Analytical techniques and principal applications.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5973",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Memristor and Memristive Neural Networks",title:"Memristor and Memristive Neural Networks",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers a range of models, circuits and systems built with memristor devices and networks in applications to neural networks. It is divided into three parts: (1) Devices, (2) Models and (3) Applications. The resistive switching property is an important aspect of the memristors, and there are several designs of this discussed in this book, such as in metal oxide/organic semiconductor nonvolatile memories, nanoscale switching and degradation of resistive random access memory and graphene oxide-based memristor. The modelling of the memristors is required to ensure that the devices can be put to use and improve emerging application. In this book, various memristor models are discussed, from a mathematical framework to implementations in SPICE and verilog, that will be useful for the practitioners and researchers to get a grounding on the topic. The applications of the memristor models in various neuromorphic networks are discussed covering various neural network models, implementations in A/D converter and hierarchical temporal memories.",isbn:"978-953-51-3948-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3947-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4009-2",doi:"10.5772/66539",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"memristor-and-memristive-neural-networks",numberOfPages:324,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"57e216c84cb7703f8ad59555b2a11ede",bookSignature:"Alex Pappachen James",publishedDate:"April 4th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5973.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21676,numberOfWosCitations:44,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:46,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:13,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:130,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 6th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 20th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 18th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"6992",title:"Prof.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"James",slug:"alex-james",fullName:"Alex James",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6992/images/system/6992.jpg",biography:"A.P. James received his Ph.D. degree from the Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia. He is known for his contributions to memristive networks, neuromorphic computing, and image processing. Currently, he is a Full Professor in AI and Electronics at IIITMK. He is a mentor to several tech start-ups and co-founded companies in machine learning and computer vision hardware. He was an editorial member of Information Fusion (2010–2015), Elsevier, and is an associate editor for HCIS (2015–present), Springer; IEEE Access (2017–present); IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computational Intelligence (2017–present); and IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems 1 (2018–present). He is also a senior member of IEEE, a life member of ACM and senior fellow of HEA.",institutionString:"Nazarbayev University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"609",title:"Neural Network",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-neural-network"}],chapters:[{id:"55666",title:"Physical Models for Resistive Switching Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69025",slug:"physical-models-for-resistive-switching-devices",totalDownloads:1404,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We present a classification and description of the principal resistive switching and transport mechanisms in chalcogonides materials. We classify the model according to how many material dimensions are involved in the resistive switching mechanism. In this way, we describe the phase change model (3D), the interface modulation model (2D) and models where the switching mechanism depends on the formation of a conduction filament (1D). Among the conduction filament models, we include the thermochemical oxygen diffusion mechanism, the oxidation/reduction mechanism and the quantum point effect.",signatures:"Luis‐Miguel Procel‐Moya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55666",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55666",authors:[{id:"203297",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis-Miguel",surname:"Procel-Moya",slug:"luis-miguel-procel-moya",fullName:"Luis-Miguel Procel-Moya"}],corrections:null},{id:"56425",title:"Graphene Oxide-Based Memristor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69752",slug:"graphene-oxide-based-memristor",totalDownloads:1586,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A memristor is the memory extension to the concept of resistor. With unique superior properties, memristors have prospective promising applications in non‐volatile memory (NVM). Resistive random access memory (RRAM) is a non‐volatile memory using a material whose resistance changes under electrical stimulus can be seen as the most promising candidate for next generation memory both as embedded memory and a stand‐alone memory due to its high speed, long retention time, low power consumption, scalability and simple structure. Among carbon‐based materials, graphene has emerged as wonder material with remarkable properties. In contrast to metallic nature of graphene, the graphene oxide (GO) is good insulating/semiconducting material and suitable for RRAM devices. The advantage of being atomically thin and the two-dimensional of GO permits scaling beyond the current limits of semiconductor technology, which is a key aspect for high‐density fabrication. Graphene oxide‐based resistive memory devices have several advantages over other oxide materials, such as easy synthesis and cost‐effective device fabrication, scaling down to few nanometre and compatibility for flexible device applications. In this chapter, we discuss the GO‐based RRAM devices, which have shown the properties of forming free, thermally stable, multi‐bit storage, flexible and high on/off ratio at low voltage, which boost up the research and development to accelerate the GO‐based RRAM devices for future memory applications.",signatures:"Geetika Khurana, Nitu Kumar, James F. Scott and Ram S. Katiyar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56425",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56425",authors:[{id:"151538",title:"Prof.",name:"Ram S.",surname:"Katiyar",slug:"ram-s.-katiyar",fullName:"Ram S. Katiyar"},{id:"201411",title:"Dr.",name:"Nitu",surname:"Kumar",slug:"nitu-kumar",fullName:"Nitu Kumar"},{id:"204317",title:"Dr.",name:"Geetika",surname:"Khurana",slug:"geetika-khurana",fullName:"Geetika Khurana"},{id:"204328",title:"Prof.",name:"James",surname:"Scott",slug:"james-scott",fullName:"James Scott"}],corrections:null},{id:"57819",title:"Emulator Circuits and Resistive Switching Parameters of Memristor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71903",slug:"emulator-circuits-and-resistive-switching-parameters-of-memristor",totalDownloads:1712,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chua predicted the existence of the fundamental circuit element, which provides the linkage of flux (ϕ) and charge (q). The new circuit element that is called memristor (memory + resistor) was demonstrated by Hewlett Packard (HP) researchers in 2008. Researchers focused on memristor fabrication, modeling, and its application with other circuit elements. Researchers could not find the commercially memristor devices in the market because of some fabrication difficulties. For this reason, researchers focused on the memristor modeling to analyze its characteristics with other circuit elements. This chapter presents a review of the general information of memristor and its device parameters. The chapter is continued with the details of memristor mathematical and SPICE models and memristor emulators based on the other circuit elements.",signatures:"Abdullah Yesil, Fatih Gül and Yunus Babacan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57819",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57819",authors:[{id:"219036",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatih",surname:"Gul",slug:"fatih-gul",fullName:"Fatih Gul"},{id:"221035",title:"Dr.",name:"Yunus",surname:"Babacan",slug:"yunus-babacan",fullName:"Yunus Babacan"},{id:"222153",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",surname:"Yesil",slug:"abdullah-yesil",fullName:"Abdullah Yesil"}],corrections:null},{id:"55662",title:"Nanoscale Switching and Degradation of Resistive Random Access Memory Studied by In Situ Electron Microscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69024",slug:"nanoscale-switching-and-degradation-of-resistive-random-access-memory-studied-by-in-situ-electron-mi",totalDownloads:1414,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The metal-filament-type resistive random access memories (ReRAMs) with copper were investigated from the point of view of dynamical microstructure evolution in the repetitive switching operations using in situ transmission electron microscopy (in situ TEM). Through a series of experiments for uncovered solid electrolyte films, stacked devices, and nanofabricated cells, formation and erasure of the copper filaments and deposits were confirmed. The behavior of the filament and deposit depended on the switching condition and history. Based on these in situ TEM results, the switching schematics and the degradation process were discussed.",signatures:"Masashi Arita, Atsushi Tsurumaki-Fukuchi and Yasuo Takahashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55662",authors:[{id:"174249",title:"Prof.",name:"Masashi",surname:"Arita",slug:"masashi-arita",fullName:"Masashi Arita"},{id:"203259",title:"Dr.",name:"Atsushi",surname:"Tsurumaki-Fukuchi",slug:"atsushi-tsurumaki-fukuchi",fullName:"Atsushi Tsurumaki-Fukuchi"},{id:"203260",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuo",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"yasuo-takahashi",fullName:"Yasuo Takahashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"55885",title:"Resistive