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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3007",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World",title:"Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book "Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World" sees biodiversity as management and utilization of resources in satisfying human needs in multi-sectional areas including agriculture, forestry, fisheries, wildlife and other exhaustible and inexhaustible resources. Its value is to fulfill actual human preferences and variability of life is measured by amount of genetic variation available. In viewing diversity as an ultimate moral value, one is faced with a situation in environmental preservation in order to allow components of total diversity to flourish and constitute a threat to continuous existence and decrease total diversity. 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Mohamed and Heikki N. Koivo",authors:[{id:"33855",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Faisal",fullName:"Mohamed Faisal",slug:"mohamed-faisal"},{id:"39905",title:"Prof.",name:"Heikki",middleName:null,surname:"Koivo",fullName:"Heikki Koivo",slug:"heikki-koivo"}]},{id:"16257",title:"Size Optimization of a Solar-wind Hybrid Energy System Using Two Simulation Based Optimization Techniques",slug:"size-optimization-of-a-solar-wind-hybrid-energy-system-using-two-simulation-based-optimization-techn",signatures:"Orhan Ekren and Banu Yetkin Ekren",authors:[{id:"30100",title:"Dr.",name:"Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Yetkin Ekren",fullName:"Banu Yetkin Ekren",slug:"banu-yetkin-ekren"},{id:"42011",title:"Dr.",name:"Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Ekren",fullName:"Orhan Ekren",slug:"orhan-ekren"}]},{id:"16258",title:"Fuzzy Control of WT with DFIG for Integration into Micro-grids",slug:"fuzzy-control-of-wt-with-dfig-for-integration-into-micro-grids",signatures:"Christina N. Papadimitriou and Nicholas A. Vovos",authors:[{id:"29829",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicholas",middleName:null,surname:"Vovos",fullName:"Nicholas Vovos",slug:"nicholas-vovos"},{id:"29832",title:"Mrs.",name:"Christina",middleName:null,surname:"Papadimitriou",fullName:"Christina Papadimitriou",slug:"christina-papadimitriou"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"205",title:"Fundamental and Advanced Topics in Wind Power",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8b5955addb75d98a6bba1c94e3e7a74",slug:"fundamental-and-advanced-topics-in-wind-power",bookSignature:"Rupp Carriveau",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/205.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22234",title:"Dr.",name:"Rupp",surname:"Carriveau",slug:"rupp-carriveau",fullName:"Rupp Carriveau"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"212",title:"Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cd6021285906516c727802d02ce0954",slug:"energy-storage-in-the-emerging-era-of-smart-grids",bookSignature:"Rosario Carbone",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/212.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"11592",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Carbone",slug:"rosario-carbone",fullName:"Rosario Carbone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"214",title:"Energy Management Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7d93a7487829da3eb86b2e819720536",slug:"energy-management-systems",bookSignature:"P. 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Giridhar Kini",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/214.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42436",title:"Dr.",name:"Giridhar",surname:"Kini",slug:"giridhar-kini",fullName:"Giridhar Kini"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73991",title:"Development of a Novel Electromagnetic Rewarming Technology for the Cryopreservation of Stem Cells with Large Volume",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94556",slug:"development-of-a-novel-electromagnetic-rewarming-technology-for-the-cryopreservation-of-stem-cells-w",body:'\nCryopreservation is one the most essential techniques that has been widely used for preserving stem cells in scientific research and cellular therapies [1]. The principle of cryopreservation is to use the super low temperature to reduce the biological and chemical reactions in living stem cells. The expansion in clinical tests for biomedical applications revealed the limitations of the current preservation technologies, i.e., only the small volumes of stem cells can be successfully cryopreserved. In the case of large samples such as bulk volume of cells, tissues, or organs, cryopreservation often fails because of the damage caused by ice crystal growth and thermal stress within the bio-samples [2, 3].
\nIn 1960s, Mazur proposed “two-factor hypothesis” of freezing injury based on the study of Chinese hamster tissue [4]. During the cooling process, two distinct types of cryoinjuries determine the life or death of the cells, which are affected by the cooling rate. Neither too high nor too low the cooling rate is favored for the cryopreservation (Figure 1).
\nSchematic drawing of physical events in cells during freezing.
When cells are cooled down to subzero temperatures under a normal pressure, ice crystals emerge and grow in the suspensions outside the cell membrane in the beginning [5]. The external ice growth into cells is blocked by the plasma membrane. The cytoplasmic region remains unfrozen and in the supercooled state [6]. However, the increase of osmolality and chemical potential difference across cell membranes due to the external ice formation will serve as a driving force for mass transfer between the intracellular components and extracellular environment, pulling water out of cells. If the cooling is too rapid, there is insufficient time for the water to flow out of the cells. As the temperature goes down rapidly, the unfrozen and supercooled state is disturbed and the intracellular ice formation (IIF) happens [7]. The lethal IIF can rupture the cell membranes and lead to the cell death. On the other hand, if the cooling rate is too slow, intracellular ice may be reduced or avoided. The plenty of time permits water transport out of the membrane under the influence of the osmolality difference. Cells then suffer from high concentration of intracellular solute/electrolytes (so called “solution effects”) and severe dehydration. The slower cooling process may expose the cells to “solution effects” for a longer time, which is unacceptable for the cells. Therefore, the cooling rate may not be too high or too low based on the “two-factor hypothesis”.
