the growing demand for versatile applications.
PCMs due to their higher latent heat values can store and release a large amount of heat energy during melting and solidifying processes [14]. These materials have been thought to act as a storage medium with numerous applications such as cooling of food products, buildings, textiles, solar systems, spacecraft thermal systems and waste heat recovery systems [15]. On the basis of phase conversion PCMs are categorized into solid–liquid, solid–solid, solid–gas and liquid–gas [1]. Among these categories, solid–liquid PCMs due to their high density, favorable phase equilibrium, minor volume changes and low vapor pressure at the operating temperature during phase transition are more suitable for thermal energy storage systems. Furthermore, solid–liquid PCMs show little or no subcooling during freezing, melting/freezing at the same temperature and phase separation, and sufficient crystallization rate.
PCMs possess high chemical stability, nontoxic, nonexplosive and noncorrosive nature, do not undergo degradation after long-term thermal cycles, and have good chemical properties capable of completing reversible freezing/melting cycle [6]. Solid–liquid PCMs can be divided into three major types: (a) organic PCMs (b) inorganic PCMs and (c) eutectic PCMs [16]. Organic PCMs include paraffin and nonparaffin (alcohols, fatty acids and glycols) materials [2]. Inorganic PCMs generally include salt hydrates, metallic compounds and metal alloys with the advantages of a broader range of transition temperature, high thermal conductivity and high latent heat storage capacity, low cost and nonflammable nature. In contrast, lack of thermal stability, phase segregation, supercooling, corrosion and decomposition, are problems that dominate their benefits [17]. Eutectic PCMs are the combination of two or more low melting components, each of which freezes and melts congruently to make a mixture of the components’ crystals upon crystallization [6]. Eutectic PCMs can be prepared for a specific application by mixing organic–organic, inorganic–inorganic, or a combination of the two PCMs at a given ratio. These PCMs have high thermal conductivity and density without segregation and supercooling, while their specific heat capacity and latent heat are much lower than those of paraffin/salt hydrates [18].
In recent years, microencapsulation of PCMs has been widely used to avoid the leakage and reaction of the PCMs with the surrounding environment during the solid–liquid phase transition.
Microencapsulation of PCMs can also be responsible for relatively constant volume, high thermal cycling stability and large heat transfer area for PCM-based thermal storage [19]. Shell/wall materials play a vital role in controlling various physical properties like morphology, mechanical and thermal properties of the produced microcapsules [7]. On the basis chemical nature shell material can be divided into three groups: (a) organic, (b) inorganic and (c) organic–inorganic hybrid materials [20].
Organic shell materials include synthetic and natural polymeric materials, which have excellent structural flexibility, good sealing properties and high resistance to the volume change associated with repeated phase transformations of PCMs [21]. The organic shell materials most frequently used consist of urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin [22], melamine-formaldehyde resin [23], and acrylic resin [24]. Many workers around the world used MF resin as the wall material due to its good chemical compatibility, low cost and thermal stability [25]. Mohaddes et al. effectively utilized MF as the shell material for encapsulation of
Microcapsules prepared by using organic polymeric shell materials are usually not suitable for application in some situations due to the low thermal conductivity, flammable nature and poor mechanical strength of the organic shell materials [30]. In recent years, inorganic shells due to their good thermal conductivity, high rigidity and high mechanical strength, have been progressively employed as an alternative shell material for microcapsule preparation [21]. The commonly used inorganic shell materials include Silica (SiO2) [31], zinc oxide (ZnO) [32], titanium dioxide (TiO2) [33] and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) [34].