Switching in Metal Oxide/Organic Semiconductor Nonvolatile Memories",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69023",slug:"resistive-switching-in-metal-oxide-organic-semiconductor-nonvolatile-memories",totalDownloads:1429,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diodes incorporating a bilayer of a metal oxide and an organic semiconductor can show unipolar, nonvolatile memory behavior after electroforming. Electroforming involves dielectric breakdown induced by prolonged bias voltage stress. When the power dissipated during breakdown is limited, electroforming is reversible and involves formation of defects at the organic-oxide interface that can heal spontaneously. When the power dissipation during breakdown exceeds a certain threshold, electroforming becomes irreversible. The fully electroformed diodes show electrical bistability, featuring (meta)stable states with low and high conduction that can be programmed by voltage pulses. The high conduction results from current flowing via filamentary paths. The bistability is explained by the coexistence of two thermodynamically stable phases at the interface between semiconductor and oxide. One phase contains mainly ionized defects and has a low work function, while the other phase has mainly neutral defects and a high work function. In the diodes, domains of the phase with low work function give rise to current filaments. In the filaments, Joule heating will raise temperature locally. When the temperature exceeds the critical temperature, the filament will switch off. The switching involves a collective recombination of charge carriers trapped at the defects as evidenced by bursts of electroluminescence.",signatures:"Henrique L. Gomes, Dago M. de Leeuw and Stefan C.J. Meskers",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55885",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55885",authors:[{id:"203401",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique",surname:"Gomes",slug:"henrique-gomes",fullName:"Henrique Gomes"},{id:"204286",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Meskers",slug:"stefan-meskers",fullName:"Stefan Meskers"},{id:"204287",title:"Prof.",name:"Dago",surname:"De Leeuw",slug:"dago-de-leeuw",fullName:"Dago De Leeuw"}],corrections:null},{id:"55950",title:"Memristor Emulator Circuit Design and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69291",slug:"memristor-emulator-circuit-design-and-applications",totalDownloads:1489,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter introduces a design guide of memristor emulator circuits, from conceptual idea until experimental tests. Three topologies of memristor emulator circuits in their incremental and decremental versions are analysed and designed at low and high frequency. The behavioural model of each topology is derived and programmed at SIMULINK under the MATLAB environment. An offset compensation technique is also described in order to achieve the frequency-dependent pinched hysteresis loop that is on the origin and when the memristor emulator circuit is operating at high frequency. Furthermore, from these topologies, a technique to transform normal non-linear resistors to inverse non-linear resistors is also addressed. HSPICE numerical simulations for each topology are also shown. Finally, three real analogue applications based on memristors are analysed and explained at the behavioural level of abstraction.",signatures:"Carlos Sánchez-López, Illiani Carro-Pérez, Victor Hugo Carbajal-\nGómez, Miguel Angel Carrasco-Aguilar and Francisco Epimenio\nMorales-López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55950",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55950",authors:[{id:"17480",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Sanchez-Lopez",slug:"carlos-sanchez-lopez",fullName:"Carlos Sanchez-Lopez"},{id:"161703",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor H.",surname:"Carbajal-Gomez",slug:"victor-h.-carbajal-gomez",fullName:"Victor H. Carbajal-Gomez"},{id:"203246",title:"MSc.",name:"Illiani",surname:"Carro-Pérez",slug:"illiani-carro-perez",fullName:"Illiani Carro-Pérez"},{id:"203247",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Angel",surname:"Carrasco-Aguilar",slug:"miguel-angel-carrasco-aguilar",fullName:"Miguel Angel Carrasco-Aguilar"},{id:"203248",title:"MSc.",name:"Francisco Epimenio",surname:"Morales-López",slug:"francisco-epimenio-morales-lopez",fullName:"Francisco Epimenio Morales-López"}],corrections:null},{id:"56096",title:"Simulating Memristive Networks in SystemC-AMS",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69662",slug:"simulating-memristive-networks-in-systemc-ams",totalDownloads:1375,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a solution for the simulation of large memristive networks with SystemC-AMS. SystemC-AMS allows simulating memristors both on analogue level and on digital level to link analogue memristive devices to digital circuits and system level specifications. We investigate the benefits and drawbacks of a SystemC-AMS simulation compared to a simulation in SPICE. We show for the example of a two-layer memristive network emulating an optical flow algorithm by the detection of moving edges that large memristive networks can be simulated with a free available SystemC-AMS simulation environment, whereas free available SPICE simulation environment fails. However, it is also shown that commercial SPICE simulators are superior against current SystemC-AMS implementations concerning the size of simulated memristive networks. However, SystemC-AMS simulations of memristive networks offer both still more flexibility and similar run times compared to commercial SPICE simulators for small-sized memristive networks. The flexibility and the powerfulness of a SystemC-AMS solution is demonstrated for a complex network that solves edge detection, filtering and detecting of moving objects. The possible run times of the memristive network are determined in the SystemC-AMS simulation environment and are compared with an optical flow algorithm on classical hardware like a CPU and a GPU.",signatures:"Dietmar Fey, Lukas Riedersberger and Marc Reichenbach",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56096",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56096",authors:[{id:"203968",title:"Prof.",name:"Dietmar",surname:"Fey",slug:"dietmar-fey",fullName:"Dietmar Fey"},{id:"204293",title:"Mr.",name:"Lukas",surname:"Riedersberger",slug:"lukas-riedersberger",fullName:"Lukas Riedersberger"},{id:"207845",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",surname:"Reichenbach",slug:"marc-reichenbach",fullName:"Marc Reichenbach"}],corrections:null},{id:"56500",title:"Modeling of Coupled Memristive-Based Architectures Applicable to Neural Network Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69327",slug:"modeling-of-coupled-memristive-based-architectures-applicable-to-neural-network-models",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter explores the dynamic behavior of dual flux coupled memristor circuits in order to explore the uncharted territory of the fundamental theory of memristor circuits. Neuromorphic computing anticipates highly dense systems of memristive networks, and with nanoscale devices within such close proximity to one another, it is anticipated that flux and charge coupling between adjacent memristors will have a bearing upon their operation. Using the constitutive relations of memristors, various cases of flux coupling are mathematically modeled. This involves analyzing two memristors connected in composite, both serially and in parallel in various polarity configurations. The new behavior of two coupled memristors is characterized based on memristive state equations, and memductance variation represented in terms of voltage, current, charge and flux. The rigorous mathematical analysis based on the fundamental circuit equations of ideal memristors affirms the memristor closure theorem, where coupled memristor circuits behave as different types of memristors with higher complexity.",signatures:"Jason Kamran Jr Eshraghian, Herbert H.C. Iu and Kamran\nEshraghian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56500",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56500",authors:[{id:"202843",title:"Mr.",name:"Jason",surname:"Eshraghian",slug:"jason-eshraghian",fullName:"Jason Eshraghian"},{id:"203195",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamran",surname:"Eshraghian",slug:"kamran-eshraghian",fullName:"Kamran Eshraghian"},{id:"207451",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ho-Ching",surname:"Iu",slug:"herbert-ho-ching-iu",fullName:"Herbert Ho-Ching Iu"}],corrections:null},{id:"59395",title:"Mathematical Modeling of Memristors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73921",slug:"mathematical-modeling-of-memristors",totalDownloads:1849,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The memristor has quite a reputation as a missing circuit element. It is a powerful candidate for next-generation applications after being first implemented in HP’s laboratories. At this point, mathematical models were needed for the analysis of the memristor, and a lot of studies were done on this subject. In this chapter, mathematical modeling and simulations of the memristor device have been emphasized. Firstly, linear drift and nonlinear drift models have been described on the basic HP model. The window functions used in the nonlinear drift model have been widely examined. Different from HP model, the Simmons tunnel barrier and the threshold adaptive memristor model (TEAM) have been also mentioned. As a result, the most widely used modeling techniques have been described in detail.",signatures:"Yasin Oğuz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59395",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59395",authors:[{id:"230007",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Yasin",surname:"Oğuz",slug:"yasin-oguz",fullName:"Yasin Oğuz"}],corrections:null},{id:"56410",title:"Introduction to Memristive HTM Circuits",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70123",slug:"introduction-to-memristive-htm-circuits",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hierarchical temporal memory (HTM) is a cognitive learning algorithm intended to mimic the