\nLater in 1984, Mazur reported the rapid rewarming can ‘rescue’ the rapidly frozen cells [6]. Though the fast cooling process produces intracellular ice, the crystals tend to be small. Due to the unstable thermal properties, during rewarming, small crystals formed at lower temperature aggregate to become larger crystals. The process referred to as recrystallization. It has been proved that the cells cooled at rate far beyond the optimal one will survive if warmed at very rapid rate, but cells do not survive if warmed slowly [8, 9]. Besides the rapid rewarming rate, uniformity of temperature distribution also plays an important role to the survival of the samples [10]. Thermal stress caused by the temperature gradients will lead to the crack of the brittle material, especially the larger systems [11]. Thus, both of fast and homogeneity are essential in the thawing. A rapid-uniform rewarming technology is needed to successful cryopreservation of stem cells with large volume.
\nA typical cryopreservation procedure is composed of five steps:
addition of appropriate cryoprotective agents (CPAs),
cooling at an optimal rate,
storage at the low temperature (e.g. -80°C freezer or − 196°C liquid nitrogen tank),
rearming to physiological temperature, and
removal of the CPAs.
Over the past decades, scientists made significant progress in the methods and protocols of addition/removal of CPAs, approaches of cooling to the target temperature, and strategies to preserve biomaterials at sub-zero temperature environment. However, in the scientific and clinical applications, convective rewarming of the cryopreserved samples, typically thawing in a 37°C water bath, remains the gold standard for small samples [12].
\nWarming in the water bath is a convective rewarming approach in which heat is transferred from the outer boundaries to the inner portion of the cryopreserved biological samples. Because of the high specific heat of biological materials, it requires a great amount of heat to rewarm them. Another obstacle for the rewarming process is the low thermal conductivity of biomaterials. Heat cannot be quickly transmitted into the core area of large samples. For a small volume of cell suspensions, the problem caused by the lower thermal conductivity may possibly be solved by the design of sample holder (e.g. maximize the sample holder’s ratio of surface area to volume) [13]. However, for larger system with much smaller ratio of the surface area to the volume, they cannot be sliced or pressed into a thin film to increase the heat transfer area for convective warming in water bath. In this case, a large temperature difference will occur and lead to thermal stresses that can result in fracture of the samples during rewarming. Therefore, the traditional method of convective rewarming at the sample surface is not appropriate for the cryopreservation of large volume of biomaterials. A uniform and rapid rewarming method is needed to meet the urgent needs in tissue engineering and cellular therapy, which may be achieved by a volumetric rewarming technique, e.g., electromagnetic heating.
\nThe electromagnetic field is a combination of the electric field and the magnetic field generated by electrically charged objects. The electric field and magnetic field are coupled with each other. A time varying electric field (contrary to static field) induces magnetic field changing over time, and vice versa. The distribution and propagation of electromagnetic fields are governed by Maxwell’s equations. An electromagnetic wave is the propagation of the electromagnetic field through media such as air, water, etc., or in vacuum. This propagation also refers to radiation transmitting the electromagnetic energy, momentum and angular momentum through space. As one of the basic forces in nature, the propagating electromagnetic fields interact with other materials and generate different effects depending on the frequency and power. Based on the mechanisms behind these interactions between electromagnetic waves and other materials, electromagnetic waves have been applied in numerous aspects including: telecommunications such as mobile phone calling, the short wave broadcast, TV signal transmission and connection between the spaceship and the base on earth, remote sensing for the weather forecasting, land mapping, infrared radiation detecting, X-rays and computer tomography (CT) or the disease diagnoses, and radiotherapy which employs higher energy radiation to kill cancer cells. These various applications are closely related to the spectrum of electromagnetic waves. The most commonly used frequency band is at radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic wave and microwave.
\nThe thermal effects of electromagnetic waves benefit the organism on earth even long before the prehistory. The thermal energy transmitted by the electromagnetic waves emitted from the sun allows the survival of plants, animals. This electromagnetic wave emitted from the sun, or sunlight, is distributed across almost the entire spectrum but with major intensity on infrared, visible, and ultraviolet frequency ranges. These major components visible light has a frequency range in several hundreds of THz. Higher frequency electromagnetic waves such as X-rays carry much higher energy and are used for radiation therapy killing the tumor cells by ionizing the molecules. In the lower frequency range, electromagnetic waves (radio frequency electromagnetic waves, microwave) with less energy can hardly excite ionization, but can result in thermal effects with materials.
\nThe investigation of the heating phenomenon by microwave occurred in the 1940s. A candy bar under an active microwave generating devices melted and the engineer used this observation to develop equipment for preparing and heating food utilizing the thermal effects of microwave radiation. Since then, not only has the commercialization of the microwave oven become widespread, scientists also began to study the potential benefits for industry and medicine. Most of food is a dielectric material that can interact with the electromagnetic fields in the microwave oven due to a large portion of water in the contents. The water molecules are dipole molecules comprising an electrical positive charged end and an electrical negative charged end. Under the influence of electric fields, these dipole molecules will align themselves with the applied electric fields. When the directions of external electric fields are changing as in the oscillating electromagnetic waves, the dipole molecules will rotate to follow up with the changing fields. The interactions between the rapid changing electromagnetic fields and water dipole molecules will cause mechanical friction forces among the water molecules. The frictions between these micro molecules generate heat volumetrically. Similarly, to the food in the microwave oven for heating, the biological materials in cryopreservation are organisms that are primarily composed of water. Therefore, microwave can also be used for the heating of cryopreserved biological systems.
\nWhen using microwave as the rewarming approach in the cryopreservation, the biomaterials interact with the applied electromagnetic field. Since most biomaterials are nonmagnetic, the forced movement of molecules is mainly due to the electric field component of the electromagnetic field. As shown in Figure 2, a distinct advantage of microwave rewarming compared with the traditional water bath rewarming is that the heat is generated over the entire region of the material which can lead to volumetric and uniform heating.