Silica because of its fire resistance nature, high thermal conductivity and ease of preparation are one the most commonly used shell materials for encapsulation of fatty acids [35], paraffin waxes [34] and inorganic hydrated salts [36]. Liang et al. prepared nanocapsules by encapsulating
Metal oxides, like ZnO and TiO2, owing to their multifunctional properties including photochemical, catalytic and antibacterial characteristics are frequently used as shell materials to obtain PCM microcapsules with some remarkable characteristics. Li et al. synthesized multifunctional microcapsules with latent heat storage and photocatalytic and antibacterial properties by using ZnO as the shell material and
Organic–inorganic hybrid shells materials are used to overcome the shortcomings related to the individual organic or inorganic materials for encapsulating PCMs. In hybrid shells, organic materials offer structural flexibility while inorganic materials can improve thermal conductivity, thermal stability and mechanical rigidity [21]. Polymers (such as PMMA and PMF) based shells doped with SiO2 or TiO2 are extensively used to encapsulate PCMs [40]. Wang et al. prepared
Microencapsulation techniques are of several types which are broadly classified into three major categories on the basis of fabrication mechanism: (1) physical methods (2) chemical methods and (3) physico-chemical methods. All these techniques involve the formation of a solid shell/coat around small liquid or solid particles of 1–100 μm diameter to accomplish the desired properties such as, protection competency, time-dependent release of material, provision of the substance to the particular target, minimize interaction with the environment, corrosion prevention, steadiness of function and to facilitate the use of toxic materials. The microencapsulation of PCMs is a special packaging methodology in which solid–liquid PCMs can be enclosed in some wall materials by using physical or chemical process to make small particles termed ‘microcapsules’ [44]. The PCM in a microcapsule is named as the core material while the outer shell which encloses the PCM from the surrounding environment is called the wall material. Microencapsulation as an emerging technology, commonly applied in many fields like thermal energy storage, medicine, food preservation, catalysis, dyes, textile, cosmetics, self-healing, coatings, engineering and defense [45]. A detailed classification of the microencapsulation methods is listed in Figure 1.
Major physical and chemical microencapsulation methods for solid–liquid PCMs.
Physical methods involve involves physical processes, like drying, dehydration and adhesion in the formation of microcapsule shells. The most frequently used physical methods for PCMs encapsulation are spray-drying and solvent evaporation. The spray-drying process can be accomplished in the following steps: (1) preparation of oil–water emulsion comprising PCMs and shell materials, (2) spraying of the oil–water emulsion in a drying chamber via an atomizer, (3) drying of the sprayed droplets by using a stream of drying gas at a particular temperature, and (4) separating the solid particles by cyclone and filter [46]. Borreguero et al. employed a spray drying method for microencapsulation of paraffin Rubitherm®RT27 core using polyethylene EVA shell with and without carbon nanofibers (CNFs) [47]. The CNFs addition improved the thermal conductivity and mechanical strength of microcapsules, and the heat storage capability was retained. Also, the DSC analysis shown that even after the 3000- thermal charge/discharge cycles the microcapsules still had good thermal stability. Hawlader et al. synthesized spherical shape and uniform size microcapsule with paraffin core and gelatin and Arabic gum using spray-drying method [48]. The microcapsules prepared at the core-to-shell ratio of 2:1 have heat storage and release capacity reached 216.44 J/g and 221.217 J/g, respectively.
The solvent evaporation method includes: (1) preparation of polymer solution by dissolving shell materials in a volatile solvent; (2) addition of PCMs to the polymer solution to form O/W emulsion; (3) developing shells on the droplets by evaporating the solvent; (4) filtration and drying to obtaining the microcapsules. Lin et al. encapsulated myristic acid (MA) with ethyl cellulose (EC) using the solvent evaporation method [49]. The melting and solidifying temperatures were observed to be 53.32°C and 44.44°C, while the melting and solidifying enthalpies were found 122.61 J/g and 104.24 J/g, respectively. Wang et al. applied the solvent evaporation method to synthesize high-performance microcapsules by using sodium phosphate dodecahydrate (DSP) as the core and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) as the shell [50]. The optimal preparation temperature for the microencapsulation process was 80–90°C, reaction time 240 min, and stirring rate 900 rpm. The microcapsules obtained had an energy storage capacity of 142.9 J/g at the endothermic peak temperature of 51.5°C.
