\r\n\tThe formation and development of seagrass meadows take many years. Among all the plant habitats in the world, the most carbon storage feature belongs to seagrass with 2000 tons/ha. Posidonia oceanica is the most important seagrass species for primary production and is endemic to the Mediterranean. This species is a perennial herb that spreads to a depth of 45 meters on the Mediterranean coast and can live up to 30 years. Their presence is indicative of clean seas.
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Nanomedicine is an innovative research field combining nanotechnology and medicine, radically changing the healthcare drug delivery scenario, in particular in the cancer treatment [1]. The application of nanotechnology in the cancer therapy is expected to solve a number of issues associated with conventional therapeutic agents, including lack of targeting capability, nonspecific distribution, systemic toxicity, and low therapeutic index [2, 3]. Nanotechnology has provided the opportunity to get direct access to the cancerous cells selectively with increased drug localization and cellular uptake, making the therapy more patients’ compliant, efficient, and painless. Moreover, nano-based systems allow delivery of poor water-soluble molecules (e.g., most of the anticancer drugs) difficult to administer and can also protect the new therapeutics molecules, such as oligonucleotide analogs (e.g., siRNA) from degradation, preserving their therapeutic efficacy while in the blood circulation [3, 4]. Thus, the aim of nanomedicine in cancer therapy is the production of nanoparticles (NPs) able to deliver a drug to a specific site enhancing local drug molecules accumulation and reducing systemic toxicity [5–7]. Different types of organic and inorganic NPs including liposomes, micelles, nanotubes, and porous silicon (PSi) nanostructures have already been investigated for drug delivery purposes [8–13]. In particular, PSi is one of the most inorganic material used in biomedicine due to its unique properties such as high-specific surface area, tunable pores size, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, high loading capability, controllable dissolution kinetic [1, 14, 15]. Moreover, PSi surface can be easily modified using well-known silane and silanol chemistries in order to incorporate gold and magnetic NPs giving to the hybrid complex (i.e., PSi nanocarrier + metallic or magnetic NP) additional diagnostic and therapeutic functions [16].
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In recent years, diatomite, a natural porous silica-based material with similar physico-chemical properties to man-made fabricated PSi, has been suggested as feasible alternative to synthetic porous media for biomedical applications [17–20]. Diatomite is a compound of sedimentary origin formed by remains of diatoms deposited on the bottom of seas or lakes [21, 22]. Due to its peculiar properties including highly ordered pore structure, high-specific surface area, modifiable surface chemistry, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, low cost, optical, and photonic properties, diatomite has been used in different applications ranging from optics and photonics to biosensing [23–27]. Despite these properties and the recognition by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for foods and pharmaceuticals production, its use in nanomedicine is still surprisingly undervalued [28]. Recently, diatomite has been explored as microcapsules for oral drug delivery resulting in a non-cytotoxic biomaterial with high potential to improve the bioavailability of loaded oral drugs [20]. To date, there is only one manuscript on the intravenous injection of diatomite microparticles into mice, which investigates the biodistribution and tissue damage of this material. This study demonstrated that none of the animals exhibited any observable abnormalities in the major organs after diatomite injections [29]. Over the last few years, diatomite frustules reduced to nanoparticles have been explored as potential nanocarriers for biomedical applications [30, 31].
\n
In this chapter, the properties of diatomite nanoparticles as non-toxic nanocarriers are described. Different surface functionalization strategies performed in order to transport molecules inside cancer cells and to improve diatomite NPs biocompatibility and cellular internalization are summarized. Preliminary studies of in vivo toxicity are also reported.
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\n
\n
2. Diatomite nanoparticles (DNPs)
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Diatomite is a material of sedimentary origin, formed by siliceous skeleton (called “frustule”) of diatoms, unicellular microalgae, deposited on the bottom of seas, or lakes over centuries. Due to the presence of diatom frustules with different size (ranging from 2 μm to 2 mm) and shape, diatomite morphology can be very complicated (Figure 1) [32, 33].
\n
Figure 1.
Diatoms by Ernst Haeckel in ‘Kunstformen der Natur’ 1904 (Reproduced from Ref. [32]).
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Diatomite is characterized by highly porous structure with a large specific surface area up to 200 m2/g [34]. Its fundamental constituent is amorphous silicon dioxide, even if it can contain organic and metallic impurities (e.g., MgO, Al2O3, Fe2O3) coming from environment [35, 36]. Several processes, including calcination and hot acid treatments, have been developed in order to remove these contaminations from frustules [37, 38].
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The abundance in many areas of the world and the peculiar physico-chemical properties (e.g., chemical stability, non-toxicity) made diatomite an intriguing material for several applications ranging from food production to pharmaceutics [39–41].
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In recent years, diatom frustules have been investigated as porous platform in several innovative biotechnological applications [42, 43]; the silica surface of diatoms can be easily modified with different functional groups (–SH, –NH2, –COOH,) for the immobilization of biomolecular probes (DNA, proteins, antibodies) using the reactive silanol (Si–OH) groups present on it [44]. Recent works reported the surface chemical modification of a marine diatom with an antibody used as bioprobe; photoluminescence and fluorescence microscopy were used in order to investigate the antibody-antigen molecular recognition [45, 46]. Figure 2 shows an image of marine diatom Coscinodiscus wailesii functionalized with an antibody after the interaction with the corresponding rhodamine labeled antigen; the dose-response curve of biosensor (i.e., diatom platform + antibody) is also reported [45].
\n
Figure 2.
(A) Image of diatom frustules after the interaction between an antibody, covalently linked on them, and the corresponding rhodamine labeled antigen. (B) Fluorescence intensity versus antigen concentration (Reproduced from Ref. [45]).
\n
Although diatomite, produced in tons by mining industry, is a cheaper material compared to diatom frustules, it is still scarcely used in biomedical applications. Recent pioneering papers demonstrated the use of diatomite silica microshells as microcapsules for oral drug delivery [17, 20, 47]. For example, indomethacin, an anti-inflammatory drug poorly soluble in water was explored as model drug in experiments of drug loading and release [18].
\n
More recent works explored the possibility to obtain NPs with a diameter less than 300 nm from micrometric diatomite powder by means of a process based on mechanical crushing, sonication, and filtering [30]. The size reduction is fundamental in drug delivery applications in order to optimize the cellular uptake of particles.
\n
The process for diatomite nanoparticles (DNPs) fabrication is briefly described as follows. About 5 g of diatomite powder was dissolved in 250 ml of absolute ethanol and sonicated for 5 h in order to break up macroscopic aggregates. The dispersion was then filtered through a nylon net filter with pore size of 41 μm (Millipore). In order to remove the organic and inorganic contaminants [34, 36] from natural diatomite, purification treatments were performed: the diatomite dispersion was then centrifuged and the pellet suspended in piranha solution (2 M H2SO4, 10% H2O2) for 30 min at 80°C. Dispersion was again centrifuged for 30 min at 13,500 rpm, and the supernatant removed. Next, diatomite was washed twice with deionized water. 5.0 M HCl solution was then added to diatomite and incubated over night at 80°C. After HCl incubation, the diatomite dispersion was centrifuged for 30 min and the supernatant removed. The pellet was then washed twice with deionized water in order to remove the excess of HCl.
\n
Figure 3.
(A) SEM images of diatomite frustules before size reduction treatments and corresponding histogram of particles size distribution. (B) SEM images of diatomite particles after size reduction and corresponding histogram of particles size.
\n
Figure 3 shows the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of diatomite fragments before (A) and after (B) size reduction. Before treatments, diatomite was composed by fragments with circular, elliptical, elongated, and squared shape. The histogram of particle size showed dimensions distribution ranging from few microns up to about 40 μm with an average maximum size of 7 μm. From these images, it was also possible to appreciate the porous morphology of diatomite useful for drug loading. Morphological characterization, performed after size reduction and purification, revealed the presence of diatomite fragments with different shape and size distribution, ranging from few nanometers to about 1 μm, with an average maximum size of 250 nm. Size of polydispersity can be reduced performing more filtration steps using filters of 0.45 μm. After nanometric size reduction, it is still possible to observe the porous structure of the NPs with pores of about 40 nm in size.
\n
Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis was used in order to investigate size and surface charge of the purified diatomite NPs in water (pH = 7). Figure 4 shows size and zeta-potential distributions with average values of 220 ± 90 nm and −19 ± 5 mV, respectively. The negative value of zeta potential is due to Si–OH groups present on the surface of DNPs after piranha treatment.
\n
Figure 4.
Size (A) and zeta-potential (B) distributions of diatomite nanoparticles in water (pH = 7) (Reproduced from Ref. [30]).
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A critical issue for biomedical applications of new drug delivery nanocarriers is the evaluation of their potential toxicity and biocompatibility [17, 48, 49]. In vitro cytotoxicity of DNPs can be evaluated by a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, a method based on the reduction of MTT by cellular oxidoreductases of viable cells that yield the formation of crystalline blue formazan. Human lung epidermoid carcinoma (H1355) cells were used as an in vitro cell model to test the cytotoxicity of DNPs. H1355 cells were incubated with different concentrations of diatomite NPs for 24, 48, and 72 h. The obtained results are shown in Figure 5. H1355 cells exposed to increasing NP concentrations (20, 100, 200 and 300 µg/ml) show an average viability lower than 100%, demonstrating a very low toxicity of NPs and confirming their potentialities as nanovectors in nanomedicine [50, 51].
\n
Figure 5.
Cytotoxicity assessment of DNPs using MTT assay. Cell viability of H1355 cells treated with 20, 100, 200, and 300 µg/ml of nanoparticles for 24, 48, and 72 h at 37°C. Data represent the mean ± s.d. (n = 3). Cell viability was expressed as the percentage of viable cells compared with cells cultured without NPs as control (100%) (Reproduced from Ref. [31]).
\n
\n
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3. siRNA delivery by DNPs inside cancer cells
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Small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA) is a powerful approach for silencing genes associated with a variety of pathologic conditions, but its systemic delivery is inefficient due to the difficulty to penetrate the cell membrane [52, 53]. siRNA conjugation to nanovectors (e.g., liposomes, gold and magnetic NPs, quantum dots) is one of the possible strategies developed to overcome this challenging problem [54, 55]. DNPs have been shown as potential nanocarriers for siRNA transport inside cancer cells and gene expression silencing [31].