\nIllustration of heat generation under the influence of electromagnetic waves.
The electrical parameter that characterizes the interaction between the material and electric field component is the relative complex permittivity, or dielectric property, expressed in Eq. (1):
\nThe real part of complex permittivity, \n
where \n
The development of electromagnetic rewarming systems is limited by the cost and inadequate theoretical guidance. The establishment of an electromagnetic resonance rewarming system involves the selection of frequency source and power, manufacturing of the resonance chamber, optimization of the electromagnetic energy feeding approach to the cryopreserved materials. Setting up a specific resonance rewarming system can take a few months to years and requires substantial funding support. When the system is going to be scaled up to materials of a larger dimension, various parameters of the system should be replaced which will extend the time required for the optimization. The first experimental investigation of using electromagnetic energy in cryopreservation began in the 1970s. In Kettrer’s experiment [14], 20 kidneys rewarmed by a microwave generation device with power control were considered partial success. By using a commercial 1.35 kW Toshiba microwave oven which generated by 2.45 GHz magnetron, Guttman [15] reported the electromagnetic rewarming of 16 cryopreserved canine kidneys. Half of the dogs receiving transplantation of these kidneys survived months.
\nHowever, in Pegg’s attempt [16] to repeat the rewarming of dog kidneys with commercial microwave oven, none of the post-thawing dog kidneys function properly.
\nAnother device designed by Burdette [17] generated an electromagnetic field with an open electromagnetic illumination system. The frequency can be adjusted to several distinct values. The rewarming results of rabbit and canine kidneys were published without the following viability analysis.
\nThese preceding explorations opened a new avenue for cryobiologists, most specialized in biomechanical and biochemical physics, to implement new technologies from electrical engineering in the application of cryopreservation. A major problem for these early investigations of electromagnetic rewarming is that the frequency of the commercial microwave oven is too high to penetrate into the inner part of the cryopreserved biomaterials. A good uniformity should be achieved with lower frequency electromagnetic waves. In addition, electromagnetic rewarming can result in a ‘thermal runaway’ problem because the dielectric loss of biomaterials generally increases with temperature during rewarming process, which leads to an increasing temperature difference across the sample volume.
\nThermal runaway phenomenon is depicted in Figure 3. Due to the complex interactions between the material and the applied electromagnetic wave, and nonuniformity of material properties, the temperature distribution may not be that uniform initially. The slightly warmer area of the biological samples has a higher ability to absorb energy from electromagnetic waves and convert into heat than colder area. The temperature difference between these components will be magnified. When the difference in governing properties is significant and favors the ultrafast thawing of the hot area, the nonuniform temperature gradient is even intensified.
\nIntroduction of the ‘thermal runaway’ phenomena: The appearing of large temperature gradient by electromagnetic rewarming.
To avoid the localized warming associated with ‘thermal runaway’ and limited penetration depth for the 2.45 GHz high frequency electromagnetic waves, more delicate controlled electromagnetic rewarming systems operating in lower frequencies are required for cryopreservation. Thereafter, a rewarming system using helical coil to generate tens of MHz electromagnetic waves was used to rewarm CPA solutions as a preliminary trial [18]. But the rewarming rate was moderate achieved by this open system. Later on, a few scientists reconsidered the electromagnetic rewarming in closed systems to confine electromagnetic energies [19, 20]. Unlike the commercial microwave oven in which the generated signal shifted around ±50 MHz, the electromagnetic wave was synthesized by voltage-controlled oscillators. The stability of frequency was improved so that the design of chamber could fit with the electromagnetic source and establish resonant state to concentrate the electromagnetic energy.
\nA major problem for these resonant systems may come from an intention to reduce the non-uniformity by adopting multimode resonant cavities. In Rachman’s electromagnetic resonance cavity rewarming system [19], two resonant states of the cavity were excited (TE111 and TM010). Another multimode cavity rewarming system designed by Robinson [20] excited three different modes. The results of the warming test for CPA solutions were improved while the spatial temperature difference was not greatly reduced, which means thermal runaway could not be eliminated. The reason behind this is due to the interaction between the cryopreserved CPAs and the properties of the resonant cavity. Multimode cavities resonating at different frequencies bring more difficulties in the control of signal frequency at each port to feed electromagnetic energy into the cavity. Hence, a single mode resonant cavity which excites only at a specific frequency may be superior in the control of field distribution in the rewarming process.
\nOur goal is to achieve effective cryopreservation protocol for bulk volume of stem cells. In this chapter, the target is to improve electromagnetic rewarming systems for the rapid-uniform rewarming, laying down the foundation for the cryopreservation of biomaterials with large volume.
\nThe dielectric properties of the biomaterials characterize the interaction between applied electromagnetic field and the biomaterials, and thereby determine the absorption of electromagnetic energy by the biomaterials [21, 22]. The dielectric properties are temperature dependent. If the warmer part of the biomaterial absorbs more heat, the temperature at that warmer part would be further increased, increasing temperature gradients, and therefore inducing thermal stresses. A large thermal stress can destroy the viability of cryopreserved materials and can be even more threatening to bulky systems [23, 24]. Since the dielectric properties play a key role in the absorption of electromagnetic energy, it is a priority to discover the dielectric properties of the biomaterials. In cryopreservation, particularly in vitrification using a high concentration cryoprotective agent, the CPA/vitrification solutions dominate the properties of the cell suspensions or tissues. Hence, the dielectric properties of the CPA/vitrification solutions should be determined so that electromagnetic rewarming can be optimized.