In chemical methods, microencapsulation is done by the polymerization or condensation of monomers, oligomers, or prepolymers as raw materials to form shells at an oil–water interface. The chemical methods mostly involve in-situ polymerization, suspension polymerization, interfacial polymerization, and emulsion polymerization. The schematic diagrams of these four polymerization methods are shown in Figure 2. In situ polymerization method (Figure 2(a)), involves the formation of a shell on the surface of the droplet by polymerization of the prepolymers which can be accomplished in the following steps [52]: (1) preparation of the O/W emulsion by adding PCMs to surfactant aqueous solution; (2) preparation of a prepolymer solution; (3) addition of the prepolymer solution to the O/W emulsion, followed by adjusting the appropriate reaction conditions; and (4) microcapsule synthesis. Konuklu et al. successfully utilized in situ polymerization method for microencapsulation of decanoic acid using poly(urea-formaldehyde) (PUF), poly(melamine-formaldehyde) (PMF), and poly(melamine urea-formaldehyde) (PMUF) [53]. The microcapsules obtained by coating of PUF displayed higher heat storage capacity but weaker mechanical strength and lower heat resistance, while the microcapsules coated with PMF shells had higher thermal stability but lower thermal energy storage capacity. However, the PMUF-encapsulated microcapsules possessed seamless thermal stability and no leakage was found at 95°C. Zhang et al. utilized in situ polycondensation method for synthesizing dual-functional microcapsules containing
Schematic diagrams of chemical methods for PCMs microencapsulation: (a) in situ polymerization, (b) interfacial polymerization, (c) suspension polymerization, and (d) emulsion polymerization [
Interfacial polymerization is used in the preparation of organic shell materials such as polyurea and polyurethane. In this method, two reactive monomers are separately dissolved in the oil phase and the aqueous phase, then in the presence of an initiator polymerization occurs at the oil–water interface as shown in Figure 2(b). This method includes the following steps: (1) preparation of an O/W emulsion having hydrophobic monomer and PCMs; (2) addition of the hydrophilic monomer under proper conditions to initiate polymerization; (3) filtration, washing, and drying to get microcapsules. Ma et al. successfully used the interfacial polymerization method for microencapsulation of binary core materials like butyl stearate (BS) and paraffin with polyurea/polyurethane as the shell material [56]. The microcapsules phase change temperature was adjusted by changing the ratio of the two core materials. The microcapsules obtained possessed high thermal stability. Lu et al. encapsulated the butyl stearate core with a polyurethane-based cross-linked network shell via interfacial polymerization [57].
In the suspension polymerization method, the dispersed droplets of PCMs, monomers and initiators are suspended in a continuous aqueous phase by using surfactants and mechanical stirring. The oil-soluble initiator free radicals are then released into the emulsion system to initiate polymerization of the monomers at a suitable temperature and stirring rate [46], as presented in Figure 2(c). Wang et al. successfully employed the suspension polymerization method to encapsulate
In emulsion polymerization (Figure 2(d)), first, the PCMs and monomers dispersed phase is suspended in a continuous phase in the presence of surfactants at constant stirring, followed by the addition of water-solution initiators to start the polymerization process [61]. This method is used to prepare microcapsule shells by polymerizing organic materials like PMMA and polystyrene. Şahan et al. encapsulated stearic acid (SA) with poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and four other PMMA-hybrid shell materials via emulsion polymerization technique [62]. The average diameter of microcapsules so obtained was found to be 110–360
In the physical–chemical method, microencapsulation is accomplished by combining the physical processes like phase separation, heating and cooling, with chemical processes, like hydrolysis, cross-linking and condensation. Normally, the coacervation and sol–gel methods are the most frequently employed methods. The coacervation method is of two types, one is single coacervation which requires only one type of shell material and the other is complex coacervation which requires two kinds of opposite-charged shell materials for microcapsules preparation. The microcapsules synthesized by the complex coacervation method usually have a more uniform size, better morphology and stability.