\n
siRNA* (labeled with Dy547), complexed with a poly-D-Arg peptide, was loaded onto DNPs following the functionalization procedure sketched in Figure 6. Briefly, (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES)-functionalized diatomite reacts with N-(γ -maleimidobutyryloxy) sulfosuccinimide (NHS) ester (sulfo-GMBS), a water-soluble amine-to-sulfhydryl crosslinker that contains NHS-ester and maleimide reactive groups at opposite ends of a short spacer arm that allow covalent conjugation of amine-(diatomite surface) and sulfhydryl-containing molecules (peptide). A poly-arginine peptide and a nonpolar homopeptide, used as negative control, were used in a molar nitrogen/phosphate ratio of 20:1, previously described as optimal condition to form a stable complex with siRNA [31].
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Figure 6.
Functionalization scheme of diatomite frustules with labeled siRNA (siRNA*) (Reproduced from Ref. [31]).
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In order to study the uptake and intracellular localization of the nanoparticles, H1355 cells (50 × 103/coverslip) were incubated with 300 μg/ml of siRNA* modified DNPs (DNPs-siRNA*) for 24 h. A representative confocal microscopy acquisition was reported in Figure 7.
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Figure 7.
Confocal microscopy on cells treated with siRNA*-modified diatomite nanovectors (first line) and untreated cells as control (second line). Cell nuclei and membranes were stained with Hoechst 33342 and WGA-Alexa Fluor 488, respectively. siRNA was labeled with Dy547. Scale bar corresponds to 20 μm.
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Cell nuclei were stained with Hoechst 33342 (blue), whereas WGA-Alexa Fluor 488 (green) and Dy547 (red) were used to stain cell membranes and siRNA, respectively. In Figure 7, the cytoplasmic localization of DNPs-siRNA* is well evident and it was observed as both spots and diffuse signal [56–59]; no red fluorescence was found inside the nuclei. The efficiency of DNPs-siRNA* internalization was quantified by fluorescence microscopy: counting the number of red fluorescent cells and the total number of cells (determined in bright field), a ratio of about 75% was calculated.
\n
The capability of a siRNA direct toward glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), conjugated on DNPs, to determine gene knockdown, was evaluated by Western blot analysis; a scramble (SCR) siRNA was used as negative control. A conventional transfection method (Lipofectamine 2000) was carried out to compare the two siRNA uptake systems [31].
\n
The obtained results are showed in Figure 8. The densitometric analysis of the bands (Panel B) shows a decrease in the GAPDH protein expression (Panel A, upper gel) of about 22% (lane 2) after 48 h incubation at 37°C with respect to control and DNPs-SCR-siRNA-treated cells (lane 1 and lane 3, respectively). The analysis of GAPDH expression level when lipofectamine was used is reported in panels C and D; a down-regulation of about 20% is observed.
\n
Figure 8.
(A) Immunoblotting analysis of GAPDH (upper gel) and β-tubulin (lower gel) protein expression in DNPs-siRNA-treated cells. Lanes: (1) control cells; (2) DNPs-GAPDH-siRNA; (3) DNPs-SCR-siRNA. (B) Densitometric intensity band ratio of GAPDH and β-tubulin used as internal control. The intensities of the bands were expressed in arbitrary units. (C) Immunoblotting analysis of GAPDH (upper gel) and β-tubulin (lower gel) protein expression in lipofectamine-siRNA transfected cells. Lanes: (1) control cells; (2) GAPDH-siRNA; (3) SCR-siRNA. (D) Densitometric intensity band ratio of GAPDH and β-tubulin used as internal control. The intensities of bands were expressed in arbitrary units. Each measurement and Western blot were carried out in triplicate. Error bars indicate the maximum deviation from the mean value of two independent experiments (Reproduced from Ref. [31]).
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Nevertheless, the decrease in the protein expression obtained with the two delivery methods was comparable; the use of diatomite as nanovectors allows high stability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, together with high payloads of drugs, selective cell targeting, co-delivery of molecules functioning with a different mechanism of action (e.g., drugs and siRNA) and controlled release of active compounds at the molecular level.
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\n
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4. Dual-biofunctionalization of DNPs for enhanced stability, biocompatibility, and cellular internalization in cancer cells
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Figure 9.
(A) Schematic representation of the DNPs functionalization. Reaction I, the PEGylation of DNPs-APT (I) via EDC/NHS, under stirring overnight (ON) at room temperature. Reaction II, CPP-peptide bioconjugation of DNPs-APT-PEG via EDC/NHS, under stirring ON at room temperature. (B) ATR-FTIR spectra of DNPs before the biofunctionalization, after the silanization process, after the PEGylation, and also after the CPP-peptide bioconjugation. The a indicates CHx stretching vibration, b the bending mode of the free NH2, c the C–N stretching, d the C–H bending vibrations, and c-I and c-II N–H bending vibration, and the C–N stretching vibration, respectively.
\n
The small size, appropriate aqueous solution stability, biocompatibility, and cellular uptake are the most important characteristics of NPs as drug delivery systems. The PEGylation [i.e., the covalent attachment of poly(ethylene glycol)] of NPs has been frequently used in the design of drug nanocarriers, as a valid functionalization to improve physico-chemical properties of NPs such as the increase of their stability in aqueous medium reducing the nonspecific aggregation and improving biocompatibility, drug loading, and cellular internalization [60–62]. Moreover, an efficient approach to improve the NPs’ cellular uptake is to bind them to peptides that can cross the cellular membranes, enhancing their translocation inside the cells [63]. A valid strategy to improve the intracellular drug delivery of nanocarriers is their bioconjugation with cell-penetrating peptide (CPP), due to the CPP property to overcome the lipophilic barrier of the cellular membranes and deliver NPs inside the cells [64, 65]. PEGylation and CPP bioconjugation have been used as biofunctionalization strategies to improve the physico-chemical and biological properties of the DNPs, in order to enhance the intracellular uptake in cancer cells and to increase the biocompatibility of APTES modified-DNPs (DNPs-APT) [66]. The decoration of NPs’ surface with PEG chains was achieved via covalent bond between the carboxyl groups (–COOH) of PEG molecules and the amino groups (–NH2) of silanized DNPs using 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC)/NHS chemistry (Figure 9A, I) [30, 31]. Subsequently, the free amino groups of DNPs-APT-PEG were chemically conjugated with the carboxyl groups of CPP, by EDC/NHS chemistry (Figure 9A, II) [67].
\n\n
The improvement of the NPs’ stability in aqueous solutions was confirmed by hydrodynamic diameter, PDI, and surface charge ζ-potential measurements, before and after the DNPs’ surface modification. A progressive decrease of the nano-aggregates size from 364 ± 3 nm (DNPs-APT) to 346 ± 4 nm after PEGylation (DNPs-APT-PEG), and to 340 ± 8 nm after CPP-conjugation (DNPs-APT-PEG-CPP), was observed. This result is due to an increase of the DNPs surface repulsion forces of the modified surface (DNPs-bare,−19.2 ± 2.0 mV; DNPs-APT, +19.8 ± 3.0 mV; DNPs-APT-PEG, +35.6 ± 1.5 mV; DNPs-APT-PEG-CPP, +40 ± 2 mV), which can be attributed to the positive charge of PEG-peptide and CPP onto the NPs’ surface. The result of DNPs modification was also evaluated by attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR–FTIR). Figure 9B shows the progressive change of DNPs FTIR spectra after each modification step. After the silanization process, the DNPs-APT displayed the typical bands of APTES corresponded to the CHx stretching at 2941–2570 cm−1, the free NH2 bending mode at 1630–1470 cm−1, and the C–N stretching at 1385 cm−1 [68, 69]. After the PEGylation, the DNPs-APT-PEG showed the stretching bands of the CHx at 2960–2849 cm−1, the C–H bending vibrations at 2160–1722 cm−1, the amide I band at 1640 cm−1 associated with the C=O stretching vibration, the amide II resulted from the N–H bending vibration, and the C–N stretching vibration at 1580 and 1360 cm−1, respectively, thus confirming the covalent binding of the PEG molecules onto the NPs’ surface [69]. After incubation with the CPP-peptide, the DNPs-APT-PEG-CPP displayed a band of the CHx stretching at 2984–2881 cm−1, and the C–N stretching of amide II at 1930 cm−1, confirming the successful of CPP-peptide bioconjugation onto DNPs surface [69, 70].
\n
The hemocompatibility of NPs is of critical importance for their systemic administration as drug delivery systems, in order to avoid serious risks to human health [71, 72]. The effect of modified-DNPs on red blood cells (RBCs) was evaluated studing the % lysed RBCs and their morphology after exposure to the NPs at increasing incubation times (1, 4, 24, 34 and 48 h) and concentrations (25, 50, 100, and 200 μg/ml) [66, 73]. The NPs hemotoxicity was qualitatively determined by naked-eye color evaluation of RBCs’ supernatant incubated with modified-DNPs, observing an higher hemotoxicity degree of the DNPs-APT than PEG and CPP modified-DNPs, since the red color intensity of DNPs-APT-RBCs supernatant was closer to the positive control one (water), as shown in Figure 10A. The %-hemolysis determined by spectrophotometric analysis of the supernatants after 48 h incubation at the maximum concentration of modified-DNPs (200 µg/mL) was 34% for DNP-APT, 7% for DNP-PEG, and 1.3% for CPP-DNP, demonstrating that the dual-biofunctionalization improved the DNPs hemocompatibility (Figure 10B).
\n
Figure 10.
(A) Representative pictures of the RBCs after interaction with the modified-DNPs. The DNPs were incubated with the cells for 48 h and at different concentrations (25, 50, 100, and 200 µg/ml). (B) Hemotoxicity of APT-, PEG-, and CPP-modified DNPs incubated for 48 h at different concentrations (25, 50, 100, and 200 µg/ml) with RBCs, estimated by spectrophotometric methods (577 nm) to analyze the amount of lysed-hemoglobin in the supernatants. The level of significance from negative control was set as probabilities of *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 by ANOVA. Error bars represent s.d. (n = 3).
\n\n\n\n
Figure 11.
SEM pictures of the RBCs morphological modification after the exposure to the modified DNPs. The modified DNPs (100 µg/ml) were incubated with RBCs for 4 h at room temperature. The DNPs-APT showed the higher toxicity than the PEG and CPP-modified DNPs, resulting in severe morphological changes of cell. The CPP-bioconjugation improved significantly the DNPs–cells membrane interactions, as indicated by white arrows. Scale bars are 3 µm (Reproduced from Ref. [66] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry).
\n
Figure 11 shows SEM characterization of RBCs after exposure to the modified-DNPs (200 µg/ml for 4 h at room temperature). The RBCs, in the presence of DNP-APT completely altered their morphology, changing from the biconcave-like disks to shrinked shape, with consequent hemolysis due to the free positive amine groups on the surface of the NPs, which strongly interact with the negative charge surface of the RBCs. In the case of PEGylated particles, there was a slight change in the RBC’s morphology by membrane wrapping around with the appearance of small holes, but without significant hemolysis. The relevant decrease of the DNPs-APT hemotoxicity after PEGylation is due to the improved biocompatibility of the NPs as a result of PEGylation [74, 75]. In the case of DNPs-APT-PEG-CPP, there were no relevant changes observed in the morphology due to the low cytotoxicity of CPP-peptide, which improved the DNPs’ biocompatibility [76–78].