\nThe measurement of the dielectric properties of biomaterials requires sensing and monitoring tools. In many biomedical applications, various measurement methods including transmission and reflection techniques have been used to determine dielectric properties [25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
\nThe samples measured by transmission and reflection methods usually are fixed without morphologically change. But in the application of electromagnetic rewarming, the measurement of dielectric properties must be carried out in the subzero temperature range which may involves phase change and rules out the possibility using transmission and reflection techniques. The cavity perturbation method has been used for measuring the electric properties of different kinds of materials [30, 31, 32, 33] due to its ability to measure the dielectric properties of low loss dielectric materials [34]. In the subzero temperature range, the dielectric properties of biomaterials and CPA/vitrification solutions can be very small. Therefore, in this work, we adopted a cavity perturbation method to determine the dielectric properties of three different vitrification solutions at low temperatures. Briefly, a resonant cavity was designed and manufactured to measure the dielectric properties of cryopreserved biomaterials at 434 MHz. By inserting samples with different permittivity into the resonant cavity, the resonant frequency and quality factor could be changed. From the variation of the resonant frequency and the quality factor, the dielectric properties can be derived.
\nThrough the change of resonant frequency ∆\n
where ∆\n
\n\n
The experimental system is shown in Figure 4. A rectangular single-mode resonant cavity resonating at around 434 MHz was manufactured. The dimension of the cavity was designed to 680 × 400 × 350 mm. Copper plates were used to manufacture the cavity due to its high conductivity (to prevent electromagnetic leakage).
\nSchematic of the system for measurement of dielectric properties.
Water, methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, ethylene glycol and cyclohexane samples with known properties were used for calibration of the cavity to determine \n
Once \n
To determine the temperature-dependent specific heat capacity, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was used to take accurate measurement of various sample solutions. Isothermal step scan method is adopted to minimize the experimental error. The latent heat was incorporated into the effective specific heat capacity when the phase transition occurs.
\nThermal conductivity of sample solutions was measured using a micro thermal sensor developed by Liang, et al. [38] and manufactured in the lab. The sensor works on the principle of Transient Hot Wire (THW). This miniaturized device utilizes a SiO2/Au/SiO2 sandwiched structure to protect the microfabricated serpentine gold coil, which functions as both the heater and a passive thermometer. The sensor has already been tested and shown to measure thermal conductivity of biomaterials and solutions with high accuracy, repeatability and system reliability.
\nPrevious cryobiologists have developed electromagnetic cavity rewarming for large biomaterials. Evans [39], Robinson [37] and Luo [40] built electromagnetic heating systems that could resonate at around 434 MHz but working at different modes. The sample was placed at the center with a large magnitude of the electric field, which is critical to rapid rewarming. The size of the sample was controlled to reduce temperature gradients resulted from the electromagnetic field attenuated away from the center. For multimode resonant cavity rewarming system, it could be difficult to control the resonant state or field distribution with several EM power inputs. While single mode cavity system is easier to concentrate a strong EM field and control in the rewarming process. Therefore, multimode resonant rewarming systems are excluded for optimization here. According to the warming results, electromagnetic rewarming has already demonstrated more effective than traditional water bath method. However, further improvement of the electromagnetic rewarming system is still needed to optimize the rewarming protocol of bulk volume of cells.
\nMultiple theoretical analysis and numerical simulations had been accomplished [41, 42, 43] on different design possibilities of electromagnetic rewarming systems. Method of moments (MoM) was implemented to calculate and analyze the electric filed intensity and profile [42] and the method of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) was applied to investigate the post-thawed temperature profile [44]. Another attempt involving the resonance rewarming in the numerical model combined with nanoparticles to improve the warming rate. However, in this study, the model was based on the power consumption at 8000 W [45] that is hard to achieve in the real-world.
\nIn this section, a more efficient and effective model based on finite element method combining electromagnetic wave propagation and heat transfer process was presented. The optimization of the shape of cryopreserved sample was performed numerically. The essential physical properties of several sample solutions including complex permittivity, specific heat, and thermal conductivity characterized experimentally in the previous studies were used in this simulation test.
\nThe electromagnetic resonant system setup showed in Figure 5 consists of a signal generator with voltage control at lower scale, a power oscillator, a resonant cavity, a coaxial transmission wire, and a temperature sensor. An antenna made of high electrical conductivity material was used to excite the electric field and create a standing wave pattern of electromagnetic field inside the rewarming cavity. A sample holder contained cryopreserved stem cells or other biomaterials was place in the center of the cavity, where the strongest electric field was established to achieve the fast rewarming.
\nSchematic description of the experimental setup of the EM rewarming system.
Most of the cryopreserved biomaterials are insensitive to the magnetic field, e.g. the stem cells, with electrical parameters including, ε (absolute permittivity, \n
where E is the electric field intensity (\n
where f (Hz) denotes the frequency of the electromagnetic field. q (\n
where \n
In this numerical modeling analysis, the thermal properties of the cryopreserved material were preset to be temperature-dependent. The specific heat and thermal conductivity at different temperatures were captured once the temperature profile in the Eq. (11) was determined. With the updated thermal and electrical properties over the interested temperature range, the electromagnetic field profile was calculated. Cryopreserved material’s dielectric loss \n
The numerical modeling was setup with COMSOL Multiphysics (COMSOL, Burlington, MA, USA), applying the finite element method. Adopting the analytical process discussed in the theoretical formulation section, the thermal science and combined electromagnetic rewarming system in the resonant chamber as shown in Figure 6. In this numerical investigation, the thermal and electrical parameters of the model were determined follow the methods discussed in the previous section.