The complex coacervation processes involve the following key steps: (1) formation of emulsion by dispersing PCMs in polymer aqueous solution; (2) addition of a second aqueous polymer solution with opposite charges and deposition of shell material on droplet surface by electrostatic attraction and (3) Getting of microcapsules by cross-linking, desolation or thermal treatment. Hawlader et al. encapsulated paraffin cores with gelatin and acacia by using a complex coacervation process [48]. The melting and solidifying enthalpies of microcapsules obtained reached 239.78 J/g and 234.05 J/g, respectively, when the amount of cross-linking agent was 6–8 ml, homogenizing time was 10 min, and the ratio of core to the shell was 2:1. Onder et al. employed complex coacervation to microencapsulate
The sol–gel method is a cheap and mild process for synthesizing PCMs microcapsules by inorganic shells, such as SiO2 and TiO2 shells. The major steps involved in the preparation of microcapsule by the sol–gel method are as follows: (1) preparation of colloidal solution by uniformly dispersing the reactive materials like PCMs, precursor, solvent and emulsifier in a continuous phase via hydrolysis reaction; (2) formation of a three-dimensional network structured gel system through condensation polymerization of monomers and (3) drying, sintering and curing processes to obtain microcapsules [65]. Cao et al. used the sol–gel process to microencapsulate paraffin core with TiO2 shells. They found that the sample with a microencapsulation ratio of 85.5% had melting and solidifying latent heat of 161.1 kJ/kg (at the melting temperature of 58.8°C) and 144.6 kJ/kg (at the solidifying temperature of 56.5°C), respectively [66]. Latibari et al. successfully employed the sol–gel method to synthesize nanocapsules containing palmitic acid (PA) core with SiO2 shell by controlling solution pH [67]. The nanocapsule obtained presented an average particle size of 183.7, 466.4 and 722.5 nm, at pH 11, 11.5 and 12, respectively, and the corresponding melting latent heats values of 168.16, 172.16 and 180.91 kJ/kg, respectively.
Microencapsulation with conventional polymeric, inorganic or composite shells can provide only protection for the PCM core, but at the same time, these inert wall materials cause a reduction in their latent heat-storage capacities which make them unsuitable for thermal energy storage and thermal management systems. In view of that various inorganic materials have a feature of functional diversity, it will be possible to synthesize bi-function PCMs-based microcapsules by encapsulating the PCM core with a functional inorganic shell. This idea was first used by Fei et al. [68] and successfully synthesized a novel multi-functional microcapsules based on an anatase TiO2 shell and
In recent years due to the fast development in microencapsulation technology, a large number of innovative designs have been introduced for fabricating bi- or multi-functional PCMs-based microcapsules. Jiang et al. [73] designed magnetic PCM-based microcapsules as an applied energy microsystem for bio-applications as thermoregulatory enzyme carriers. They synthesized the magnetic microcapsules by encapsulating
Choi et al. [75] designed a novel, temperature-sensitive drug release system based on PCMs. They first prepared the gelatin nanoparticles containing fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran as a drug via emulsification technique, and then 1-tetradecanol was used to synthesize the PCM-matrix microbeads containing these gelatin nanoparticles by using a simple fluidic device based on an O/W emulsion. Moreover, Wang et al. [58] designed and synthesized thermochromic microencapsulated PCM by encapsulating
Geng et al. [76] designed a three-component core consisting of 1-tetradecanol as a PCM, leuco dye and phenolic color developer as an electron donor and fabricated reversible thermochromic microcapsules for application in thermal protective clothing. They encapsulated the three-component core with a poly (methylated melamine-formaldehyde) (PMMF) shell via emulsion-templated copolymerization. The as synthesized microcapsules exhibited thermochromic reversibility with good energy storage/release capability and have a great potential for applications in thermal protective clothing of firefighters as well as intelligent textiles or fabrics, food and medicine package and so on. Wu et al. [77] synthesized reversible thermochromic microcapsules by encapsulating 1-hexadecanol with modified gelatin and gum Arabic via a complex coacervation process. The wall materials of this microcapsule system were fused with 2-phenylamino-3-methyl-6-di-
Microencapsulated PCMs due to their unique properties such as solid-to-liquid phase transition, chemical and thermal stability and higher amount of energetic changes, has received special attention for their applications in in our ordinary daily life and various industries. In recent years, PCMs have been designed and fabricated to meet the requirements around the world. The potential applications of PCM microcapsules are shown in Figure 3, and discussed as bellows:
Potential applications of PCMs microcapsules.