working principles of neocortex, part of the human brain said to be responsible for data classification, learning, and making predictions. Based on the combination of various concepts of neuroscience, it has already been shown that the software realization of HTM is effective on different recognition, detection, and prediction making tasks. However, its distinctive features, expressed in terms of hierarchy, modularity, and sparsity, suggest that hardware realization of HTM can be attractive in terms of providing faster processing speed as well as small memory requirements, on-chip area, and total power consumption. Despite there are few works done on hardware realization for HTM, there are promising results which illustrate effectiveness of incorporating an emerging memristor device technology to solve this open-research problem. Hence, this chapter reviews hardware designs for HTM with specific focus on memristive HTM circuits.",signatures:"Alex James, Timur Ibrayev, Olga Krestinskaya and Irina Dolzhikova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56410",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56410",authors:[{id:"6992",title:"Prof.",name:"Alex",surname:"James",slug:"alex-james",fullName:"Alex James"},{id:"204212",title:"Mr.",name:"Timur",surname:"Ibrayev",slug:"timur-ibrayev",fullName:"Timur Ibrayev"},{id:"204213",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",surname:"Krestinskaya",slug:"olga-krestinskaya",fullName:"Olga Krestinskaya"},{id:"204214",title:"Ms.",name:"Irina",surname:"Dolzhikova",slug:"irina-dolzhikova",fullName:"Irina Dolzhikova"}],corrections:null},{id:"54997",title:"Review of Recently Progress on Neural Electronics and Memcomputing Applications in Intrinsic SiOx-Based Resistive Switching Memory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68530",slug:"review-of-recently-progress-on-neural-electronics-and-memcomputing-applications-in-intrinsic-siox-ba",totalDownloads:1264,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we focus on the recent process on memcomputing (memristor + computing) in intrinsic SiOx-based resistive switching memory (ReRAM or called memristor). In the first section of the chapter, we investigate neuromorphic computing by mimicking the synaptic behaviors in integrating one-diode and one-resistive switching element (1D-1R) architecture. The power consumption can be minimized further in synaptic functions because sneak-path current has been suppressed and the capability for spike-induced synaptic behaviors has been demonstrated, representing critical milestones and achievements for the application of conventional SiOx-based materials in future advanced neuromorphic computing. In the next section of chapter, we will discuss an implementation technique of implication operations for logic-in-memory computation by using a SiOx-based memristor. The implication function and its truth table have been implemented with the unipolar or nonpolar operation scheme. Furthermore, a circuit with 1D-1R architecture with a 4 × 4 crossbar array has been demonstrated, which realizes the functionality of a one-bit full adder as same as CMOS logic circuits with lower design area requirement. This chapter suggests that a simple, robust approach to realize memcomputing chips is quite compatible with large-scale CMOS manufacturing technology by using an intrinsic SiOx-based memristor.",signatures:"Cheng-Chih Hsieh, Yao-Feng Chang, Ying-Chen Chen, Xiaohan Wu,\nMeiqi Guo, Fei Zhou, Sungjun Kim, Burt Fowler, Chih-Yang Lin,\nChih-Hung Pan, Ting-Chang Chang and Jack C. Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54997",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54997",authors:[{id:"201955",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao-Feng",surname:"Chang",slug:"yao-feng-chang",fullName:"Yao-Feng Chang"},{id:"201984",title:"Mr.",name:"Cheng Chih",surname:"Hsieh",slug:"cheng-chih-hsieh",fullName:"Cheng Chih Hsieh"},{id:"201985",title:"Ms.",name:"Ying-Chen",surname:"Chen",slug:"ying-chen-chen",fullName:"Ying-Chen Chen"},{id:"201986",title:"Mr.",name:"Chih-Yang",surname:"Lin",slug:"chih-yang-lin",fullName:"Chih-Yang Lin"},{id:"201989",title:"Ms.",name:"Meiqi",surname:"Guo",slug:"meiqi-guo",fullName:"Meiqi Guo"},{id:"201990",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",surname:"Zhou",slug:"fei-zhou",fullName:"Fei Zhou"},{id:"201991",title:"Dr.",name:"Burt W.",surname:"Fowler",slug:"burt-w.-fowler",fullName:"Burt W. Fowler"},{id:"201993",title:"Prof.",name:"Ting-Chang",surname:"Chang",slug:"ting-chang-chang",fullName:"Ting-Chang Chang"},{id:"201994",title:"Prof.",name:"Jack C.",surname:"Lee",slug:"jack-c.-lee",fullName:"Jack C. Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"56580",title:"Memristor Neural Network Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69929",slug:"memristor-neural-network-design",totalDownloads:2121,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Neural network, a powerful learning model, has archived amazing results. However, the current Von Neumann computing system–based implementations of neural networks are suffering from memory wall and communication bottleneck problems ascribing to the Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology scaling down and communication gap. Memristor, a two terminal nanosolid state nonvolatile resistive switching, can provide energy‐efficient neuromorphic computing with its synaptic behavior. Crossbar architecture can be used to perform neural computations because of its high density and parallel computation. Thus, neural networks based on memristor crossbar will perform better in real world applications. In this chapter, the design of different neural network architectures based on memristor is introduced, including spiking neural networks, multilayer neural networks, convolution neural networks, and recurrent neural networks. And the brief introduction, the architecture, the computing circuits, and the training algorithm of each kind of neural networks are presented by instances. The potential applications and the prospects of memristor‐based neural network system are discussed.",signatures:"Anping Huang, Xinjiang Zhang, Runmiao Li and Yu Chi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56580",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56580",authors:[{id:"8452",title:"Dr.",name:"Huang",surname:"Anping",slug:"huang-anping",fullName:"Huang Anping"},{id:"201453",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinjiang",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xinjiang-zhang",fullName:"Xinjiang Zhang"},{id:"207144",title:"MSc.",name:"Runmiao",surname:"Li",slug:"runmiao-li",fullName:"Runmiao Li"},{id:"207628",title:"MSc.",name:"Yu",surname:"Chi",slug:"yu-chi",fullName:"Yu Chi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56763",title:"Spike‐Timing‐Dependent Plasticity in Memristors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69535",slug:"spike-timing-dependent-plasticity-in-memristors",totalDownloads:1679,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The spike‐timing‐dependent plasticity (STDP) characteristic of the memristor plays an important role in the development of neuromorphic network computing in the future. The STDP characteristics were observed in different memristors based on different kinds of materials. The investigation regarding the influences of device hysteresis characteristic, the initial conductance of the memristors, and the waveform of the voltage pulses applied to the memristor as preneuron voltage spike and postneuron voltage spike on the STDP behavior of memristors are reviewed.",signatures:"Yao Shuai, Xinqiang Pan and Xiangyu Sun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56763",authors:[{id:"204173",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yao",surname:"Shuai",slug:"yao-shuai",fullName:"Yao Shuai"}],corrections:null},{id:"60012",title:"Neural Network-Based Analog-to-Digital Converters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73038",slug:"neural-network-based-analog-to-digital-converters",totalDownloads:1740,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we present an overview of the recent advances in analog-to-digital converter (ADC) neural networks. Biological neural networks consist of natural binarization reflected by the neurosynaptic processes. This natural analog-to-binary conversion ability of neurons can be modeled to emulate analog-to-digital conversion using a set of nonlinear circuit elements and existing artificial neural network models. Since one neuron during processing consumes on average only about half nanowatts of power, neurons can perform highly energy-efficient operations, including pattern recognition. Analog-to-digital conversion itself is an example of simple pattern recognition where input analog signal can be presented in one of the 2N different patterns for N bits. The classical configuration of neural network-based ADC is Hopfield neural network ADC. Improved designs, such as modified Hopfield network ADC, T-model neural ADC, and multilevel neurons-based neural ADC, will be discussed. In addition, the latest architecture designs of neural ADC such as hybrid complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-memristor Hopfield ADC are covered at the end of this chapter.",signatures:"Aigerim Tankimanova and Alex Pappachen James",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60012",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60012",authors:[{id:"6992",title:"Prof.",name:"Alex",surname:"James",slug:"alex-james",fullName:"Alex James"},{id:"204490",title:"B.A.",name:"Aigerim",surname:"Tankimanova",slug:"aigerim-tankimanova",fullName:"Aigerim Tankimanova"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7749",title:"Memristors",subtitle:"Circuits and Applications of Memristor Devices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"00f6cb499cb527fdca83568f8f1c8f9d",slug:"memristors-circuits-and-applications-of-memristor-devices",bookSignature:"Alex 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Metamaterials are constructed from assemblies of multiple elements designed from versatile composite materials. These assemblies are usually arranged in repeating patterns, which have dimension scales smaller than the wavelengths of the phenomena these materials are designed to influence.