\nSchematic description of the simulated resonant EM rewarming cavity.
Nyquist criterion was applied to the meshing grid of the simulation. The maximum size of the element grid was contained smaller than half of the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave. Six grids per wavelength in the finite element analysis was also employed to solve the Maxwell’s equation [47].
\nTetrahedral grids were selected in this study due to smaller grid size comparing to the discretization of the resonant rewarming system. Once the tetrahedron grid applied, the grid size of the resonant chamber was calculated to be less than 10% of the wavelength of electromagnetic wave. In the mesh preparation (shown in Figure 7), different meshing approaches were adopted for different components of the system. Refined meshes were created near the boundaries of surfaces (in total, about 988,000 elements were generated). The area around probe antenna and central part of the sample holder were treated with the enhanced meshing. A smaller grid size (about 163,000 elements) will diminish the difference of the temperature profile less than 0.5% over the entire field.
\nGeometric gridded model of the resonant cavity for simulation.
The prepared simulation model was validated with the analytical results. In the model, the resonant frequency of the chamber was 434.767 MHz, consistent with the frequency from the analytical result. When the chamber was at the resonant state, the normalized electric field intensity profile was plotted for both of the simulated result and analytic result in the resonant cavity was plot in comparison with the analytic solution (Figure 8), which proofed a good alignment between two results. As the position advancing to the central part of the cavity, the intensity of the electric field increased significantly. Hence, the cryopreserved bio-sample was designed to be placed in the central to achieve a fast rewarming process by absorb more electromagnetic power.
\nDistribution of the electrical field magnitude at the central cross-sectional plane in the electromagnetic rewarming chamber. Analytical and simulated results show that electric field energy is focused in the center of the cavity.
The effect of sample holder’s shape to the rewarming was studied to minimize the injury to the biomaterials caused by non-uniform thawing. On the other side, different sample holders might be selected based on the size and structure of the biomaterials. Considering the hardness to accurate calculate the energy conversion between the cavity and the sample through analytical solution, and precise temperature profile monitoring over the entire sample space through experiment, in this simulation, a total of four different sample holder shapes (geometry details shown in Table 1) with the same sample volume of 25 mL were calculated to study the difference over the rewarming process. The heating started at the initial temperature set to −80° C and ended at 0°C. The average rewarming rates of cylindrical, ellipsoidal, spherical, and cubic holders were 72.1, 63.5, 46.1, and 22.8° C/min, respectively. From the fast rewarming perspective, cylindrical and ellipsoidal shapes were the top choices.
\nParameter | \nValue (mm) | \n
---|---|
Radius of sphere | \n18 | \n
Radius of cylinder | \n18 | \n
Height of cylinder | \n20 | \n
a-Semi axis of ellipsoid | \n23 | \n
b-Semi axis of ellipsoid | \n14 | \n
c-Semi axis of ellipsoid | \n18 | \n
Side length of cube | \n29 | \n
Dimensions of sample holder shapes.
Later, the temperature profile at the end of the rewarming was investigated. As shown in Figure 9, the temperature gradients that defined as the temperature difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures in the holder divided by the ferret diameter, for spherical, ellipsoidal, cylindrical, and cubic samples were 0.27, 0.62, 0.95 and 1.24° C/mm, respectively. From the temperature gradient perspective, the spherical and ellipsoidal shapes were the top choices.
\nSimulated post thawing temperature distribution of cryopreserved sample solution in different sample holder shapes. (a) Spherical shape; (b) ellipsoidal shape; (c) cubic shape; (d) cylindrical shape. The spherical and ellipsoidal samples manifested more uniform temperature distribution than cubic and cylindrical samples.
Both rewarming rate and temperature distribution results indicated the cubic shape will not perform well the resonant chamber, which aligned with the prediction that samples with sharp edges or surfaces were inappropriate to be heated by the electromagnetic rewarming method [42].
\nRobinson et al. presumed that ellipsoidal sample shape works well for electromagnetic rewarming technology and performed the experiment with a cone-shape sample to approximate a ellipsoidal holder [21]. The currents from numerical modeling confirmed the fast and uniform rewarming of the ellipsoidal sample. However, it is extremally hard to manufacture a precise ellipsoidal shape holder in the real-world. The same hardness also applied to the spherical holder. Moreover, a cryopreserved material should be stored well in an optimized holder to achieve a better rewarming performance. Thus, the material of the holder was ideally a thin-layer to diminish the absorption of the electromagnetic power. Overall, it is an engineering challenge to manufacture a qualified sample holder with desired material and dimensions in spherical or ellipsoidal geometry. Additionally, an extra supporting structure is required to hold the position of the spherical and ellipsoidal sample in the center of the cavity, which may result as the effect of the electromagnetic profile. Therefore, cylindrical holder was the best option with the fair manufacturing and faster rewarming rate. Though, more improvements should be considered to enhance the uniformity of the temperature profile.
\nConvective warming methods are hindered by the poor abilities to conduct heat into the core part of the materials. While volumetric heating method is needed for bulky material, the previous multimode or commercial microwave systems could not be adopted since they lack a precise control system to maintain the resonant state, leading to either recrystallization or devitrification. Due to the slow heating, most of electromagnetic energy was reflected back from the cavity or causing thermal runaway problems and creating undesired hot spots.