\n
Efficient delivery of the nanocarriers to the cells and tissues is another key requirement for drug delivery applications. The CPP-peptide, used to improve the cellular uptake of the DNPs, is a short cationic peptide with intrinsic ability to enter cells and mediate uptake of a wide range of molecular cargos, such as oligonucleotides, small molecules, siRNA, NPs, peptides, and proteins [79–81].
\n
Figure 12.
(A) TEM images of MDA-MB-231 cells treated with 50 µg/ml of DNPs-APT, DNPs-APT-PEG, and DNPs-APT-PEG-CPP for 12 h at 37°C. A very small amount of APTES- and PEG-modified DNPs (in dotted boxes) was found inside the cells. In the case of DNPs-APT-PEG-CPP (in dotted boxes), a considerable amount of the NPs was observed inside the cells. Scale bars are 10 µm. (B) Confocal fluorescence microscopy MDA-MB-231 cells treated with 50 µg/ml of APT, APT-PEG, APT-PEG-CPP modified-DNPs for 12 h at 37°C. CellMask® (red) and Alexa Fluor-488® (green) were used to label the cells membrane and the DNPs, respectively. The merge figures are obtained by overlapping the DNPs and the cells membrane images, allowing to determine whether the NPs are located outside (green color) or inside (yellow color) the cells.
\n
The cellular uptake of modified DNPs was evaluated by transmission electron microscope (TEM), after the incubation of MDA-MB 231 breast cancer cells with the NPs (50 µg/mL) for 12 h. In Figure 12A, the APTES-modified DNPs were mainly localized in the proximity of the cell membrane, while in the case of the DNPs-APT-PEG, any significant cellular uptake was observed. For the CPP-modified NPs, a considerable amount of DNPs was internalized into the cells with a homogeneous distribution into the cytoplasm and very close to the nucleus. The cellular uptake was also evaluated by confocal fluorescence microscope after DNPs and cellular membrane labeling with Alexa Fluor-488® and CellMask™ Deep Red, respectively (Figure 12B). In merged images, for DNPs-APT, the green color is indicative of the presence of DNPs on the cell membrane surface; while for the CPP modified-DNPs, the yellow color, resulting from the co-localization of the green labeled-DNPs and red-stained cancer cell membranes, is representative of NPs located inside the cells. These results confirmed that the CPP bioconjugation is a valid functionalization strategy to increase the cell penetration of DNPs [82, 83].
\n
\n
\n
5. In vivo evaluation of DNPs toxicity
\n
In vitro testing is the most common scientific analysis used to determine the effects of NPs toxicity. However, the success of in vitro assays is not predictive for promising in vivo results; for this reason, in vivo evaluation of NPs toxicity is a crucial issue in order to develop safe nanodevices for biomedical applications.
\n
In this context, Hydra vulgaris (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) was used as preliminary in vivo model to evaluate diatomite NPs toxicity.
\n
Hydra is a simple multicellular organism at the base of the metazoan evolution. It consists of a tube which is made of two connected epithelial cell layers: the outer ectoderm and inner endoderm, separated by an acellular mesoglea layer (Figure 13) [84]. As shown in Figure 13, at the top end of the tube, there is the hypostome composed by a mouth surrounded by 6–8 tentacles that contain the most part of stinging cells (cnidocytes or nematocytes) that let Hydra to catch its prey [85]. Hydra column has four distinctive sections: the gastric region located between the tentacles and the first (apical) bud; the budding section, which produces the buds; the peduncle, which is located between the lowest bud and basal disc; and the basal disc, which is the foot-like formation [86]. This structural complexity, simpler than vertebrates with central nervous system and specialized organs, but more complex than cultured cells, makes Hydra comparable to a living tissue whose cells and distant regions are physiologically connected. It possesses a simple nervous system consisting of a diffuse nerve net throughout the body [87]. Hydra typically reproduces asexually resulting in the rapid production of a large number of new organisms that can be cultured in a short period of time. Hydra is sensitive to a range of pollutants and has been used as a biological indicator of water pollution [88]. Metal pollutants such as copper, cadmium, and zinc have been tested against different Hydra species, and the relative toxicity based on the median lethal concentration (LC50) for all species was ranked from copper, the most toxic, to cadmium with zinc, the least toxic [88].
\n
Figure 13.
Anatomical structure of Hydra vulgaris. The inset shows the bilayer structure characterizing the whole body, from the foot to the tentacles, that is, the ectoderm and endoderm layers separated by the mesoglea. The few specialized cell types differentiated by the interstitial stem cells are shown (neurons, cnidocyte, gland cells).
\n
Hydra has also been used as alternative in vivo model, to study the toxicity of different NPs, as well as their uptake and fate [89–91]. Due to a simple tubular body and being diploblastic, an even exposure of the whole animal to NPs by simple soaking is allowed [92, 93]. Several bioassays are available to assess the toxicity of a given substance in terms of acute or sub-lethal toxicity [94]. Hydra exposure to different substances may cause alteration of (1) morphological traits and developmental programs, (2) regeneration or pattern formation, and (3) population growth rates.
\n
Toxicity of a substance is conventionally measured in Hydra observing changes in the animal morphology following Wilby’s classification ranging from score 10 (normal, elongated tentacles and body), 8 (clubbed or bulged tentacles), 6 (shortened tentacles), 5 (tulip phase), 2 (loss of osmoregulation), to 0 (disintegrated) [95]. Scores 10–6 are reversible, sub-lethal indicators, while the tulip phase (score 5 and below) is considered irreversible and used as the endpoint for lethality [92, 95].
\n
Toxicity of diatomite NPs in Hydra was investigated monitoring changes in its morphology after exposure to DNPs at increasing incubation times (24, 48 and 72 h) and concentrations (0.5, 1, 1.5, 2.5, 3, 3.5, and 4 mg/mL). Hydra vulgaris was asexually cultured in physiological solution by the method of Loomis and Lenhoff with minor modifications [96]. The animals were kept at 18°C and fed three times per week with freshly hatched Artemia salina nauplii. All animals were starved 24 h prior to the experiments. For each DNPs concentration, twenty polyps were used [97]. Either control or treated animals were placed into plastic multiwells refreshing the medium every 24 h. The morphophysiological effects of DNPs on Hydra were recorded by microscopic examination of each polyp and used to extrapolate the Wilby’s score key. A representative in vivo image of Hydra after exposure to DNPs is reported in Figure 14. Any change in polyp morphology was not observed after exposure to DNP concentrations up 4 mg/mL for 72 h; this result corresponds to score 10 of Wilby’s classification.
\n
Figure 14.
In vivo imaging of Hydra polyps treated with DNPs. Polyp morphology is not affected by the nanoparticle treatment. Scale bar: 1 mm.
\n
These data confirm in vitro toxicity results. The transparency of Hydra epithelium makes it possible to track and localize fluorescent nanoparticles in the animal body [92–94]. The internalization of DNPs in Hydra was evaluated by in vivo fluorescence microscopy analysis, after labeling DNPs by Alexa Fluor-488® (DNPs*). Ten living Hydra were treated with DNPs* (3.5 mg/mL) up to 72 h. Bright-field and fluorescence images of Hydra polyps treated with DNPs* for 24 (C, D) and 72 h (E, F) are reported in Figure 15; Figure 15A, B shows an untreated animal as control. In all figures, the foot is on the lower part of the panel, while a crown of tentacles surrounds the mouth. The image taken after 24 h (D) shows an intense fluorescence of DNPs, distributed in the whole body and confined to the outer ectoderm. After 72 h (F) of incubation, the DNPs were mainly localized in the inner endodermal cells, due to inter-epithelial migration of free or cell-containing nanoparticles between the two cell layers [92]. These preliminary in vivo results are in agreement with the in vitro data, confirming that DNPs could be used as safe and biocompatible nanocarrier for long incubation times and up to high concentrations.
\n
Figure 15.
In vivo fluorescence imaging of Hydra polyps treated with labeled DNPs (3.5 mg/mL) for different incubation times. Scale bars: 1 mm. The fluorescence pattern appears as rather uniform after 24 h of incubation, while at 72 h it appears as granulates covering most of body regions. They might represent storage vacuoles, as it has been shown for other fluorescent nanoparticles [92, 94].
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions and future trends
\n
Diatomite is a fossil material of sedimentary origin formed over centuries by siliceous skeleton of aquatic unicellular microalgae diatoms, with similar physico-chemical properties of man-made fabricated PSi. Due to its ordered pore structure, high surface area, tailorable surface chemistry, high permeability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, low cost, optical, and photonic properties, diatomite has been exploited as an innovative platform in several biotechnological applications, resulting as a viable and promising cheap alternative to synthetic porous silica. In this chapter, the potentialities of DNPs, with an average size of about 350 nm, as drug nanocarriers were discussed. Preliminary tests of cytotoxicity and cellular uptake demonstrated the biocompatibility of the DNPs and their capability to penetrate inside cancer cells. Different functionalization procedures of diatomite surface for preparation of bioengineered nanovectors were also described. These results, compared with those reported in literature on standard systems, encourage the use of diatomite-based materials as new class of nanostructured drug carriers.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors thank the DEREF S.p.A. for kindly providing the diatomite earth sample. The authors also thank Dr. R. Tatè of the IGB-CNR Integrated Microscopy Facility for assistance with confocal microscopy acquisition, Dr. M. Pirozzi of IBP-CNR for fluorescence microscopy imaging, Dr. P. Dardano of IMM-CNR for SEM images. Dr. H.A. Santos acknowledges financial support from the Academy of Finland (Decisions Nos. 252215 and 281300), the University of Helsinki Research Funds, the Biocentrum Helsinki, and the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007–2013, Grant No. 310892).