\r\n\tThe properties of metamaterials are designed not from the properties of their base materials, but rather from the metamaterial's newly designed structures. The precise shapes, geometries, sizes, orientations, and arrangements of metamaterial composing elements render metamaterials versatile ‘smart’ properties related to manipulating electromagnetic waves, by blocking, absorbing, enhancing, or bending waves of specific wavelengths. This allows achieving benefits extending far beyond what could be achieved by employing conventional materials.
\r\n\tMetamaterials have broad and diverse potential applications including optical filters, medical devices, remote aerospace devices and materials, sensors, infrastructure monitoring, highly effective management of solar power, high-frequency battlefield communication, lenses for high-gain antennas, shielding structures to prevent earthquake damage, acoustic materials, etc. Metamaterial research area is highly interdisciplinary: it involves electrical engineering, electromagnetics, classical optics, studies in the solid-state physics field, antenna engineering, optoelectronics, material science, nanoscience and nanotechnology, semiconductor design, and even can involve computational chemistry.
Analytical chemistry, broadly conceived, underlines and contributes to almost all branches of chemistry as an experimental science. It plays an important role in nearly all aspects of chemistry, such as, agricultural, clinical, environmental, forensic, manufacturing, metallurgical and pharmaceutical chemistry. The goal of a chemical analysis is to provide information about the composition of a sample of matter.
The discipline of analytical chemistry consists of qualitative and quantitative analyses. The former deals with the identification of elements, ions or compounds present in a sample, while the latter deals with the determination of how much of one or more constituents is present; whether the sample is solid, liquid, gas or a mixture. Analytical methods are ordinarily classified according to the property that is observed in the final measurement process. Some more important of these properties as well as the names of the methods based upon these properties are given in Table 1.
S.N. | Technique | Property measured | Principal areas of application |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Gravimetry | Weight of pure analyte or compound of known stoichiometry | Quantitative for major or minor components |
2. | Titrimetry | Volume of standard reagent solution reacting with the analyte | Quantitative for major or minor components |
3. | Atomic and molecular spectrometry | Wavelength and intensity of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by the analyte | Qualitative, quantitative or structural for major down to trace level components |
4. | Mass spectrometry | Mass of analyte or fragments of it | Qualitative or structural for major down to trace level components isotope ratio |
5. | Chromatography and electrophoresis | Various physico-chemical properties of separated analytes | Qualitative and quantitative separations of mixtures at major to trace levels |
6. | Thermal analysis | Chemical/physical changes in the analyte when heated or cooled | Characterization of single or mixed major/minor components |
7. | Electro-chemical analysis | Electrical properties of the analyte in solution | Qualitative and quantitative for major to trace level components |
8. | Radiochemical analysis | Characteristic ionizing nuclear radiation emitted by the analyte | Qualitative and quantitative at major to trace levels |
Analytical techniques and principal applications.
Prior to chemical analysis, separations are extremely important in analytical chemistry. The aim of an analytical separation is, usually, to eliminate or reduce interferences so that quantitative analytical information can be obtained about complex mixtures. There is a variety of separation methods that are in common use, including precipitation, distillation, solvent extraction, crystallization, dialysis, ion-exchange, chromatography, electrophoresis, field flow fractionation etc.
Of all the different types of separation methods, chromatography has the unique position of being applicable to all types of problems in all branches of science. This technique provides a very efficient method for the identification, separation, determination and purification of chemical compounds. It has undergone explosive growth in the last 30–40 years. The chromatographic technique was first invented by a Russian botanist Mikhil Tswett in 1906, at the University of Warsaw. He coined the term ‘Chromatography’ from the Greek words ‘Chromatos’ and ‘graphy’ which mean ‘color’ and ‘to write’ respectively. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists (IUPAC) has drafted a recommended definition of chromatography: ’Chromatography is a physical method of separation in which the components to be separated are distributed between two phases, one of which is a stationary phase, while the other is a mobile phase’ [1]. Since its discovery, this technique has undergone tremendous modifications and nowadays various types of chromatographic techniques have been developed for separating almost any kind of given mixture, whether coloured or colourless into its constituents and to test the purity of these constituents. The applications of chromatography have extensively been used in the last 50 years, owing not only to the development of several new types of chromatographic techniques, but also due to the growing needs of the scientists for better methods of separating the complex mixtures or metal ions [2]. The different chromatographic methods are summarized in Table 2.
S.N. | Technique | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Format | Principal sorption mechanism |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Paper chromatography (PC) | Cellulose-water complex | Liquid | Planar | Partition (adsorption, ion-exchange, exclusion) |
2. | Thin layer chromatography (TLC) | Silica, cellulose, ion-exchange resin, controlled porosity solid | Liquid | Planar | Adsorption (partition, ion-exchange, exclusion) |
3. | Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) | Liquid | Gas | Column | Partition |
4. | Gas-solid chromatography (GSC) | Solid | Gas | Column | Adsorption |
5. | High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) | Solid or bonded phase | Liquid | Column | Modified partition (adsorption) |
6. | Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) | Controlled porosity solid | Liquid | Column | Exclusion |
7. | Ion-exchange chromatography (IEC) | Ion-exchange resin or bonded-phase | Liquid | Column | Ion-exchange |
8. | Ion chromatography (IC) | Ion-exchange resin or bonded-phase | Liquid | Column | Ion-exchange |
9. | Chiral chromatography (CC) | Solid chiral selector | Liquid | Column | Selective adsorption |
A classification of the principal chromatographic techniques.
Out of these several chromatographic methods, ion-exchange has gained great attention by analysts in practice. The phenomenon of ion-exchange is not of recent origin. It has an interesting historical background. Various time spans may be identified for the development of ion-exchange technique. Figure 1 summarizes the various stages of the development of ion exchangers and sorbents.
Stages of development of ion exchangers and sorbents.
Initially, the ion exchangers were mostly used for water softening, but later on they were widely employed in various fields such as syntheses and some preparative works. The use of ion exchangers provided the new methods for analysts, which not only met the requirements of modern laboratories but also led to the solution of previously insolvable problems. Thus, the ion-exchange process has been established as an analytical tool in laboratories and industries. An interest in ion-exchange operations in industries is increasing day by day as their field of applications is expanding and today, it is an extremely valuable supplement to other procedures such as filtration, distillation and adsorption. All over the world, various plants are in operation, accomplishing tasks that range from the recovery of metals from industrial wastes to the separation of rare earths, and from catalysis of organic reactions to decontamination of water in cooling systems of nuclear reactors.
Ion exchangers are insoluble solid materials or immiscible liquids (in case of liquid ion exchangers) containing exchangeable ions. These ions can be exchanged for a stoichiometrically equivalent amount of other ions of the same sign on contacting with an electrolyte solution. Depending upon their ability of exchanging cations, anions or both, the ion exchangers may be categorized as ‘cation’, ‘anion’ or ‘amphoteric’ ion exchangers, respectively. A cation exchanger comprises a matrix with negative charge while an anion exchanger comprises a matrix with positive charge. The negative or positive charge on the matrix is compensated by the oppositely charged counter ions, which are mobile in nature. A typical ion-exchange reaction may be represented as follows:
where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are the replaceable counter ions, ‘R’ is the structural unit (matrix) of the ion exchanger and ‘aq’ stands for the aqueous phase. This process is reversible, that is, it can be reversed by suitably changing the concentration of the ions in solution.
The actual utility of an ion exchanger depends chiefly on its ion-exchange characteristics such as ion-exchange capacity, pH-titration, concentration, elution and distribution behaviour. The ion-exchange capacity depends on hydrated ionic radii and selectivity. The selectivity of any ion exchanger, in turn, is influenced by the nature of its functional group and degree of its cross linking. Ion exchangers, having groups that are capable of complex formation with some particular ions, will adsorb these ions more strongly. As the degree of cross linking increases, the exchanger becomes more selective towards ions of different sizes. The elution of H+ ions from a column of ion exchanger depends on the concentration of the eluant while an optimum concentration of the eluant, necessary for maximum elution of H+ ions, depends on the nature of ionogenic groups present in the exchanger, which depends upon the pKa values of the acids used in preparation. The efficiency of an ion exchanger depends on the following fundamental exchange reactions:
Equivalence of exchange.