In textile industries, microencapsulated PCMs are embedded within the fibers or coated onto the surface of fabrics which are used in the preparations of outdoor dress such as snowsuits, trousers, gloves, ear warmers and boots etc. The microencapsulated PCMs enhance the thermal storage capacities of the fibers/fabrics (2.5–4.5 times) and thus protect from extremely cold weather [46]. Microencapsulation is a promising technology for applications in the textile industry such as agriculture textiles, medical textiles automotive textiles and sportswear/protective clothing. Scacchetti et al. explored the thermal and antimicrobial properties of cotton with silver zeolites functionalized via a chitosanzeolite composite and microcapsules of PCMs [79]. They suggested the use of chitosan zeolite for the production of textiles for superior antibacterial and thermoregulating properties. Microencapsulated PCMs increase the flame-retardant property thermal and comfort of the textiles, as these PCM microcapsules were scattered homogeneously onto textile substrates and were durable with repeated washings [80].
PCM microcapsules with high latent heat are used in the slurry industry as an enhanced heat transfer fluid (HTF) and a thermal storage medium (TSM). Song et al. considered laminar heat transfer of PCM microcapsules slurry and proved that the heat transfer coefficient improved with increasing Reynolds number and volume concentration of microcapsules [81]. Roberts et al. compared the heat transfer capability of metal-coated and nonmetal-coated PCM microcapsules slurry and noticed an additional 10% increment in heat transfer coefficient and PCM microcapsules inducing pressure drop in slurry [82]. Zhang and Niu reported higher thermal storage capacity for PCM microcapsules slurry storage devices and stratified water storage tanks [83]. Xu et al. prepared PCM microcapsules with Cu-Cu2O/CNTs shell and their dispersed slurry for direct absorption solar collectors [84]. They reported that the PCMs@Cu-Cu2O/CNTs microcapsule slurry had high heat storage competency and outstanding photothermal conversion performance which made it as one of the most potential HTFs for direct absorption solar collector.
Another amazing application of PCM microcapsules is their utilization in building materials to overcome overheating problems in summer and provided a new effective solution for thermal management and energy saving in buildings. The PCM microcapsules in construction materials boost the thermal and acoustic insulation of walls. Usually, the PCM microcapsules are embedded into concrete mixtures, cement mortar, gypsum plaster, wallboards, sandwich, slabs, panels and to fulfill the energy demand of the building for heating, cooling, lighting, air conditioning, ventilation and domestic hot water systems [85]. Many researchers around the world worked on the application of PCMs microcapsules in the building industry. Cabeza et al. reported an innovative concrete material with high thermal properties by mixing it with PCM microcapsules [86]. It was found that the concrete wall with PCM microcapsules increase its overall mechanical resistance and stiffness and causes even temperature fluctuations and thermal inertia, making it to be a promising technology to save energy for buildings [87]. Su et al. studied nano-silicon dioxide hydrosol as the surfactant for the preparation of PCM microcapsules for thermal energy storage in buildings [88]. Essid et al. investigated the compressive strength and hygric properties of microencapsulated PCMs concretes [89]. They reported that the use of concrete containing PCM microcapsules as structural material is sufficiently safe, though its compressive strength is lower and porosity is higher than the pure concrete. Schossig et al. [90] directly integrated formaldehyde-free microencapsulated paraffins in building materials and studied their effect for application in conventional construction materials. They observed that the utilization of these PCMs microcapsule could help to keep the indoor temperature up to 4°C lower than typical conditions and could reduce the number of hours that the indoor temperature was greater than 28°C.