\n
\n',keywords:"diatomite, porous material, nanovector, bioconjugation, drug delivery",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50687.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50687.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50687",totalDownloads:1844,totalViews:309,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:60,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 29th 2015",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 29th 2016",dateFinished:"May 12th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Diatomite is a natural porous silica material of sedimentary origin, formed by remains of diatom skeletons called “frustules.” The abundance in many areas of the world and the peculiar physico-chemical properties made diatomite an intriguing material for several applications ranging from food production to pharmaceutics. However, diatomite is a material still rarely used in biomedical applications. In this chapter, the properties of diatom frustules reduced to nanoparticles, with an average diameter less than 350 nm, as potential drug vectors are described. Their biocompatibility, cellular uptake, and capability to transport molecules inside cancer cells are discussed. Preliminary studies of in vivo toxicity are also presented.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50687",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50687",book:{id:"5128",slug:"algae-organisms-for-imminent-biotechnology"},signatures:"Monica Terracciano, Luca De Stefano, Hélder A. Santos, Nicola M.\nMartucci, Angela Tino, Immacolata Ruggiero, Ivo Rendina, Nunzia\nMigliaccio, Claudia Tortiglione, Annalisa Lamberti and Ilaria Rea",authors:[{id:"27129",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"De Stefano",fullName:"Luca De Stefano",slug:"luca-de-stefano",email:"luca.destefano@na.imm.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Naples Federico II",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"40496",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilaria",middleName:null,surname:"Rea",fullName:"Ilaria Rea",slug:"ilaria-rea",email:"ilaria.rea@na.imm.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"57212",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivo",middleName:null,surname:"Rendina",fullName:"Ivo Rendina",slug:"ivo-rendina",email:"ivo.rendina@na.imm.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"156938",title:"Dr.",name:"Nunzia",middleName:null,surname:"Migliaccio",fullName:"Nunzia Migliaccio",slug:"nunzia-migliaccio",email:"nunzia.migliaccio@unina.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"181265",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nicola Massimiliano",middleName:null,surname:"Martucci",fullName:"Nicola Massimiliano Martucci",slug:"nicola-massimiliano-martucci",email:"nicolamassimiliano.martucci@unina.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Naples Federico II",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"185808",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Terracciano",fullName:"Monica Terracciano",slug:"monica-terracciano",email:"monica.terracciano@na.imm.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"185809",title:"Prof.",name:"Hélder A.",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",fullName:"Hélder A. Santos",slug:"helder-a.-santos",email:"helder.santos@helsinki.fi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"185812",title:"Dr.",name:"Immacolata",middleName:null,surname:"Ruggiero",fullName:"Immacolata Ruggiero",slug:"immacolata-ruggiero",email:"immacolata.ruggiero@unina.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"185813",title:"Prof.",name:"Annalisa",middleName:null,surname:"Lamberti",fullName:"Annalisa Lamberti",slug:"annalisa-lamberti",email:"annalisa.lamberti@unina.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"187004",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Tortiglione",fullName:"Claudia Tortiglione",slug:"claudia-tortiglione",email:"claudia.tortiglione@cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"187006",title:"Dr.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Tino",fullName:"Angela Tino",slug:"angela-tino",email:"a.tino@isasi.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Diatomite nanoparticles (DNPs)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. siRNA delivery by DNPs inside cancer cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Dual-biofunctionalization of DNPs for enhanced stability, biocompatibility, and cellular internalization in cancer cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. In vivo evaluation of DNPs toxicity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusions and future trends",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nM. Ferrari, Cancer nanotechnology: opportunities and challenges. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2005, 5, 161–171.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nO. C. Farokhzad and R. Langer, Impact of Nanotechnology on Drug Delivery. ACS Nano, 2009, 3, 16–20.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nP. Parhi, C. Mohanty and S. K. Sahoo, Nanotechnology-based combinational drug delivery: an emerging approach for cancer therapy. Drug Discov. Today, 2012, 17, 1044–1052.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nR. van der Meel, L. J. 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Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council, Naples, Italy
Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Luca De Stefano",address:null,affiliation:'
Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council, Naples, Italy
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Hélder A. Santos",address:null,affiliation:'
Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nicola M. Martucci",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, National Research Council, Naples, Italy
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1. Introduction
The world is confronted with the challenges of climate change, terrorism, and poverty, among other factors, which hinder food production, food availability, as well as food and nutritional security. Globally, food insecurity and low supply in many areas are threatening the human population and survival in the areas where terrorism and transborder and internal displacement of persons are entrenched in many parts of the world. Food as an important commodity for survival is under threat, and if survival strategies are not devised, the catastrophe will be overbearing. A number of crop species are becoming extinct from our agricultural and forest fields, while some others are declining both in cultivation and utilization. A review of global food security indicates re-strategizing crop genetic improvement and production agronomy toward grain legumes to identify climate-resilient species and varieties with enhanced grain features [1, 2]. This is highly desirable considering the significant roles that grain legumes play in the food cultures around the world as veritable sources of quality protein, natural medicine, animal fodder, natural fertilizers, and environmental restoration products, alongside the well-established soil enrichment property of symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria [3].
In order to meet the global food demands, focus should be on promoting the cultivation and utilization of other crops which have been neglected and underexploited but have the potential to enhance food and nutrition security especially in the developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa. With the recent negative impact of climate change being experienced globally, Africa is the most affected as a region that depends on rain-fed agriculture. The effect of increased drought on agricultural crops has led to yield reductions at harvest, death of livestock, and loss of income and jobs in some parts of Africa especially in Somalia, Kenya, and Ethiopia. This has drastically increased the level of malnutrition and food insecurity. Most of the staple crops are unable to withstand the harsh environmental changes currently taking place. Nevertheless, miscellaneous neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs) are more advantageous over the conventional staple crops. These MNUGLs are often linked to the cultural heritage of their places of origin, well adapted to precise agroecological areas, harsh environments, and marginal lands. They also perform well in traditional production systems with little or no external inputs [4, 5, 6].
The chapter will cover some selected minor grain legumes with huge potentials to boost protein security in period of hunger and malnutrition in the sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere. The species are known by many appellations such as miscellaneous, neglected, underutilized, underexploited, and under-researched, among others. These MNUGLs could be further improved using recent advancements in omic technologies for better acceptance and utilization as well as for improved food security.
2. What are miscellaneous, neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs?)
Globally, neglected and underutilized species (NUS) are often identified based on their local usefulness, localized domestication, adaptation coupled with general abandonment by mainstream agricultural researchers, extension services, plant breeders, donors, technology providers, policy- and decision-makers, as well as consumers [2, 6]. NUS are classically identified based on certain criteria which include the following:
Local importance in consumption and production systems
Adaptation to agroecological niches/marginal areas
Representation by ecotypes/landraces
Cultivation and utilization based only on indigenous knowledge
Rare representation in ex situ collections
Uncoordinated attention from national agricultural and biodiversity conservation policies, research, and development
Neglect by mainstream market system
In reality and broad consideration, a large percentage of such NUS are underutilized legume crops. As such these legume species are classified as minor grain legumes, though consumed as food and forage crops in many parts of the world. Thus, we can refer to this category of legume crops as MNUGLs. On global distribution, these species are endemic to the tropical regions of the world. Several reports and findings have established that MNUGLs are drought-tolerant, endure and thrive under harsh environments, highly adaptable to varying ecogeographical settings, and withstand or mitigate conditions such as heat, drought, diseases, frost, cold, and insect pest attack [1, 5, 7]. These qualities could be scientifically explored for crop improvement and sustainable utilization. Apart from these good qualities, MNUGLs also contain high-quality proteins and micronutrients which are comparable to those found in conventional legumes. They are also indispensable in crop rotation strategies to fertilize agricultural soils.
3. General background information: grain legumes
Grain legumes belong to the family Fabaceae of the Angiospermae and are considered rich in high-quality proteins with significant impacts on the nutrition, diet, and health of many people across the world. The family Fabaceae is divided into grain legumes and pasture/forage legumes. The grain legumes are grown mainly as pulses providing food for humans, while pasture legumes are cultivated to feed domestic animals. Based on plant utility and economy, legumes are categorized into major and minor species. Major legumes are popular and common with well-established domestication and cultivation, agronomic practices, utilization, and conservation. Examples include soybean (Glycine max L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), and chicken pea (Cicer arietinum L.), among others. Minor legumes are less known, less exploited, neglected, and considered underutilized. Several species in this category include winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus L.), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.), lablab (Lablab purpureus L.), lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.), jack and sword bean (Canavalia sp.), mung bean (Vigna mungo L.), bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L.), marama bean (Tylosema esculentum L.), kersting’s groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms), African yam bean (AYB) (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Harms), and rice bean (Vigna angularies L.). The wild species of the minor grain legumes include kersting’s groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms), marama bean (Tylosema esculentum), and the wild Vigna species such as V. ambacensis, V. vexillata, V. luteola, V. oblongifolia, and V. racemosa, among others. These species are found in many African countries and could be exploited for food, medicine, agriculture (as cover crops and fodder), and more importantly for genetic improvement of cowpea and related species [8, 9].
A review of literatures indicated that most of the MNUGLs have been relegated to unimportant underutilized crops grown by the older generation of farmers [5, 10]. Thus, sizeable and valuable genetic resources housed within MNUGLs would have been lost due to neglect and lack of concerted focused research. Several authors have highlighted the usefulness of MNUGLs as food security in lean times as farmers in rural areas make a living on the species [11, 12]. Presently, there is no available genome sequence of MNUGLs species which could be utilized for successful breeding and for specific purposes.
3.1 Brief description on some selected MNUGLs
3.1.1 African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Ex. A. Rich Harms)
The African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) with somatic chromosome number 2n = 22 is a dicotyledonous species [13]. AYB is an important food crop in tropical Africa with great medicinal values and pesticidal potential [14]. AYB contains approximately 29 and 19% crude protein in its grain and tuber, respectively, though lower than that of soybean (38%) [15]. The seeds are edible like the common beans and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), and the tubers are richer in protein than Irish potatoes and 10 times the amount in cassava tubers [16, 17]. The whole seed is also rich in potassium (649.49 mg/100 g) and phosphorus (241.21 mg/100 g) [16]. The most prominent minerals in AYB whole seeds were reported as magnesium (454.16 mg/100 g), potassium (398.25 mg/100 g), and phosphorous (204.86 mg/100 g) with appreciable amounts of calcium (37.44 mg/100 g) and iron (11.70 mg/100 g) [18]. Similarly, Ojuederie and Balogun [18] confirmed the average proximate parameters of AYB seeds to include protein (22.40%), fat (1.90%), total carbohydrate (56.40%), total ash (3.60%), and moisture (11.80%) with a caloric value of 1396.10 Kjg−1. Some of the accessions evaluated in their study had up to 25% protein (TSs 41, TSs150, and TSs152). An inverse relationship was detected between the concentrations of protein and carbohydrate. Higher carbohydrate content of 62.50% was obtained in accession TSs153, with a protein content of 19.30% [18]. The pods and seeds are resistant to major pests of cowpea such as cowpea pod borer (Maruca vitrata) and cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) [19, 20]. This resistance was attributed to the lectin present in the seeds as confirmed in the study of Ojuederie [21] who reported high levels of lectin in the seeds of AYB especially for accessions TSs68 (73.34 Lu mg−1) and TSs5 (66.87 Lu mg−1). Valuable diversities that can be explored for diverse utilization purposes have also been reported in AYB [9, 22, 23].