Selectivity for one ion relative to another, including the cases in which the varying affinities of the ions are modified by the use of complexing and chelating agents.
Donnan exclusion—the ability to exclude ions but not, in general, undissociated substances.
Screening effect—the inability of very large ions or polymers to be adsorbed to an appreciable extent.
Differences in migration rates of adsorbed substances down a column—primarily a reflection of differences in affinity.
Ionic mobility restricted to the exchangeable ions and counter ions only.
Miscellaneous properties—swelling, surface area and other mechanical properties.
On the basis of the nature of matrix, an ion exchanger may be ‘organic’ or ‘inorganic’ in nature.
Organic ion exchangers, commonly known as ‘ion-exchange resins’, are well known for their uniformity, chemical and mechanical stability and for the easy control over their ion-exchange property through synthetic methods. Organic resins have wide applications in analytical chemistry because of their high stability in the wide range of pH and reproducibility in the results, but their instability under the conditions of high temperature and strong radiation led to a major switch for the development of inorganic ion-exchange materials. The matrix of inorganic ion exchanger is more reactive than that of organic resins and hence, the selectivity for the metal ion depends both on adsorption characteristics of the matrix and the nature of the ionogenic groups attached to the matrix.
Inorganic ion exchangers are capable of being stable at elevated temperatures and in the presence of strong radiations and, hence, they have wide-ranging applications in nuclear researches such as radioisotope separations, nuclear waste treatments etc. They are used in the determination and detection of metals in pharmaceutical and biological products, analysis of alloys and rocks, as ion selective electrodes, as packing materials in ion-exchange chromatography and as catalysts. They also find applications in environmental analysis [3]. The widespread importance of inorganic ion exchangers in practical applications, and scientific interest in their nature and properties, has precipitated a wealth of published literature on the subject. Good starting points for further basic information are classic books like those of Clearfield [4], Amphlett [5] and Qureshi and Varshney [6]. These books have provided a complete picture and thorough insight into this field and widespread importance of inorganic ion exchangers. Important advances in this field have been reviewed by a number of workers/researchers at various stages of its development, such as Fuller [7], Qureshi et al. [8], Vesely and Pekarek [9], Clearfield [10, 11], Alberti et al. [12, 13], Alberti and Costantino [13], Marinsky [14], Varshney [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20], Ivanov [21] and Terres-Rojas [22]. Dyer [23, 24, 25] has dealt with the theories involved zeolite molecular sieves, which have principles underlying the inorganic ion exchangers. Alberti (Itly) and Clearfield (USA) devoted most of their studies on the crystalline inorganic ion exchangers.
Inorganic ion exchangers are generally the oxides, hydroxides and insoluble acid salts of polyvalent metals, heteropolyacid salts and insoluble metal ferrocyanides. These materials are generally produced by combining the oxides of elements of III, IV, V and VI groups of the periodic table. A large number of such materials have been synthesized by mixing phosphoric, arsenic, molybdic, antimonic and vanadic acids with titanium, zirconium, tin, thorium, cerium, iron, antimony, chromium, niobium, tantalum, bismuth, nickel, cobalt, etc. However, the majority of work has been carried out on zirconium, titanium, tin, niobium and tantalum. Out of the above, metal phosphates have been found to have good chemical stability, reproducibility in ion-exchange behaviour and selectivity for certain metal ions.
Since organic ion exchangers were found to be unstable at elevated temperatures and under strong radiations, inorganic ion exchangers were taken as alternatives for such cases. However, the main drawback of inorganic ion-exchange materials has been that they are not very much reproducible in ion-exchange behaviour. Further, they are found not to be chemically and mechanically very stable perhaps due to their inorganic nature. Thus, to overcome these shortcomings, an interest was developed to obtain some organic-based inorganic ion exchangers. These exchangers were termed as ‘hybrid ion exchangers’ as they consist of both the organic and inorganic counterparts and have the properties not seen in purely organic or purely inorganic materials. This new class of ion exchangers has been prepared in these laboratories by incorporating a polymeric or monomeric organic species into the inorganic ion-exchange matrix [26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. The hybrid ion exchangers have shown an improvement in a number of ways. One of them is its granulometric properties that make it more suitable for the application in column operations. The binding with an organic species also introduces better mechanical properties in the end product, that is, hybrid ion-exchange materials. Hybrid ion exchangers can be prepared as three-dimensional porous materials in which layers are cross linked or as layered compounds containing sulphonic acid, carboxylic acid or amino groups.
The reactivity of both organic and inorganic precursors is usually quite different and phase separation tends to occur. The properties of hybrid materials do not depend only on organic and inorganic components but also on the interface between both phases. The general tendency is therefore, to increase interfacial interactions by creating an intimate mixing, or interpenetration between organic and inorganic networks. Moreover, the formation of chemical bonds between organic and inorganic species would prevent phase separation, allowing the synthesis of molecular composites or organic-inorganic copolymers. Hybrid materials can, thus, be divided into two classes [31].
Class I corresponds to hybrid systems in which weak interactions such as van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonds or electrostatic interactions are created between organic and inorganic phases. This class involves mainly small organic species embedded within an oxide matrix.
Class II corresponds to hybrid compounds where both organic and inorganic components are bonded through strong covalent chemical bonds.
Hybrid organo-inorganic phosphates open up a land of opportunities in materials science and ion-exchange chemistry. These nanocomposites bridge high-temperature materials such as glasses and ceramics with very fragile species such as organic compounds or biomolecules. In last 10–15 years, some hybrid ion-exchange materials have been synthesized in the laboratories, such as acrylamide and pyridine-based zirconium and tin phosphates [32, 33, 34], acrylonitrile-based zirconium phosphate [35]. These materials have shown promising ion-exchange characteristics and have been utilized in the separation of metal ions due to their selectivity towards different metals ions. Metal phosphates, such as tin(IV) phosphate, cerium(IV) phosphate, zirconium(IV) phosphate etc. were found very good ion exchangers and intercalating agents too. The whole idea to convert them to hybrid ion exchangers has been to enhance the interlayer distances by introducing organic species in the metrics of these metal phosphates, resulting in improved ion-exchange properties. These metal-organic phosphates, or hybrid ion exchangers, correspond to metal-organic frameworks where features of organic and inorganic counterparts are revealed in terms of ion-exchange capacity, thermal, chemical and mechanical stability in addition to metal ion selectivity. However, structures of these metal-organic phosphates could not be described as these materials have been found amorphous or poorly crystalline. Table 3 summarizes their ion-exchange capacities and selectivity towards metal ions.
S.N. | Name of the materials | Ion-exchange capacity for Na+ (meq/dry g) | Selectivity | X-ray nature | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Polyacrylonitrile thorium(IV) phosphate | 3.90 | Pb(II) | Microcrystalline | [36] |
2. | Polystyrene cerium(IV) phosphate | 2.95 | Hg(II) | Microcrystalline | [37] |
3. | Polystyrene thorium(IV) phosphate | 4.52 | Cd(II) | Crystalline | [38] |
4. | Acrylonitrile cerium (IV) phosphate | 2.86 | Hg(II) | Poorly crystalline | [39] |
5. | Acrylamide cerium(IV) phosphate | 2.60 | Hg(II) | Crystalline | [40] |
6. | Acrylamide thorium(IV) phosphate | 2.00 | Pb(II) | Poorly crystalline | [41] |
7. | Pectin cerium(IV) phosphate | 1.78 | Hg(II) | Amorphous | [42] |
8. | Pectin thorium(IV) phosphate | 2.15 | Pb(II) | Amorphous | [42] |
9. | Cellulose acetate thorium(IV) phosphate | 1.70 | Pb(II) | Amorphous | [43] |
10. | Pyridine cerium(IV) phosphate | 2.00 | Hg(II) | Amorphous | [44] |
11. | Pyridine thorium(IV) phosphate | 2.10 | Pb(II) | Amorphous | [45] |
12. | n-Butyl acetate cerium(IV) phosphate | 2.25 | Hg(II) | Amorphous | [46] |
Different types of hybrid metal phosphates and their important properties.