\nThere are two major limitations for electromagnetic resonance system to achieve rapid and uniform heating. Firstly, the system itself should provide sufficient electromagnetic energy to warm up biomaterials. Secondly, the temperature dependent dielectric properties of the biomaterials progressively shift the resonant frequency of the resonant chamber during the rewarming process. Therefore, when using resonant electromagnetic field as the heating source, if the electromagnetic signal parameters remain stagnant according to the frequency change resulted from the temperature change of biomaterials, the electromagnetic energy generated may not be converted into the strong electromagnetic field in the resonant chamber to excite resonance.
\nMoreover, if the electromagnetic system source remains static during the rewarming procedure, severe problems regarding the system safety and efficiency may emerge. A higher portion of reflected electromagnetic power can lead to the damage to the system components as well as potential electromagnetic radiation hazards to the surrounding operators. On the other hand, with smaller electromagnetic energy remaining inside the rewarming chamber, sufficiently strong electromagnetic field inside the resonant cavity could hardly be excited resulting a slow warming. Therefore, it requires delicate control on the set up of the electromagnetic resonant system.
\nThe electromagnetic signal is synthesized by a signal generator (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The signal generator can generate continuous electromagnetic waves between 250 kHz and 3 GHz which covers lower frequency band of radiofrequency and microwave. And the power output range is +7 to −120 dBm (i.e. 0.005 to 10–15 W). At this low power output, the electromagnetic field established in the resonant chamber is too weak to rewarm the cryopreserved biomaterials rapid enough avoiding devitrification. In order to intensify the electromagnetic field to achieve higher rewarming rates, a power amplifier (OPHIR RF, Los Angeles, CA, USA) was adopted to increase the electromagnetic power to over 57 dBm (501 W).
\nThe power amplifier has a frequency range between 300 and 500 MHz, which fully covers the working frequency range for this experimental investigation. The reflected power received by this power amplifier would also be detected by the control circuits. The power amplifier will automatically cut off excessive output generation to protect itself. Due to the relatively high electromagnetic power used in the system, two side panel cooling fans were incorporated to avoid internal circuits overheating and system shutdown. The connections between the signal generator and power amplifier, as well as other microwave components are through 50 Ω coaxial cables. These cables would have some attenuation effects. Thus, in order to maintain the high power signal from the amplifier to the rest part of the system, the length should be as short as possible. The measurement was done by the signal generator and a power meter. According to the measurements of six coaxial cables of different lengths, the attenuation for coaxial cables is around 0.1 dB/m.
\nThe most significant difference between the current resonance system and the previous assembled circuits is attributed to the frequency tracking component. During the rewarming process, the resonant frequency of the resonant cavity with biomaterials would change on account of the temperature dependent dielectric properties of the inside biological samples. To prevent the mismatch between the synthesized electromagnetic source frequency and the resonant frequency of the rewarming chamber, the generated frequency source should be dynamically adjusted during the rewarming process.
\nIn order to prevent the frequency mismatch between the signal generation and the resonant frequency which is swiftly altered by the massive cryopreserved materials inside, a dynamic feedback control component was added between the electromagnetic source and the resonant cavity. A directional coupler was introduced to sample the transmitted and reflected power. A spectrum analyzer was connected to the port corresponding to the reduced reflected power. The entire spectrum of the reflected power was evaluated and by looking for the highest power peak, the frequency corresponding to the most significant reflected power was determined. During the rewarming process, the frequency generated from the electromagnetic signal source is dynamically changed corresponding to this spectrum and minimize the reflected power. Otherwise, the large portion of reflected power could lead to a slow warming rate with less power into the cavity. In addition, the reflected power can cause a serious damage to the rest part of the electromagnetic resonance system itself, such as the amplifier, signal synthesizer.
\nIn the numerical simulation model, the probe length was adjusted to be the original probe length and the extended probe length. The electric field intensity excited in the sample inside the cavity was calculated. As shown in Figure 10, the electric field intensity in the cryopreserved material increases almost ten times larger than that using the original probe antenna, which suggests that the impedance matching between the loaded cavity and the electromagnetic source is greatly improved by adopting an extended probe antenna.
\nElectric field intensity comparison.
Since electric field power is proportional to the square of the electric field intensity, we could have much more power to heat the material using the optimized extended probe antenna. This numerical estimation of the electric field gives guidance to the experiment, the reflected power was measured by a network analyzer, and the quality factor of the loaded cavity was determined based on the reflection coefficient. It is found the quality factor of the loaded cavity was improved from 1681 to 5577 after adding the probe extension, which can establish a much stronger electromagnetic field inside the cavity for the rapid rewarming of the cryopreserved biomaterials.
\nTo experimentally evaluate the heating performance of the electromagnetic resonance system, a rewarming test of the cryopreserved Jurkat cells with large volume (25 mL) was performed. Jurkat cell is an easily accessible cell line and shares similar cryopreservation protocol to the stem cells. The testing results will guide us the future trails of cryopreservation of large system of stem cells.
\nThe CPA cocktail contains 10% (w/v) dimethyl sulfoxide (\n
Human T lymphocyte leukemia cells (Jurkat cells) were used in the rewarming test. The Jurkat cell lines were purchased from American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA). Cells were cultured in the incubator that setting at 37°C, 5% carbon dioxide, and proper humidity. T25 flasks were used during the cell culture. A unit of the growth medium was prepared of 450 mL RPMI medium (life technologies), 50 mL fetal bovine serum (FBS), 5 mL Penicillin–streptomycin, and 5 mL L-glutamine.
\nCylindrical sample holder contains Jurkat cell suspension was placed in a Styrofoam box, then the box was transferred to the −80°C freezer and stored there overnight. The average cooling rate was 2–3°C/min.