3.1.2 Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea)
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is less used in many parts of Africa, yet its nutritional and health benefits are well established [24]. It is the fourth crop among the grain legume crops after the well-known groundnut, cowpea, and soybean. In recent times, there has been renewed interest for cultivation of V. subterranea in the arid savannah zones to mitigate the effect of stress and increase protein supply to people of that region [24]. Bambara groundnut is resistant to drought, withstands stress, contains higher nutrients than other legumes, and is known to produce good yield even when grown on poor soils [25]. The protein composition contains 6–43% globulin, 14–71% albumin, 1.6–2.2% prolamins, and 3.3–5.2% glutelins [26]. Bambara groundnut gets about 51–67% of their N nutrition from symbiotic fixation; hence the crop could serve as high-protein forage for livestock [24, 26].
3.1.3 Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus popularly known as winged bean with somatic chromosome number of 2n = 18 is one of the old legumes [27]. Winged bean is a multipurpose legume plant with all parts being edible and useful as medicine in tropics of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It is grown in many parts of the humid tropics, including Central and South America, the Caribbean, Africa, Oceania, and Asia [28]. All parts of the plant are considered rich in vitamins, minerals, protein, and secondary metabolites such as phenolic and flavonoids [28]. Leaves are usually eaten like spinach, flowers are used in salads, tubers are eaten raw or cooked, while seeds are consumed when cooked [29]. In addition, winged bean is highly resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses and thus capable of growing under varying environmental conditions. It is now a toast of many scientists trying to explore its rich potentials [28, 30]. The seeds of winged bean also exhibit tolerance to storage pests [31]. Apart from its seeds, the tubers/roots are also nutritious and rich in protein of about 20%, while the leaves and flowers are also high in protein (10–15%) [32].
3.1.4 Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.)
Lima bean is grown for its edible seeds and as leafy vegetable in the Caribbean, Peru, Mexico, and Asian regions [33, 34]. Rich in protein, lima beans are resistant to viral and rust diseases and withstand insect pests, drought, and abiotic stress [35]. The species also tolerates different levels of aluminum and manganese toxicity which can be exploited to advance the sustainable utilization of other legumes [36].
3.1.5 Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus L.)
Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus L.) is cultivated for its edible seeds and pods. It is mainly grown in Africa and Asia as source of food in the form of vegetable, green pods, and seeds [37]. Several field trials suggested that the species is drought tolerant and water efficient and produces high yield [37, 38]. The protein content is comparable to that of soybean. Reports also indicate that L. purpureus has potential to be a source of pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical as medicine and traditional medicine in Asia and Africa [37].
3.1.6 Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis L.)
Canavalia ensiformis known as jack bean is the most economically important species in the genus Canavalia, with enormous potentials to serve as food for both humans and livestock [39]. It is widely distributed in Africa, Asia, and America, with large-scale cultivation reported in Congo and Angola [39]. It is rich in protein and thrives well in poor and acidic soils. Jack bean is mainly grown for its nutritious pods, seeds, and as fodder. It is a forage crop with high green manure capacity to enrich the soils and also to control soil erosion. The crop tolerates adverse environment, drought, heat, and leached soils; also it resists pest attacks [40]. The leaf of jack bean contains crude proteins and fiber comparable to other legumes [15, 39, 40]. Jack bean possesses deep root system which enables the plant to penetrate deeply into the soil which enables it to withstand very dry conditions. Raw jack bean contains toxic compounds such as tannin, phytate, saponins, canavanine, concanavalin A (hemagglutinin), and trypsin inhibitors [40].
3.1.7 Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata L.)
Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata L.) is another species in the genus Canavalia of the Fabaceae family with rich potentials likely to be adopted as an important source of food, leafy vegetable, medicine, forage, and as cover crop. It is a vigorous perennial climber plant usually cultivated as an annual. Reports indicated that sword bean originated from the Asian continent and is now known in the tropics as an introduced species. The red sword bean is one of the edible beans of China reportedly rich in antioxidant polyphenols with great medicinal uses [41, 42]. Furthermore, the seed coat of the bean is rich in gallic acid and its derivatives, mainly gallotannins, a common trait found in legume polyphenols [41]. The chemical composition of seeds of sword bean has been reported and compares quite well with soybean [43, 44, 45]. Average yield ranges from 720 to 1500 kg/ha which can be compared with soybean yield of 600–1000 kg/ha [43, 46]. The fruits mature in 6–10 months after planting. The sword bean is relatively resistant to attack from pests and diseases [43].
3.1.8 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp)
Cajanus cajan, commonly known as pigeon pea, is an erect, perennial shrub, or woody plant widely grown in the tropical regions [47]. Pigeon pea is mainly cultivated for its edible seed grains as well as feed, forage, and fuel. It has a diploid genome with somatic chromosome number of 2n = 22 [47]. Most farmers depend on C. cajan as alternative source of protein to support workers and families during lean times [47]. The plant grows well in areas with low rainfall and varying climatic conditions. It is a drought-tolerant crop capable of withstanding poor soil and abiotic stress [48]. Diversity exists in seed coat color, size, texture, and taste. The leaves are source of medicine in combination with other plants such as mango and lemon to treat malaria and typhoid fever. The dried woody stem is used as firewood for cooking by women in farms. Its seed protein content is high (20–22%) and is quite rich in vitamins such as vitamin B and minerals which can promote health [47].
Kersting’s groundnut is an indigenous legume grown in Africa for its edible seeds. It is considered rich in nutritional proteins and minerals. Its protein content of 12.9% is higher than that of bambara groundnut (12.1%) and cowpea (7.1%), while the total amino acid content of the seed is 42% [49]. It is a likely alternative source of quality protein for feed and food in the tropics [50, 51]. The crop can withstand drought, pest, and diseases. It adapts to varying ecological conditions of tropical Africa. However, only the elderly farmers cultivate this crop as alternative source of protein, and as such it has been neglected and underutilized in several African countries.
3.2 Research efforts and constraints to the global cultivation and adoption of MNUGLs
MNUGLs are increasingly becoming rare across the world with their associated valuable genetic resources disappearing rapidly in all their natural ranges. Therefore, there is the need for a paradigm shift from present scenario of neglect to sustainable cultivation, exploitation, and utilization of the species. In recent years, grain legume stakeholders had advocated for an increased global cultivation and production of MNUGLs toward sustainable solution to food and protein security, plus agricultural and environmental restoration [1, 52]. Similarly, significant efforts are ongoing to increase genomic resources and apply innovative breeding techniques to improve the nutritional quality and yield of legume crops, alongside enhanced resilience to climate change [1, 53]. MNUGLs are highly adapted to agroecological niches/marginal areas having capacity to contribute considerably to global protein security and productive agricultural practices and alleviate rural poverty, among others. The potential genetic resources available among and within the MNUGLs have not been properly explored to advance sustainable utilization for future food and nutritional security as well as biodiversity maintenance to alleviate the negative effects of climate change and abiotic stress. Likewise, the possibilities of the species to withstand abiotic stress even in the face of biological limiting factors are important to their continued use and survival. In order to prevent total genetic erosion/loss of valuable genetic resources and exploit MNUGLs for present and future food, nutrition, and protein security, a holistic approach needs to be adopted to improve the species.
Constraints limiting the sustainable cultivation and utilization of MNUGLs include long cooking time of seeds, growth habit requiring mandatory staking, intensive labor requirements, and lack of staking materials [22, 54, 55]. Others are low product market demand, poor seed quality, high cost of labor, postharvest diseases, and anti-nutritional factors (ANF) [55]. The constraints to cultivation and utilization of MNUGLs, breeding intervention approaches, and possible solutions are presented in Table 1.
Species
Common name
Constraints
Breeding intervention approaches
Possible solutions
References
Sphenostylis stenocarpa
African yam bean (AYB)
Long cooking time of seeds, growth habit requiring mandatory staking, low product market demand, poor seed quality, high cost of labor, postharvest diseases, pod shattering, and anti-nutritional factors (ANF)
Traditional breeding approach, assessment of genetic diversity of landraces using molecular markers (AFLP, SSR), and marker-assisted selection. No successful breeding lines so far
Tissue culture, micropropagation, morphological evaluation of AYB for desirable agronomic traits and for breeding purposes. Whole genome sequencing and the use of gene editing tools to improve the species genetically on the observed constraints
Labor intensive, low seed supply to farmers, pest attack, low yield, long cooking time, anti-nutritional factors, and difficulty in dehulling
Assessment of genetic diversity of landraces using SSR marker
Mutation breeding for genetic enhancement of protein and methionine contents, effective processing methods, mapping and QTL analysis of phenotypic traits in F2 and F3 derived genotypes, whole genome sequencing, and the use of gene editing tools to improve the species genetically on the observed constraints
Indeterminate growth habit, high cost of labor, ANF, pod shattering, late maturing, low yield, and scandent habit
Use of molecular genetic tools to support genetic improvement, gene-based SSR markers, mutation breeding to obtain varieties with erect stem, multiple branches, bushy habit, and long pods
Transcriptome sequencing for gene discovery and marker development. Comparative genomic analyses coupled with NGS sequencing, identification of functional SNPs associated with agronomically important traits, and the use of gene editing tools to improve the species
Pest and disease attacks, market constraints, growth habit requiring mandatory staking
Transcriptome sequencing to identify and select putative parents/hybrid for genetic improvement
Transcriptome sequencing for gene discovery and development of marker, early maturing, dwarf, erect, high yielding, and non-shattering varieties with reduced anti-nutritional factors
Molecular characterization using SSR markers for classifying dolichos bean based on photoperiod sensitivity
Development of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and transferability of SSR markers from other legumes for diversity evaluation, applications of metabolomics, proteomics and next-generation sequencing technologies to discover candidate markers for the development of agronomically improved varieties
Tall, shrubby, and woody habit, insect pest attack, long cooking period, and intensive labor requirement
Genetic diversities evaluated using AFLP, DarT, SSR, and SNPs, development of new hypervariable SSR markers, ESTs characterized, and transcriptome sequencing to characterize putative hybrids
More development of genomic resources, transcript profiling in combination with genome editing tools to identify expression quantitative loci (eQTLs), and general genetic improvement of the species
Breeding for host plant resistance and general genetic improvement
Phaseolus vulgaris
Common bean
Pest and disease attacks, rarity of improved germplasm, poor marketing value, low yield, and susceptibility to harsh climatic conditions
Breeding, screening, evaluation, and comparison of the genetic potentials of hybrids for improved grain yield using best and suitable methods on segregating populations
Development of drought-tolerant varieties and water use efficiency, breeding for improved cooking time, and the use of genotyping by sequencing for rapid identification of large number of SNPs for trait mapping
Cultivation constraints, breeding intervention approaches, and possible solutions for some underutilized legumes.