Surfactants constitute the most important group of detergent components. ‘Surfactant’ is an abbreviation for surface-active agents (shown in Figure 2), which literally means ‘active at the surface’. The surface can be between solid and liquid, between air and liquid and between two different immiscible liquids. The unique property of surfactants is ‘adsorption’, which occurs at liquid/solid, liquid/liquid and at air/liquid interfaces. At air-water interfaces and in water, or similarly strongly hydrogen-bonded solvents, they self-associate at concentrations above the critical micelle concentration (CMC) to form association colloids, known as ‘micelles’ [47].
Structure of Surfactant monomer.
Thus, ‘surfactants, surface-active agents [48] or, detergents are amphiphilic, organic or organo-metallic compounds which form association colloids or micelles in solution’. Amphiphilic substances or amphiphiles are comprised of a hydrophobic portion, usually a long alkyl chain, attached to hydrophilic or water solubility-enhancing functional groups. Actually, surfactant molecule consists of two parts: a water-hating (hydrophobic) part and a water-loving (hydrophilic) part. The following figure shows the basic structure of a surfactant molecule.
There are three basic concepts that need to be well understood in order to explain the majority of observed phenomena; these are solubility, adsorption of a surfactant at a surface and the formation of micelles in solution. These three phenomena differentiate a surfactant from other chemical entities. It is the abnormal solubility characteristics of surfactants which offers the adsorption on surfaces/interfaces and formation of micelles. Surfactants reduce surface tensions when dissolved in water or water solutions, reduce interfacial tensions between two liquids, or between a liquid and a solid [49]. When a surfactant molecule is introduced into water, the water-hating part tends to escape by attaching itself to any available surface other than water. At the same time, the water-loving part tries to remain in water. As a result, surfactants get strongly ‘adsorbed’ to many surfaces, such as fabric, soil, glass and where the water and air meet (i.e., water/air interface). This tendency of surfactants is useful:
In the removal of the soils from surfaces.
In holding soil particles in suspension form and preventing them from redepositing onto the surface.
In reducing surface tension of water and allowing the water to spread out.
The unusual properties of aqueous surfactant solutions can be ascribed to the presence of a hydrophilic head group and a hydrophobic chain (or tail) in the molecule. The polar or ionic head group usually interacts strongly with an aqueous environment, in which case it is solvated via dipole-dipole or ion-dipole interactions. Depending on the chemical structure of the hydrophilic moiety bound to the hydrophobic portion, the surfactants may be categorized into following types:
Anionic surfactants [50]
Cationic surfactants [51]
Nonionic surfactants [52]
Amphoteric surfactants [53]
Gemini surfactants [54]
The formation of micelles in aqueous solution is generally viewed as a compromise between the tendency for alkyl chains to avoid energetically unfavourable contacts with water, and the desire for the polar part to maintain contact with aqueous environment. In dilute aqueous solution, at concentration generally less than 10−4 M, the behaviour of ionic surfactants parallels that of strong electrolytes while the behaviour of nonionic surfactants often resembles that of the simple organic molecules. At higher surfactant concentrations, however, a pronounced deviation from ‘ideal’ behaviour in dilute solution occurs—this deviation generally being considerably larger than that exhibited by simple strong electrolytes. Thus, the adsorption of a surfactant from solution onto a surface depends upon the concentration [53]. Each surfactant has a characteristic CMC value. The most obvious evidence of micellar growth is probably the dramatic increase in viscosity with increasing concentration, which is observed in several surfactant solutions. Micellar growth is favoured by decreasing the temperature, adding electrolyte and lengthening the surfactant chain length and is, furthermore, very sensitive to the nature of the counter ion.
The physico-chemical properties of surfactants vary significantly below and above the CMC value [55]. Below the CMC value, the physico-chemical properties of ionic surfactants resemble those of a strong electrolyte. Above the CMC value, these properties change dramatically, indicating a highly co-operative association process. The general way of obtaining the CMC value of a surfactant micelle is to plot an appropriate physico-chemical property versus the surfactant concentration and observe the break in the plot [56, 57, 58].
Depending upon the chemical structure of the surfactant, its micelle can be cationic, anionic, zwitterionic or nonionic. The electrostatic character of the micelles depends in some cases on the pH of the aqueous solution due to protonation equilibria. Zwitterionic surfactants, of course, also can become either cationic or anionic, and several types of nonionic surfactants can also form anionic or cationic micelles in the appropriate pH range. Micelles are not static species but rather exist in a dynamic equilibrium. The micelle may be represented as a globular, cylindrical or ellipsoidal cluster [59] of individual surfactant molecules in equilibrium with its monomer. The reverse orientation of the hydrophilic and hydrophobic part of the surfactant in a hydrocarbon medium leads to the formation of reversed micelles [60].
The effectiveness of surfactant adsorption is mainly determined by surfactant concentration, surfactant functional group, alkyl hydrocarbon chain length, environment etc. When the surfactant concentration is well below the CMC value, individual surfactant molecules tend to adsorb on exposed interfaces to reduce surface tension. As the concentration of surfactant approaches the CMC value, surfactant molecules form dimers, and multiple molecules aggregate, micelles. Once the CMC is reached, any additional surfactant molecules added to the system will be incorporated into new or existing aggregates. Thus, further increase of surfactant concentration above the CMC value results in bilayer or multilayer formation at interface. The adsorption tendency of the surfactants at the surfaces imparts the properties of foaming, wetting, emulsification, dispersing of solids and detergency. The adsorption increases the concentration of surfactant at the surfaces. Surfactant adsorption is a consideration in any application where surfactants come in contact with a surface or interface. It is from solutions that surfactants then preferentially adsorb to interfaces and, because of their amphiphilic nature, preferentially segregate at interfaces. There are a number of areas of applications where surfactant adsorption is important including ore floatation, improved oil recovery, soil remediation, detergency, surfactant-based separation processes and wetting. Surfactant adsorption may occur due to electrostatic interactions, van der Waals interaction, hydrogen-bonding and/or solvation and desolvation of adsorbate and adsorbent species [61].
The hydrophobic forces that drive surfactants to segregate at air-water interfaces are essentially the same that drive surfactant adsorption onto solid surfaces. However, they can be differing in the chemical forces associated with the solid surfaces. Ionic surfactants tend to adsorb onto oppositely charged solid surfaces due to electrostatic forces while adsorption of ionic surfactants on a like charged substrate, being less understood, can occur via hydrogen-bonding or attractive dispersion forces [62], as in the case for nonionic surfactants.
The number of industrial applications of surfactants is huge, and represents the subject of several book series. However, in analytical chemistry, surfactants have been recognized as being very useful in improving analytical technology, for example, in chromatography [63] and luminescence spectroscopy [64]. The use of surfactants in chromatography, particularly in ion-exchange, is of our interest. It is well known that surfactants are composed of two parts—hydrophobic and hydrophilic, which are oppositely charged, and the surfactants also act as ion exchangers. When their solutions are kept in contact with solid material, they are adsorbed on the solid surface with their hydrophilic part remaining in the solutions due to their surface-active property and they make that surface ‘active’. It is clear from the above discussion that they play an important role in the adsorption behaviour of the molecules.
The widespread utility of surfactants in practical applications and scientific interest regarding their nature and properties have precipitated a wealthy literature [65, 66] on the subject. One of the predominant reasons for the ubiquitous applications of surfactants has been their remarkable ability to influence the properties of the surfaces and interfaces. Surfactants are widely used in various industrial applications [67, 68, 69, 70] such as petroleum, pharmaceuticals, agro-chemicals, processing of foods, paints, coatings, adhesives, lubricants, in photographic films, personal care and laundry products.