\nThe temperature measurements were conducted by a fiber optic temperature meter (Neoptix Inc., Ville de Quebec, QC, Canada) during the rewarming process. The major challenge for the temperature measurement lies in the penetration through cavity wall. The cryopreserved sample remains in the center of the resonant chamber where the highest electromagnetic field was formed. However, the penetration through the cavity wall would undermine the quality factor of the resonant cavity, which means lower portion of electromagnetic energy remained inside the chamber for rewarming. Additional waveguide was designed to allow for the fiber optic temperature sensor to get through the chamber wall and maintain the quality factor at the same time. This waveguide was designed to have the cutoff frequency higher than the operating frequency during the rewarming process. Although the side effects associated with the EM waves are still in debate, it is nevertheless safer to keep away from the possible side effects caused by electromagnetic energy leakage.
\nAt the end of the rewarming process, the surface temperature profile was recorded by an infrared temperature sensor (FLIR systems, Wilsonville, Oregon, USA). The temperature data in the central part of the cryopreserved sample recorded by the fiber optic meter and the surface temperature profile are combined to analyze the temperature gradient.
\n\nFigure 11 shows the comparison of rewarming process of Jurkat cells between conventional water bath and electromagnetic resonance system. The average rewarming rate of water bath was 40°C/min, while increased to 90°C/min for the EM system.
\nRewarming process of Jurkat cell.
Membrane integrity was obtained by Trypan Blue (Sigma-Aldrich) staining to determine the recovery rate of Jurkat cells. Figure 12 shows the comparison of recovery rate of Jurkat cells between conventional water bath and our electromagnetic resonance system. Water bath achieved the Jurkat cell’s recovery rate at \n
Recovery rate of the Jurkat cell.
The post-thawed cell suspensions were cultured in a 37°C incubator with 5% carbon dioxide and proper humidity. As shown in Figure 13, after three days incubation, no significant change was noted to the normalized proliferation rate for the electromagnetic rewarming method. This indicates EM system does not affect Jurkat cell’s cellular functionality.
\nProliferation rate of the post-thawed Jurkat cell.
In this chapter, we provide detailed information about using electromagnetic resonance system to achieve rapid-uniform rewarming in cryopreservation of stem cells. The importance of rapidly and uniformly rewarming process to the bulky system of stem cells was explained, principles of electromagnetic warming were described, essential physical properties of CPA solution and resonance cavity were covered. Theoretical analysis and numerical simulation were introduced to improve the heating performance. A dynamic resonance frequency monitoring and control system was developed. Apart from analytical analysis, a rewarming test of Jurkat cell was performed to experimentally evaluate the electromagnetic rewarming technology. A comprehensive section on cryopreservation of large volume of stem cell has been tried to prepare, and it is aimed to provide insights about rapid-uniform rewarming during cryopreservation.
\nThis is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
",metaTitle:"Publishing Process Steps and Descriptions",metaDescription:"This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with InTechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Publishing Process Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/publishing-process-steps",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"1. SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
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The contribution of those affect factors to the clamping force distribution is ranked, and this can be a guideline not only for users but also for the manufacturers.",book:{id:"6695",slug:"design-simulation-and-construction-of-field-effect-transistors",title:"Design, Simulation and Construction of Field Effect Transistors",fullTitle:"Design, Simulation and Construction of Field Effect Transistors"},signatures:"Erping Deng, Zhibin Zhao, Jinyuan Li and Yongzhang Huang",authors:[{id:"234852",title:"Dr.",name:"Erping",middleName:null,surname:"Deng",slug:"erping-deng",fullName:"Erping Deng"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60792",title:"TCAD Device Modelling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductors",slug:"tcad-device-modelling-and-simulation-of-wide-bandgap-power-semiconductors",totalDownloads:2116,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Technology computer-aided Design (TCAD) is essential for devices technology development, including wide bandgap power semiconductors. However, most TCAD tools were originally developed for silicon and their performance and accuracy for wide bandgap semiconductors is contentious. This chapter will deal with TCAD device modelling of wide bandgap power semiconductors. In particular, modelling and simulating 3C- and 4H-Silicon Carbide (SiC), Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Diamond devices are examined. The challenges associated with modelling the material and device physics are analyzed in detail. It also includes convergence issues and accuracy of predicted performance. Modelling and simulating defects, traps and the effect of these traps on the characteristics are also discussed.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Neophytos Lophitis, Anastasios Arvanitopoulos, Samuel Perkins and\nMarina Antoniou",authors:[{id:"236488",title:"Dr.",name:"Neophytos",middleName:null,surname:"Lophitis",slug:"neophytos-lophitis",fullName:"Neophytos Lophitis"},{id:"247344",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Antoniou",slug:"marina-antoniou",fullName:"Marina Antoniou"},{id:"247347",title:"Mr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Arvanitopoulos",slug:"anastasios-arvanitopoulos",fullName:"Anastasios Arvanitopoulos"},{id:"247349",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perkins",slug:"samuel-perkins",fullName:"Samuel Perkins"}]},{id:"61629",title:"GaN-Based Schottky Diode",slug:"gan-based-schottky-diode",totalDownloads:1662,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Schottky diode, also known as Schottky barrier diode (SBD), fabricated on GaN and related III-Nitride materials has been researched intensively and extensively for the past two decades. This chapter reviews the property of GaN material, the advantage of GaN-based SBD, and the Schottky contact to GaN including current transporation theory, Schottky material selection, contact quality and thermal stability. The chapter also discusses about the GaN lateral, quasi-vertical and vertical SBDs, and AlGaN/GaN field effect SBDs: the evolution of the epitaxial structure, processing techniques and device structure. The chapter closes with challenges ahead and gives an outlook on the future development of the GaN SBDs.