3.3 Genetic potentials of MNUGLs
In recent times, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimated that around 800 million people particularly in the developing countries suffer from food and nutrition insecurity [82]. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda adopted by the United Nations in September 2015 (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/) also aimed at having zero hunger as one of its SDGs by abolishing hunger and malnutrition especially in the less developed world (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg2). A tactical approach to addressing this challenge is to promote biodiversity and utilization of the neglected and underutilized crop species in the dietary and food pattern of the people [5, 82, 83]. The MNUGLs could increase food production levels, diversify the human diet, and enhance sustainable utilization of broad spectrum of climate smart crops [6, 82, 84]. Additionally, MNUGLs are rich in nutrients and health-enhancing composites that are capable of preventing malnutrition and some chronic diseases [1, 52, 55, 82]. Awareness programs in local communities around the world on the rich potentials of MNUGLs and their inclusion in local diets could also be an effective tool to improve human nutrition and health. MNUGLs could be exploited to achieve optimum utilization to meet human nutritional needs in the developing world.
Though huge genetic potentials exist among and within MNUGLs, genetic erosion or loss of valuable genetic resources is alarming. The discovery and utilization of untapped potential genetic resources within the minor crop gene pool deserve research attention. Concerted research efforts are therefore needed to prevent the continuous loss of genetic resources among the MNUGLs. Recent reports indicate that development of effective phenotyping and breeding approaches constitute a challenge among the MNUGLs [1]. Modern breeding efforts to improve disease resistance, quality, and yield are also constrained by low level of genetic diversity available to breeding programs [1, 52]. Though fairly large genetic diversity exists in seeds of grain legumes in gene banks, such diversities have not been fully utilized in active breeding programs [1, 85, 86]. Large quantities of these minor grain legumes are reportedly available in Africa [87] which if properly harnessed could mitigate the effect of malnutrition and poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. The diversity existing among the seeds of the species are worthy of research attention for food, agriculture, and medicine (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Some selected underutilized and neglected legumes showing diversity in their seeds. (A) African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Ex. A. Rich Harms). (B) Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata L.). (C) Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis L.). (D) Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus L.). (E) Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean L. Verdc.). (F) Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.). Source of seeds: Genetic Resources Centre of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.
3.4 Genetic improvement and prospects of MNUGL
Genetic and breeding efforts to improve the underutilized and neglected legume crops in architecture, period of maturation, yield, and nutritional contents have not recorded commiserate level of success as expected [88, 89]. Traditional hybridization and other breeding techniques, though have been used for some desired intentions, are yet to translate to desired results. Few successful crosses have been recorded so far on MNUGLs. Few successes have been reported on Cajanus cajan and some species [90, 91]. Reproductive barriers such as embryo abortion have been reported in many MNUGLs as limiting factors to genetic enhancement/improvement. However, tissue culture and micropropagation could be further employed to overcome such barriers with capacity to generate fertile haploid plants [5, 6].
Advancement in DNA technology has enhanced our understanding on the huge potentials available in the genome of many plant species and particularly the underutilized legumes. Several genomic breakthroughs involving genetic engineering of cereal crops have been reported [92, 93]. DNA-based methods are reliable and have been employed to identify, trace, and certify plant genealogies, origins, and phylogenetic relationships [94, 95]. DNA barcoding has been applied to identify and characterize some underutilized and neglected legumes such as Lablab purpureus, Tylosema esculentum, Vigna subterranea, V. vexillata, and Vigna unguiculata [96, 97].
The use of molecular markers for marker-assisted selection (MAS) or breeding programs has played significant roles in the assessment of the level of genetic diversity or relatedness among various species of underutilized legumes [9, 98]. Globally, different DNA techniques such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR), single feature polymorphisms (SFP), single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), and chloroplast gene RBCL, among others, have been employed to evaluate the genetic relationships and diversities among neglected underutilized species [85, 99, 100]. RAPD and ISSR markers were used for genetic diversity studies in winged bean by Mohanty et al. [101]. The study linked the physiological and phytochemical parameters to the genotypes investigated. Distinct winged bean novel lines were identified, and the information from analysis of photosynthesis rate, photosynthetic yield, and stomatal conductance data revealed two clusters in correspondence with the phytochemical affinities of the genotypes. The use of SSR, SNP, and genotype by sequencing (GBS) for the studies of phylogenetic relationships and genetic diversities among the MNUGLs is rare due to lack of sequence information; hence RAPD and AFLP were used for such species, and attempts were made in transferability of specific SSR markers in cowpea for genetic diversity studies in underutilized legumes by other authors as in the case of African yam bean [12].
Globally, complexity of plant genomes had led to advancement in genome sequencing, determination of polyploidy, genome size, repetitive DNA sequences, and transposable elements toward genetic engineering of plants to generate useful products apart from innate uses [102, 103]. Transposable elements (TEs) are ubiquitous in flowering plant genomes of which higher percentage of such genomes are occupied by TEs [104]. Studies have shown that TEs via their amplification, methylation, and recombination contribute to the restructuring of plant genomes, epigenomes, centromeric regions, and evolution of new genes for novel genetic functions [99, 105, 106]. Identification of TEs in a species is critically significant to the understanding of their functional roles [107]. Therefore, detail description of TEs is a major procedure to precisely identify specific genes and evaluate association between genes and TEs in a complex sequenced genome [107]. Such studies have not been applied on MNUGLs to understand the role of transposons in long duration of seed cooking of most of the MNUGLs and expressivity of secondary nutritional metabolites. We believe that such studies will have an overall influence on the genetic manipulation of the MNUGLs, understanding of potential gene-TE interaction, identification of active TEs for functional genomics, and development of TE-based molecular markers for genotyping studies. Currently, sophisticated sequencing genomic approaches such as de novo transcriptome sequencing are being utilized to identify and describe key genes responsible for varied economic, nutritional, physiological, and pharmaceutical uses of plant species [30, 88, 108, 109]. Transcriptome sequence analysis is one of the molecular tools that can also be applied to MNUGLs for improvement purposes. It is hoped that some of these tools will be employed in due course, not only to analyze genetic diversity among the MNUGLs but also to identify key genes that will be potentially useful for breeding and utilization purposes. Genes that are useful for varied needs could be identified, described, and extracted from the MNUGLs, thus ensuring the sustainable utilization of the species. Proteomics and genomics are increasingly being applied to unravel a number of genetic constraints and proffer robust solutions toward their sustainable production and utilization [24, 110]. These areas combined with metabolomics offers great possibility in the quest for improvement of MNUGLs. Consequently, the application of molecular breeding tools such as marker-assisted selection, genomic selection (GS), and genome-wide association (GWAS) has been appraised to influence scientific efforts for improving grain yield of orphan crops in the developing countries [111, 112]. These of course, including next-generation sequencing (NGS), have greatly enhanced the improvement of many commercial crops which the MNUGLs can also benefit from.
Recent advancement in omic technologies such as genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics has equally enhanced our understanding of the genetic structure of plant species, as well as the expression of genes through transcriptomic/proteomic profiling and their role in the overall metabolism of plants [32, 113]. Recently Vatanparast et al. [32] used transcriptome sequencing to develop SSR and SNP markers for winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) and also gave insights into the divergence of the Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitors, which are essential anti-nutritional factors in winged bean and other legumes. Transcriptome sequencing is inexpensive and a reliable method for efficient and rapid identification of molecular markers in underutilized plant species [32]. Future prospects also lie in the adoption of high-throughput tools including gene editing, GWAS, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR), among others, toward genetic improvement of the species for sustainable cultivation, production, and utilization.
4. Conclusions
Significant improvement and scientific breakthroughs have been reported on many crop species based on molecular characterization, linkage genetic maps, MAS, and genomics, which cannot be said of MNUGLs [114, 115]. MAS in combination with the traditional hybridization techniques provides clear-cut potential to enhance the overall improvement of plant species. The areas of genomics and proteomics are rapidly expanding in the field of food and agriculture, medicine, and environment. Though few genomic studies have been conducted on some MNUGLs, proteomics and metabolomics have not been employed to explore the rich potentials available in MNUGLs. Generally, these sets of grain legumes have not been subjected to biotechnological techniques/solutions including sophisticated tissue culture micropropagation and genetic engineering which offer great opportunities to improve the species for sustainable utilization. Genome editing provides the possibility to modify the genomes of the MNUGLs particularly for plant architecture, hardness of the seeds, and anti-nutritional factors. The emergence of the CRISPR technology supports this position to possibly enhance the genomes of MNUGLs for higher productivity and utilization via removal of the constraints. Added to this advancement is the use of high-throughput targeted genotyping using next-generation sequencing to effectively unravel the rich diversity potentials available among the MNUGLs. Through proteomic analysis, essential genes and their pathways can be discovered. This is of utmost importance considering the present increased changes in climatic conditions leading to abiotic stresses such as drought and extreme temperatures. MNUGLs are known to be resilient crops capable of withstanding unfavorable environmental conditions. Proteomics therefore offers plant breeders the opportunity to study the broad spectrum of proteins present in underutilized plant species and could give a clue on specific proteins produced by MNUGLs under abiotic stresses, as well as information relating to nutritional and yield traits. On global research funds and activities, research funds are usually not available for these species as many funding agencies or organizations are skeptical about their sustainable utilization and overall benefits to human and environment and hence to the organizations. Stakeholders including policy-makers and plant breeders, among others, should as a matter of urgent priority consider the MNUGLs as important crops for research and development toward food and nutritional security as well as socioeconomic development of rural areas where these species are abundantly available.
Conflict of interest
Authors declare no conflict of interests.