Varshney et al. [71, 72] used surfactants as media in the adsorption studies of some alkaline earths and heavy metal ions on inorganic and hybrid ion exchangers and observed that the presence of surfactants in aqueous media increases the adsorption of metal ions on the surface on ion-exchange materials. Hence, exceptional high adsorption of the said metal ions has opened the doors in the field of material science. It was thought worthwhile to incorporate the surfactants in the matrix of inorganic ion exchangers to see how they could change the characteristics of the ion exchangers. Very recently, some hybrid fibrous and non-fibrous metal phosphates have been synthesized by combining surfactants and inorganic ion exchangers (metal phosphates) [73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81] by the researchers. Surfactants based ion exchangers also correspond to metal organic frameworks as surfactants being an organic counterpart introduced in the inorganic metal phosphates by the bonding in between the layers of metal phosphates. At this level too, structure could not been explained, reason being the amorphous and poorly crystalline nature of these materials.
Somya et al. [73, 74, 75] have probably first used surfactants in the synthesis some novel hybrid fibrous and non-fibrous metal phosphates by introducing surfactants (anionic, cationic and nonionic) in the matrix of inorganic metal phosphates. They have explored the ion-exchange studies such as ion-exchange, pH-titration, concentration, elution and thermal behaviour in addition to adsorption studies for some alkaline earths and heavy metal ions. Those materials were found to be selective for certain metal ions and, on that basis, some binary separations have been performed in the laboratory providing their potential role in environmental and analytical chemistry. The introduction of surfactants in the matrix of inorganic ion exchangers has been characterized by some physico-chemical studies like, IR, X-ray diffraction, elemental, SEM and TGA/DTA/DTG studies.
Later on, Iqbal [78, 79, 80, 81] have synthesized the same class of hybrid metal phosphates by combining sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate and sodium bis (2-ethylhexyl) sulphosuccinate in the matrix of cerium (IV) and tin (IV) phosphates. They have explored some ion-exchange studies in addition to physico-chemical characterization like IR, XRD, SEM, TGA/DTA/DTG, elemental studies and differential pulse polarography. These materials have shown selective adsorption for certain metal ions. Hence, binary separations have been done by using columns of the synthesized materials. Most of the surfactant based metal phosphates were found amorphous or poorly crystalline.
As per the studies done, so far, it is clearly indicated that surfactants have played a key role in synthesis of new class of hybrid metal phosphates as ion-exchange materials. They have enhanced not only the ion-exchange capacities of the inorganic metal phosphates when present in their matrix but also the adsorption of metal ions. These metal-organic hybrid materials have shown selectivity towards certain metals. Hence, these materials open a door with ample opportunities for the researchers in the field of analytical and environmental science where they can be used in water pollution control.
The author (A. Somya) is highly thankful to the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for providing the research facilities. The author is also thankful to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi for providing funds under Senior Research Fellowship scheme [09/112(0408)2K8-EMR-I]. The author wants to express special thanks to the Chancellor, Pro-Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor and Dean, School of Engineering, Presidency University, Bengaluru for giving enthusiastic and constant support.
Seeking and taking advantages of emerging entrepreneurial opportunities in a socio-economic environment that is saddled with volatility, shock, turbulence, munificence and disruption could be an arduous task for entrepreneurship to evolve, thrive, and grow the economy at a space and speed that are desirable for fast economic growth and development. The fact that entrepreneurship is both formal and informal makes such opportunity-seeking and advantage-taking to be diverse, complex and highly competitive.
Unarguably in the extant literature, entrepreneurship is considered an engine and a key driver of growth [1, 2]. However, this notion of entrepreneurship-driven growth is often downplayed in most of the developing economies [3], because the substantial part of their economies is largely informal [4]. This informality engenders entrepreneurship to be significantly influenced by the economic policies and institutional forces to the extent that emerging and localised innovative ideas and financing of such opportunities have become a critical interplay of the economic activities [5].
This paper aims at discussing gaps that were observed in the extant literature and empirical evidence relating to the entrepreneurial financing of the informal sector, and explores how the domain of accounting knowledge, specifically the management accounting field, could play a key role in advancing the frontier of informal entrepreneurship financing in the twenty-first century.
In this chapter, the key issues surrounding informal sector entrepreneurship are problematized while the emerging financial technology (FINTECH) and new outlets for funding existing and new business ventures, innovative products and technology are discussed alongside the potential impacts on informal entrepreneurship.
To navigate how the theoretical gaps could be closed, theoretical framework that demonstrates the linkages among different variables of the entrepreneurial phenomenon and charts the pathways to which the suggested contributions mitigate the financing bottlenecks of the informal entrepreneurship is conceptualised.
In conclusion, this paper has implications on accounting research both theoretically and in practice. First, it highlights core areas of management accounting that are relevant to the knowledge exposure of the entrepreneurial financing where fragmentation of theory and pragmatism have tended to limit the impacts of academic research on practitioners and impedes clarity of communication between theory and practice [6].
Second, where accounting profession can be more appreciated and be seen as co-pilots that drive standardisation and innovativeness of information management and tools that are relevant to entrepreneurial ventures in the informal sector, particularly in the developing or emerging economies.
The informal sector of an economy depicts a channel through which unregulated but organised business endeavours take place among different stakeholders, particularly the people at the bottom of the pyramid in an environment that is characterised by poverty and inequality. The business activities within the sector are mostly transacted outside the boundary of government regulations but firmly reside within the confines of informal structures that are encapsulated in culture, norms, convention and rules [7].
The understanding of informal entrepreneurship is ambiguous and has diverse conceptualisation in the literature. This is because the insight into informality as an economic unit, varies across scholars [8]. While some scholars see informality in the sense of legality, which denotes those informal businesses are compulsorily brought into being as a result of rigid and strict regulations, others see it under the lens of structuralists, as a “safe-haven” for those who could not find jobs in a formal structure of the economy.
Informality is also perceived under the purview of voluntarists as a “necessity-driven” avenue for seeking entrepreneurial opportunities when there is no hope in the formal sector. By whatever way we perceive the informality phenomenon, there is evidence that the informal entrepreneurship sector contributes positively to the growth and wealth of the economy, although in some cases, it also dilutes economic growth [4, 9].
Scholars continue to debate the extent to which numerous firms and individual actors in the informal economic environment impact growth of the economy, despite having a larger population of the economy engaged in trading, street vendors, public markets, subsistence farming and self-employment among other informal economic activities [9]. In this paper, informal entrepreneurship is viewed under the lens of opportunity discovery and innovativeness dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation.
An entrepreneurial opportunity was succinctly put as “situations
The dimension of innovativeness, on the other hand, is characterised by a new product, new technology, new channel and new market that are unique and create differentiation advantage over the existing products, channels or markets [11].
Considering that there is a linkage between formal and informal entrepreneurship, it is apparent that such interconnectedness is an avenue for informal entrepreneurs to discover entrepreneurial opportunities to create new products, services or technologies. Moreover, the limitation of opportunities in the formal sector arising from over-regulation or excessive legal constraints can also become a source for entrepreneurial opportunities for the informal sector to explore and exploit [11].
Similarly, when a section of formal sector products or services is transitioned or outsourced to informal markets, this could inspire an entrepreneurial opportunity for informal entrepreneurs to exploit. However, it is argued that, rather than gaining from collaborative and mutual benefits of the formal-informal sector linkage, the informal sector is cannibalised by the formal sector which preys on the innovativeness of informality through free-riding and risk-shifting. Hence, the frugality of innovation tending towards a reconfiguration of informal sector opportunities and innovativeness to further the growth of the formal sector [12].
Notwithstanding the above, the question as to whether informality helps entrepreneurs to achieve firm growth still lingers, and if it does, how does the firm growth translate to economic growth? The main issue is that the informal sector has been seen in the shadow of the formal sector because of its lower productivity, less technology-driven, poor access to qualified or competent human capital, poor access to financial credit and out of formal institutional coverage [4, 13]. With these characteristics, the informal sector in the developing countries has not been growing in tandem with the growth of the overall economy. It rather shrinks and gives ways to further development of the formal sector.
This position is supported by IMF Regional Economic Outlook (REO, 2017) which suggests that the productivity levels of informal firms are strictly lower than that of formal firms based on the real output per worker (
In contrast to the widely held notion of the lower economic performance of informal sectors, some scholars have argued that informality did contribute positively to economic growth and has become a destination for the development of a country rather than continues as a journey. For instance, there was a finding that a strong positive correlation exists between informality and firm growth, and the probability of informal entrepreneurs achieving their set objectives is higher than the formal entrepreneurs achieving theirs [14].