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Yaqi Wang",authors:[{id:"237104",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaqi",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yaqi-wang",fullName:"Yaqi Wang"}]},{id:"53537",title:"FPGA-Based Software-Defined Radio and Its Real-Time Implementation Using NI-USRP",slug:"fpga-based-software-defined-radio-and-its-real-time-implementation-using-ni-usrp",totalDownloads:2796,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we propose a novel design of scalable and real-time data acquisition software architecture for software-defined radio (SDR) using universal software radio peripheral (USRP). The software has been designed and tested in multi-thread model, using LabVIEW, which guarantees real-time performance and efficiency. With the help of this design, we have been able to improve the stability of the system besides providing a reconfigurable and flexible architecture. Wireless transfer of sensitive data using communication is not a very safe option. In this chapter, we aim to provide a safe and private wireless transmission between two terminals using the SDR approach and verifying the results in real-world environment with the use of USRP. The novel design being presented here can be used to transfer (random data, text or an image) encoded with different forward error correction (FEC) codes, which is then verified at the receiving terminal and then decoded accordingly to produce the desired result.",book:{id:"5597",slug:"field-programmable-gate-array",title:"Field",fullTitle:"Field - Programmable Gate Array"},signatures:"Nikhil Marriwala, Om. Prakash. Sahu and Anil Vohra",authors:[{id:"192912",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nikhil",middleName:null,surname:"Marriwala",slug:"nikhil-marriwala",fullName:"Nikhil Marriwala"},{id:"198652",title:"Prof.",name:"O.P",middleName:null,surname:"Sahu",slug:"o.p-sahu",fullName:"O.P Sahu"},{id:"198654",title:"Prof.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Vohra",slug:"anil-vohra",fullName:"Anil Vohra"}]},{id:"61186",title:"Graphene Field-Effect Transistor for Terahertz Modulation",slug:"graphene-field-effect-transistor-for-terahertz-modulation",totalDownloads:1286,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The real-world applications of terahertz (THz) technology necessitate versatile adaptive optical components, for example, modulators. In this chapter, we begin with a brief review on different techniques for THz modulation. After that, we introduce the extraordinary features of graphene along with its advantages and disadvantages as channel materials for field effect transistor (FET). We then discuss two types of graphene FET-based THz modulators, one is rigid and another is flexible. The feasibility of the high-quality THz modulators with different graphene FET structures has been successfully demonstrated. It is observed that by tuning the carrier concentration of graphene by electrical gating, the THz modulation can be obtained with relatively large modulation depth, broad width band, and moderate speed. This chapter helps the reader in obtaining guidelines for the proper choice of a specific structure for THz modulator with graphene FET.",book:{id:"6695",slug:"design-simulation-and-construction-of-field-effect-transistors",title:"Design, Simulation and Construction of Field Effect Transistors",fullTitle:"Design, Simulation and Construction of Field Effect Transistors"},signatures:"Qi-Ye Wen, Yu-Lian He, Jing-Bo Liu, Qi Mao, Qing-Hui Yang, Zhi\nChen and Huai-Wu Zhang",authors:[{id:"235512",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiye",middleName:null,surname:"Wen",slug:"qiye-wen",fullName:"Qiye Wen"},{id:"247833",title:"Ms.",name:"Yu-Lian",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"yu-lian-he",fullName:"Yu-Lian He"},{id:"247834",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"zhi-chen",fullName:"Zhi Chen"},{id:"247837",title:"Prof.",name:"Qing-Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qing-hui-yang",fullName:"Qing-Hui Yang"},{id:"247839",title:"Prof.",name:"Huai-Wu",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"huai-wu-zhang",fullName:"Huai-Wu Zhang"}]},{id:"53730",title:"High‐Speed Deterministic‐Latency Serial IO",slug:"high-speed-deterministic-latency-serial-io",totalDownloads:1734,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In digital systems, serial IO at speeds in the range from 1 to 20 Gbps is realized by means of dedicated transceivers, named serializer-deserializers (SerDeses). In general, due to their internal architecture, the data transfer delay, or the latency, may vary after a reset of the device. On the other hand, some applications, such as high-speed transfer protocols for analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters, trigger and data acquisition systems, clock distribution, synchronization and control of radio equipment need this delay to be constant at each reset. In this chapter, we focus on a serial IO architecture based on configurable transceivers embedded in field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). We will show how it is possible to achieve deterministic-latency operation in a line-code-independent way. As a case study, we will consider a synchronous 2.5-Gbps serial link based on an 8b10b line code.",book:{id:"5597",slug:"field-programmable-gate-array",title:"Field",fullTitle:"Field - Programmable Gate Array"},signatures:"Raffaele Giordano, Vincenzo Izzo and Alberto Aloisio",authors:[{id:"193125",title:"Prof.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Giordano",slug:"raffaele-giordano",fullName:"Raffaele Giordano"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"957",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:58,paginationItems:[{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82357",title:"Caries Management Aided by Fluorescence-Based Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105567",signatures:"Atena Galuscan, Daniela Jumanca and Aurora Doris Fratila",slug:"caries-management-aided-by-fluorescence-based-devices",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81894",title:"Diet and Nutrition and Their Relationship with Early Childhood Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105123",signatures:"Luanna Gonçalves Ferreira, Giuliana de Campos Chaves Lamarque and Francisco Wanderley Garcia Paula-Silva",slug:"diet-and-nutrition-and-their-relationship-with-early-childhood-dental-caries",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. 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Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"