\n',keywords:"climate change, CRISPR/cas9, food security, marker-assisted selection (MAS), omic technologies, underutilized grain legumes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68218.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68218.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68218",totalDownloads:1799,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:9,dateSubmitted:"February 6th 2019",dateReviewed:"May 27th 2019",datePrePublished:"July 19th 2019",datePublished:"February 26th 2020",dateFinished:"July 19th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Sustainable agricultural productivity is hampered by over-dependency on major staple crops, neglect and underutilization of others, climate change, as well as land deterioration. Challenges posed by these limiting factors are undoubtedly contributing to global food insecurity, increased rural poverty, and malnutrition in the less developed countries. Miscellaneous neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs) are crops primarily characterized by inherent features and capabilities to withstand the effects of abiotic stress and climate change, significantly replenish the soil, as well as boost food and protein security. This chapter provides insight into the benefits of MNUGLs as food and nutritional security climate smart crops, capable of growing on marginal lands. Exploring and improving MNUGLs depend on a number of factors among which are concerted research efforts, cultivation and production, as well as utilization awareness across global populace geared toward reawakening the interest on the abandoned legumes. The emergence of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR/cas9) technology combined with marker-assisted selection (MAS) offers great opportunities to improve MNUGLs for sustainable utilization. Advances in improvement of MNUGLs using omic technologies and the prospects for their genetic modification were highlighted and discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68218",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68218",signatures:"Jacob Popoola, Omena Ojuederie, Conrad Omonhinmin and Adegoke Adegbite",book:{id:"8168",type:"book",title:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",slug:"recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Farooq Shah, Zafar Khan, Amjad Iqbal, Metin Turan and Murat Olgun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8168.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-450-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-449-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-643-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"211419",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farooq",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"farooq-shah",fullName:"Farooq Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"246358",title:"Prof.",name:"Conrad",middleName:null,surname:"Omonhinmin",fullName:"Conrad Omonhinmin",slug:"conrad-omonhinmin",email:"conrad.omonhinmin@covenantuniversity.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"294662",title:"Dr.",name:"Omena",middleName:null,surname:"Ojuederie",fullName:"Omena Ojuederie",slug:"omena-ojuederie",email:"omenabernojus@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"294740",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",middleName:null,surname:"Popoola",fullName:"Jacob Popoola",slug:"jacob-popoola",email:"jacob.popoola@covenantuniversity.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"294766",title:"Prof.",name:"Adegoke",middleName:null,surname:"Adegbite",fullName:"Adegoke Adegbite",slug:"adegoke-adegbite",email:"gokeadegbite@yahoo.co.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. What are miscellaneous, neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs?)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. General background information: grain legumes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Brief description on some selected MNUGLs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Ex. A. Rich Harms)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.5 Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus L.)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.6 Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis L.)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.7 Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata L.)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.8 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.1.9 Kersting’s groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.2 Research efforts and constraints to the global cultivation and adoption of MNUGLs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3 Genetic potentials of MNUGLs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.4 Genetic improvement and prospects of MNUGL",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Considine MJ, Siddique KHM, Foyer CH. Nature’s pulse power: Legumes, food security and climate change. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2017;68(8):1815-1818. PubMed PMID: 28499041. PMCID: PMC5429020. Epub 2017/05/13. eng'},{id:"B2",body:'Padulosi S, Thompson J, Rudebjer P. Fighting Poverty, Hunger and Malnutrition with Neglected and Underutilized Species: Needs, Challenges and the Way Forward. 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Agronomía Colombiana. 2014;32(3):423-431'},{id:"B80",body:'Blair M, Galeano C, Tovar E, Torres M, Velasco A, Beebe SE, et al. Development of a Mesoamerican intra-genepool genetic map for QTL detection in a drought tolerant x susceptible common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cross. 2012;29:71-88'},{id:"B81",body:'Baldermann S, Blagojević L, Frede K, Klopsch R, Neugart S, Neumann A, et al. Are neglected plants the food for the future? Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 2016;35(2):106-119'},{id:"B82",body:'Dansi A, Vodouhè R, Azokpota P, Yedomonhan H, Assogba P, Adjatin A, et al. Diversity of the neglected and underutilized crop species of importance in Benin. The Scientific World Journal. 2012;2012:1-19'},{id:"B83",body:'Padulosi S, Amaya K, Jäger M, Gotor E, Rojas W, Valdivia R. A holistic approach to enhance the use of neglected and underutilized species: The case of Andean grains in Bolivia and Peru. Sustainability. 2014;6(3):1283-1312'},{id:"B84",body:'Fatokun C, Girma G, Abberton M, Gedil M, Unachukwu N, Oyatomi O, et al. Genetic diversity and population structure of a mini-core subset from the world cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) germplasm collection. Scientific Reports. 2018;8(1):16035'},{id:"B85",body:'Boukar O, Fatokun CA, Huynh BL, Roberts PA, Close TJ. Genomic tools in cowpea breeding programs: Status and perspectives. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2016;7:757. PubMed PMID: 27375632. PMCID: PMC4891349. Epub 2016/07/05. eng'},{id:"B86",body:'Saka J, Ajibade S, Adeniyan O, Olowoyo R, Ogunbodede B. Survey of underutilized grain legume production systems in the Southwest agricultural zone of Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural and Food Information. 2004;6(2-3):93-108'},{id:"B87",body:'Chapman MA. Transcriptome sequencing and marker development for four underutilized legumes. Applications in Plant Sciences. 2015;3(2):1-5. PubMed PMID: 25699221. PMCID: PMC4332146. Epub 2015/02/24. eng'},{id:"B88",body:'Cooper JW, Wilson MH, Derks MFL, Smit S, Kunert KJ, Cullis C, et al. Enhancing faba bean (Vicia faba L.) genome resources. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2017;68(8):1941-1953. PubMed PMID: 28419381. PMCID: PMC5429004. Epub 2017/04/19. eng'},{id:"B89",body:'Obala J, Saxena RK, Singh VK, Kumar CVS, Saxena KB, Tongoona P, et al. Development of sequence-based markers for seed protein content in pigeonpea. Molecular Genetics and Genomics: MGG. 2019;294(1):57-68. PubMed PMID: 30173295. Epub 2018/09/03. eng'},{id:"B90",body:'Kumawat G, Raje RS, Bhutani S, Pal JK, Mithra AS, Gaikwad K, et al. Molecular mapping of QTLs for plant type and earliness traits in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.). BMC Genetics. 2012;13:84. PubMed PMID: 23043321. PMCID: PMC3504571. Epub 2012/10/10. eng'},{id:"B91",body:'Wu GA, Prochnik S, Jenkins J, Salse J, Hellsten U, Murat F, et al. Sequencing of diverse mandarin, pummelo and orange genomes reveals complex history of admixture during citrus domestication. Nature Biotechnology. 2014;32(7):656-662. PubMed PMID: 24908277. PMCID: PMC4113729. Epub 2014/06/09. eng'},{id:"B92",body:'Borlaug NE. Contributions of conventional plant breeding to food production. Science (New York, N.Y.). 1983;219(4585):689-693. PubMed PMID: 17814030. Epub 1983/02/11. eng'},{id:"B93",body:'Zargar SM, Mahajan R, Nazir M, Nagar P, Kim ST, Rai V, et al. Common bean proteomics: Present status and future strategies. Journal of Proteomics. 2017;169:239-248. PubMed PMID: 28347863. Epub 2017/03/30. eng'},{id:"B94",body:'Jarquin D, Kocak K, Posadas L, Hyma K, Jedlicka J, Graef G, et al. Genotyping by sequencing for genomic prediction in a soybean breeding population. BMC Genomics. 2014;15:740. PubMed PMID: 25174348. PMCID: PMC4176594. Epub 2014/09/02. eng'},{id:"B95",body:'Takahashi Y, Somta P, Muto C, Iseki K, Naito K, Pandiyan M, et al. Novel genetic resources in the genus Vigna unveiled from gene bank accessions. PLoS One. 2016;11(1):e0147568'},{id:"B96",body:'Wojciechowski MF, Lavin M, Sanderson MJ. A phylogeny of legumes (Leguminosae) based on analysis of the plastid matK gene resolves many well-supported subclades within the family. American Journal of Botany. 2004;91(11):1846-1862'},{id:"B97",body:'Popoola J, Adebayo B, Adegbite A, Omonhinmin CA, Adewale B. Fruit morphometric and RAPD evaluation of intraspecific variability in some accessions of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Hochst. Ex. A. Rich. Harms). Annual Research and Review in Biology. 2017;14(4):1-10'},{id:"B98",body:'Morgante M, Olivieri A. PCR-amplified microsatellites as markers in plant genetics. The Plant Journal. 1993;3(1):175-182'},{id:"B99",body:'Saxena RK, von Wettberg E, Upadhyaya HD, Sanchez V, Songok S, Saxena K, et al. Genetic diversity and demographic history of Cajanus spp. illustrated from genome-wide SNPs. PLoS One. 2014;9(2):e88568. PubMed PMID: 24533111. PMCID: PMC3922937. Epub 2014/02/18. eng'},{id:"B100",body:'Mohanty CS, Verma S, Singh V, Khan S, Gaur P, Gupta P, et al. Characterization of winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC.) based on molecular, chemical and physiological parameters. American Journal of Molecular Biology. 2013;3(04):187'},{id:"B101",body:'Jackson SA, Iwata A, Lee SH, Schmutz J, Shoemaker R. Sequencing crop genomes: Approaches and applications. The New Phytologist. 2011;191(4):915-925'},{id:"B102",body:'Parisod C, Alix K, Just J, Petit M, Sarilar V, Mhiri C, et al. Impact of transposable elements on the organization and function of allopolyploid genomes. The New Phytologist. 2010;186(1):37-45'},{id:"B103",body:'Meyers BC, Tingey SV, Morgante M. Abundance, distribution, and transcriptional activity of repetitive elements in the maize genome. Genome Research. 2001;11(10):1660-1676'},{id:"B104",body:'Jiang N, Bao Z, Zhang X, Eddy SR, Wessler SR. Pack-MULE transposable elements mediate gene evolution in plants. Nature. 2004;431(7008):569'},{id:"B105",body:'Bennetzen JL. Transposable elements, gene creation and genome rearrangement in flowering plants. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development. 2005;15(6):621-627'},{id:"B106",body:'Du J, Grant D, Tian Z, Nelson RT, Zhu L, Shoemaker RC, et al. SoyTEdb: A comprehensive database of transposable elements in the soybean genome. BMC Genomics. 2010;11:113. PubMed PMID: 20163715. PMCID: PMC2830986. Epub 2010/02/19. eng'},{id:"B107",body:'Singh A, Sharma AK, Singh NK, Sharma TR. PpTFDB: A pigeonpea transcription factor database for exploring functional genomics in legumes. PLoS One. 2017;12(6):e0179736. PubMed PMID: 28651001. PMCID: PMC5484553. Epub 2017/06/27. eng'},{id:"B108",body:'Abdelrahman M, Jogaiah S, Burritt DJ, Tran LSP. Legume genetic resources and transcriptome dynamics under abiotic stress conditions. Plant, Cell and Environment. Sep 2018;41(9):1972-1983'},{id:"B109",body:'Bonthala VS, Mayes K, Moreton J, Blythe M, Wright V, May ST, et al. Identification of gene modules associated with low temperatures response in Bambara groundnut by network-based analysis. PLoS One. 2016;11(2):e0148771. PubMed PMID: 26859686. PMCID: PMC4747569. Epub 2016/02/10. eng'},{id:"B110",body:'Ribaut J, De Vicente M, Delannay X. Molecular breeding in developing countries: Challenges and perspectives. Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 2010;13(2):213-218'},{id:"B111",body:'Varshney RK, Glaszmann JC, Leung H, Ribaut JM. More genomic resources for less-studied crops. Trends in Biotechnology. 2010;28(9):452-460'},{id:"B112",body:'Tan H, Huang H, Tie M, Tang Y, Lai Y, Li H. Transcriptome profiling of two Asparagus bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) cultivars differing in chilling tolerance under cold stress. PLoS One. 2016;11(3):e0151105. PubMed PMID: 26954786. PMCID: PMC4783050. Epub 2016/03/10. eng'},{id:"B113",body:'Ahmad NS, Redjeki ES, Ho WK, Aliyu S, Mayes K, Massawe F, et al. Construction of a genetic linkage map and QTL analysis in Bambara groundnut. Genome. 2016;59(7):459-472. PubMed PMID: 27253730. Epub 2016/06/03. eng'},{id:"B114",body:'Janila P, Nigam SN, Pandey MK, Nagesh P, Varshney RK. Groundnut improvement: Use of genetic and genomic tools. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2013;4:23. PubMed PMID: 23443056. PMCID: PMC3580887. Epub 2013/02/28. eng'},{id:"B115",body:'Saxena RK, Rathore A, Bohra A, Yadav P, Das RR, Khan AW, et al. Development and application of high-density Axiom Cajanus SNP array with 56K SNPs to understand the genome architecture of released cultivars and founder genotypes. The Plant Genome. 2018;11(3):1-10. PubMed PMID: 30512043. Epub 2018/12/05. eng'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jacob Popoola",address:"jacob.popoola@covenantuniversity.edu.ng",affiliation:'