The application of microencapsulated PCMs in foams can enhance their thermal insulating efficiency. Borreguero et al. reported that the thermal energy storage capacity of rigid polyurethane foams was improved when it was embedded with PCM microcapsules investigated rigid polyurethane foams containing and indicated that improved [91]. Li et al. introduced a new approach to enhancing the latent heat energy storage ability by embedding PCM microcapsules in metal foam [92]. They observed that compared to the surface temperature of virgin PCM modules, the surface temperature for the PCM microcapsule/foam and PCM/foam composite modules was reduced from about 90 to 55 and 45°C, respectively. PCM microcapsule/foam composites solved the problem of low thermal conductivity and leakage. Bonadies et al. synthesized poly(vinyl alcohol)- (PVA-) based foams containing PCM microcapsules and investigated their thermal storage and dimensional stability [93]. They observed that the formation of crystalline domain and amount of water uptake was influenced by microcapsules which in turn affected the number of intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds as many PVA –OH groups interact with microcapsule shells.
There are many other potential applications of PCM microcapsules. These include biomedical applications, solar-to-thermal energy storage and electrical-to-thermal energy storage [65]. Zang et al. prepared multifunctional microencapsulated PCMs that can be used for sterilization [94]. They reported that these microcapsules have high antibacterial activity against
Microencapsulation is a promising technology to fabricate PCM microcapsules for thermal energy storage and other versatile applications. Microencapsulation technology not only overcome the problem of leakage, volatilization and handling the difficulty of liquids PCMs but also improve the heat transferring ability of PCMs and thus makes them a favorable means for many broad range of applications. The thermal, physical, chemical and mechanical properties of PCM microcapsules are highly dependent on the type of the core materials, shell materials and synthesis processes. Encapsulation with inorganic shells can provide more advantages for microencapsulated PCMs and therefore will gain much more attention from fundamental research to commercial development in the future. The designing parameters, such as weight ratio of raw materials for core and shell, the selection of dispersion medium, reaction temperature, time, agitation speed, particles size and its distribution and other additives should be carefully addressed to obtain PCMs microcapsules with well-defined core-shell structured and good thermal energy-storage capability. Though PCM microcapsules are considered smart thermal energy storage materials, still much more new materials and synthetic techniques are to be explored to offer numerous possibilities for the design and fabrication of innovative bi- and multi-functional PCMs microcapsules with better properties and functions than the traditional ones.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Its uses have recorded good success rate in controlling major plant diseases. Knowledge on the mechanisms employed by Trichoderma spp. could be further studied to improve its ability as an efficient biocontrol agent. The Trichoderma ability to curb plant diseases were mainly based on the activation of single or multiple control mechanisms. It is known that the Trichoderma-based biocontrol mechanisms mainly rely on mycoparasitism, production of antibiotic and/or hydrolytic enzymes, competition for nutrients, as well as induced plant resistance; numerous secondary metabolites produced by Trichoderma species could directly inhibit the growth of several plant pathogens. These mechanisms may act directly or indirectly against the targeted plant pathogen. This chapter reviews the recent updates on published research findings on mechanisms used by Trichoderma as biological control of plant diseases particularly on basal stem rot disease of oil palm caused by Ganoderma spp.",book:{id:"8081",slug:"trichoderma-the-most-widely-used-fungicide",title:"Trichoderma",fullTitle:"Trichoderma - The Most Widely Used Fungicide"},signatures:"Syed Ali Nusaibah and Habu Musa",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"366",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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