Biotechnology Cluster Group, Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University, Ogun State, Nigeria
Department of Biological Sciences, Ondo State University of Science and Technology, Nigeria
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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Environmental management practices have accelerated with the conscious acts of businesses on environmental issues since they have the greatest responsibility for environmental pollution. After the 2000s, businesses have started to prefer to be a part of the solution rather than being at the center of the problem and tended to green business and management practices. For improved environmental performance, sustainable competitive advantage, and environmental management, environmental consciousness should be taken into consideration in each and every human resource function ranging from recruitment to training of employees, from performance assessment to rewarding. In this sense, green human resources management (GHRM), allowing improved employee consciousness and commitment to environmental sustainability, has become an interesting issue. In the present study, green human resources management and practices are evaluated, significant issues are pointed out, and recommendations are made for future researchers who wish to work upon this subject.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Ebru Aykan",authors:[{id:"202532",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Aykan",slug:"ebru-aykan",fullName:"Ebru Aykan"}]},{id:"56333",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69931",title:"Universities as Corporate Entities: The Role of Social Responsibility in Their Strategic Management",slug:"universities-as-corporate-entities-the-role-of-social-responsibility-in-their-strategic-management",totalDownloads:1997,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Universities, as educational institutions, play a vital role in the development and improvement of the society, contributing to the welfare of citizens. Considering the social responsibility of universities with a large number of stakeholders (students, institutions, government, employees, companies, local community, etc.), this chapter aims to examine how these institutions establish the mission, objectives and strategic actions oriented at meeting these expectations. In this line, university in its daily management is also considered a corporate entity, which set up strategic plans and practices, an essential process to achieve its success in the long term. The chapter explores the necessary steps for adjusting these strategic plans to the new challeng e of introducing a socially responsible orientation in their management.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Elva L. 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In addition, companies use a specific communication strategy to communicate the results of sustainable activities involving strategic stakeholders. In a sample of companies included in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index and Global Rep Track 100, we analyze the corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategy of these companies, how they integrate the Sustainable Development Goals, and how they create a dialogue with their stakeholders across different platforms. The study of the sample is performed by content analysis on identity values and their correspondence with the CSR values, and this study includes an analysis of activities that these companies develop communicating their impacts. The results show that companies have actively integrated their stakeholders into their business management. However, these companies incorporate the concept of value creation in a different manner, although their activities are oriented to the stakeholders as to the benefit of society.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Belén López and Abel Monfort",authors:[{id:"201681",title:"Dr.",name:"Belen",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez",slug:"belen-lopez",fullName:"Belen Lopez"},{id:"203451",title:"Dr.",name:"Abel",middleName:null,surname:"Monfort",slug:"abel-monfort",fullName:"Abel Monfort"}]},{id:"56123",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69707",title:"Corporate Governance Codes and Their Role in Improving Corporate Governance Practice",slug:"corporate-governance-codes-and-their-role-in-improving-corporate-governance-practice",totalDownloads:3122,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Good corporate governance (CG) is primarily the responsibility of every company, and both hard law and soft law should provide comprehensive corporate governance framework, thereby encouraging the introduction of high governance standards and best practices in the companies’ corporate governance system. The aim of this contribution is to broaden understanding on the role of codes of good governance in improving corporate governance practice on the case of Slovenia. The findings of research studies and analyses of the content of the Slovenian CG Code and its adoption in Slovenian companies show that the code has been playing an important role in developing corporate governance practice in Slovenia. Additionally, such analyses provide important cognitions on the adoption of the CG Code in Slovenian companies by revealing improvements in the governance practice and indicating those areas where changes are required. That is a way such monitoring and analyses should be done on the regular basis together with reporting on the monitoring results. This can considerably contribute to better understanding of the code’s recommendations among companies, promote debate and thus foster awareness of the underlying issues. Future analyses should address not only the statements on compliance but also how companies actually implement the code’s recommendations.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Mojca Duh",authors:[{id:"202681",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Duh",slug:"mojca-duh",fullName:"Mojca Duh"}]},{id:"56244",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69704",title:"Corporate Governance",slug:"corporate-governance",totalDownloads:1493,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The following chapter identifies the meaning and main features of corporate governance, underlines the importance of an entity, which regulates and balances the interests of shareholders, stakeholders, and managers in order to realize a corporation’s long-run goals. Currently, all models of corporate governance can be divided by their characteristics into three types: Anglo-American, German, and Japanese; each of these models has some unique elements that are required by a particular country. The process of forming and development of corporate governance in transitional economies are described as well. As the accuracy of corporate government influences the wiliness of investors to sink their capital, it is crucial to understand the methods of corporate governance efficiency evaluation by international rating agencies. Moreover, the example of Enron Corporation’s failure shows the exceptional role of corporate governance in protecting and ensuring the rights of shareholders and stakeholders, solving the conflict between managers seeking higher bonuses and investors’ goals on stable future return and potential growth.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Alla Mostepaniuk",authors:[{id:"202902",title:"Dr.",name:"Alla",middleName:null,surname:"Mostepaniuk",slug:"alla-mostepaniuk",fullName:"Alla Mostepaniuk"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55244",title:"Corporate Governance and Fraud: Evolution and Considerations",slug:"corporate-governance-and-fraud-evolution-and-considerations",totalDownloads:3031,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"There are many definitions of Corporate Governance, as a structure, as process, as policies, as mechanisms, but despite their differences of focus, they mainly addressed the sustainable economic growth and protection of shareholders and other stakeholder’s rights. The purpose here is to present the evolution of the main principles and frameworks as corporate and financial environment changes and set new challenges. Some important scandals that revealed the weaknesses of corporate governance frameworks are described to complement the comprehension of the object of it. It is detached the aspects simulated or ignored and the subsequent enforcement and monitoring response. Discussion about the new challenges, what corporate governance is supposed to provide and what it can promote, closes this chapter.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Ana Paula Paulino da Costa",authors:[{id:"201677",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Paula P.",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",slug:"ana-paula-p.-costa",fullName:"Ana Paula P. Costa"}]},{id:"56123",title:"Corporate Governance Codes and Their Role in Improving Corporate Governance Practice",slug:"corporate-governance-codes-and-their-role-in-improving-corporate-governance-practice",totalDownloads:3122,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Good corporate governance (CG) is primarily the responsibility of every company, and both hard law and soft law should provide comprehensive corporate governance framework, thereby encouraging the introduction of high governance standards and best practices in the companies’ corporate governance system. The aim of this contribution is to broaden understanding on the role of codes of good governance in improving corporate governance practice on the case of Slovenia. The findings of research studies and analyses of the content of the Slovenian CG Code and its adoption in Slovenian companies show that the code has been playing an important role in developing corporate governance practice in Slovenia. Additionally, such analyses provide important cognitions on the adoption of the CG Code in Slovenian companies by revealing improvements in the governance practice and indicating those areas where changes are required. That is a way such monitoring and analyses should be done on the regular basis together with reporting on the monitoring results. This can considerably contribute to better understanding of the code’s recommendations among companies, promote debate and thus foster awareness of the underlying issues. Future analyses should address not only the statements on compliance but also how companies actually implement the code’s recommendations.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Mojca Duh",authors:[{id:"202681",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Duh",slug:"mojca-duh",fullName:"Mojca Duh"}]},{id:"56867",title:"Strategic Decision Making and Its Importance in Small Corporations",slug:"strategic-decision-making-and-its-importance-in-small-corporations",totalDownloads:2051,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The global economic crisis has sharply affected thousands of small corporations and declared bankruptcy. It is likely that in the form in which they are working now, they will not be able to survive the economic pressure of competitors. Effective policy‐making can be an important key to success. Analysis of the process of strategic decision making in small corporations is extensive research gap that we try to fill with the contribution. We put emphasis on strategic decisions, models of the strategic decision‐making factors affecting the profile of these processes and mechanisms that make use of small corporation managers in strategic decision making. The conclusions of the research are identified the most important aspects influencing and forming process of strategic decision making by managers of small corporations.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Nadežda Jankelová",authors:[{id:"202315",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadežda",middleName:null,surname:"Jankelova",slug:"nadezda-jankelova",fullName:"Nadežda Jankelova"}]},{id:"56008",title:"Gaining a Competitive Advantage through Green Human Resource Management",slug:"gaining-a-competitive-advantage-through-green-human-resource-management",totalDownloads:2187,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"The practices of environmental protection and the prevention of environmental pollution have emerged as a result of recent environmental problems when the humans noticed that natural resources are limited. Environmental management practices have accelerated with the conscious acts of businesses on environmental issues since they have the greatest responsibility for environmental pollution. After the 2000s, businesses have started to prefer to be a part of the solution rather than being at the center of the problem and tended to green business and management practices. For improved environmental performance, sustainable competitive advantage, and environmental management, environmental consciousness should be taken into consideration in each and every human resource function ranging from recruitment to training of employees, from performance assessment to rewarding. In this sense, green human resources management (GHRM), allowing improved employee consciousness and commitment to environmental sustainability, has become an interesting issue. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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