The other positive areas of informality to economic growth in developing nations can be traced to trade and self-employment. Trade liberalisation has the consequence of spillovers of workers from the formal sector to the informal sector as a result of the drop in demand and supply of goods and services. This unabsorbed labour may then take a new opportunity or be self-employed [15, 16]. This situation plays crucial roles in the reallocation of resources to the informal sector, thus reducing apparent unemployment in the economy. Given the above, it can be concluded that informality has some positive correlations to the growth of the economy, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa which has the largest settlement of informal economic activities in the world.
To illustrate this with data, IMF Regional Economic Outlook shows that the informal economy in sub-Saharan Africa contributed between 25% and 65% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the region. The regional informality also accounts for 30–90% of the total employment in the non-agricultural sector, while the unweighted average share of the informal sector as a percentage of GDP between 2010 and 2014 was 38%, despite that informality is shrinking both in the region and globally [17].
The regulatory environment, economic policies and informal institutional forces of norms, conventions, etc., have significant influences on the choice, prevalence and performance of both informal and formal entrepreneurship. An empirical finding reveals that a unit (standard-deviation) increase in the quality of political and economic institutional roles could halve the rates of informal entrepreneurship, but double the rates of formal entrepreneurship [18].
This means that the degree to which the informal sector is impacted by the vagaries of government regulations and policies is much more than that of the formal sector. It is these economic and political-institutional forces that confer advantages of legitimacy to firms in the formal sector which in turns skew the allocation of entrepreneurial efforts and resources towards formality. This is understandable since informal firms and individual actors within the sector operate outside the confines of formal business laws, rules and property rights protection. The caveat is that some of these formal legitimacies carry the implications of disincentives to capital accumulation and investment in the informal sector.
However, informal firms leverage on the social legitimacy confers on them by their stakeholders including government authority. Social legitimacy is governed by norms, values, conventions and beliefs that are prevalent in the environment and make informal firms and individual actors within the environment to be legitimate in dealings with their customers, suppliers and other stakeholders [7, 14].
In most developing nations, the drives and quests for revenue mobilisation have made some relevant government authorities extend the hand of regulation to the informal sector in some spheres of informal trade activities. For instance, in Nigeria, state and local government have mandates of local taxes, operational licences, environmental pollution controls for organised informal markets, which are enforced through umbrella associations and leaders of the market communities.
Regardless of the issue of legitimacy and regulation, what matters most in the institutional framework of the informal sector is the interconnectedness of formal and informal entrepreneurship, and how well or otherwise does the regulatory and policy environment support or impede the progress of informality in terms of opportunity discovery and innovativeness. First, the quality and efficiency of government regulations and policy, determine the choice, size and prevalence of formal or informal entrepreneurship.
Most important are the tax regimes, credit policies and property rights protection. Many undifferentiated government policies and actions between the two sectors in form of taxes, revenue mobilisation, environmental pollution, financial credits, property rights and labour laws are hostile to informal entrepreneurial firms and are gradually used to exiting them from the economy, although informal firms also define structural and political clout of the economy.
Second, the perception of ‘all-inclusive’ or ‘frugal’ innovation in the linkage between formal and informal economies, particularly in developing countries has been argued by some scholars that rather than promoting and rewarding informal entrepreneurs for their innovative and collaborative endeavours, the relationship of formal and informal firms tends to suppress and cannibalise the informal sector for the profit motives and institutional gains of the formal sector. Meaning that firms in the formal sector simply take the existing routine innovation in the informal markets and scale it up, thus formalising what is already informal through free riding, by-passing and risk-shifting [12].
Third, the institutional linkage that binds informal and formal entrepreneurship also implies information asymmetry and networking. Informal firms leverage occupational and social networking when seeking an opportunity for innovative ideas, new products, technology advancement, and when regulating the behaviours of the individual actors within the sector [19]. On the other hand, formal firms substantially rely on changes in laws, regulations, policies and a few open-channel information to guide their legitimate economic activities. The resulting information asymmetry and superior social networking on the part of informal firms often create unfair competition for the firms operating in the same market.
Lastly, contentious issues of product counterfeiting and passing-off on the part of informal entrepreneurs tend to further the illegitimacy concerns of the informal sector. However, in some cases, counterfeit products are socially acceptable in the informal market as a result of exorbitant prices on similar products, or simply to fill the gaps in the market [7]. Nonetheless, in the institutional relationship between the two sectors, criminal and illegitimate activities of some of the informal firms should be viewed separately within the linkage and do not make informality illegal in the entire economy.
The traditional roles of financial intermediary in nurturing and promoting new business creation and innovation are fast changing in the modern entrepreneurial economy. Consequent to this changing dynamic is that venture capitalist, angel investor, commercial and investment banking are confronted with globalisation and technological disruption. Similar to this situation is the increasing trend of local venture capitalist and entrepreneurship philanthropist as a modern-day angel investor who is financially promoting local business ideas through their foundation platforms. Hence, the need for greater focus on the evolving roles of financial intermediaries and their linkage to the financial and ownership structure of the entrepreneurs, as major determinants for innovation and firm growth [20].
It is, therefore, no gainsaying that emerging entrepreneurs from either formal or informal sector are becoming viable sources for new business and job creation, new product and technology that will lead to productivity growth. However, the major constraint in fostering these economic growth-enhancing activities is the difficulty in accessing appropriate financial resources for innovative endeavours.
The focal area in this paper centres on the sourcing and process of financing informal sector entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation, since the actors in this sector are largely unregulated within the ambit of formal sector financial institutions. Their ownership and financial structure are also non-conforming with the formal contractual obligations and property rights framework. These then pose some questions regarding; (i) the ideal financial outlets to raise funds for innovative products, services and technology, (ii) effectiveness of financial intermediation to support informal firms within the financial industry to raise funds critical to financing a new business, products, and (iii) the conditionalities for accessing funds in terms of financial and ownership structure.
These questions and more, deserve scholastic attention to expand the frontier of informal sector financing [21]. Nevertheless, there has been some coverage of this issue in the literature, albeit not specific to informal entrepreneurship [22, 23].
The process of raising funds by informal entrepreneurs to finance novel ideas, create new business, new product, innovate or renovate technology and process, has not only been complex but also difficult. Stemming from inadequate or lack of internal cash flows and prominently, lack of adequate collaterals, asymmetric information, agency problems, most of the entrepreneurial projects in the informal entrepreneurship sector usually die on arrival.
Notwithstanding, informal entrepreneurs have the privilege of accessing financial resources from traditional channels either internally or externally. Internal traditional sources such as accumulated savings, retained reserves, business assistance or inheritance from families, and loans from friends. On the external traditional sources, bank loans, microfinancing, and cooperative loans are options. In most cases, internalised funding options are unarguably inadequate for funding serious innovation, hence there are needs for alternative sources [24, 25].
In recent times, new channels and platforms of entrepreneurial financing have emerged. These new avenues are necessitated by the inadequacy of supply side market for funding entrepreneurship, and are expected to mitigate funding barriers and fill the gaps of the dwindling financial intermediation [21].
The shortcomings of informal borrowing and bank lending to the entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation, have culminated in investors turning to angel investor network and venture capital for equity capital contributions. However, due to some limitations leading to adverse selection and credit rationing, new channels of entrepreneurial financing such as crowdfunding, accelerator and incubators, specialised seed funding and government venture funding have emerged in the financial industry [21, 25, 26, 27].
Angel investors are rich individuals who take interest to fund innovation projects with their personal wealth and expertise. They usually focus on the start-up and early-stage innovation and remain passive in the entrepreneurship structure. This source of fund is seen as a second call, when bank loans and other traditional financing fail. On the other hand, venture capital is an intermediated source of capital that is raised from set of limited investors for an early-stage or seed phase innovation projects of young entrepreneurs. It is equity finance capital with the objective of earning returns on the investment for the investors. Venture capitalists are active in the in the entrepreneurial innovation to add value, but with temporary ownership structure.
As a result of funding gaps that continue to exist regardless of robust angel investor and venture capital financing, crowdfunding platform has emerged as a big disruptor in the venture financing market. Crowdfunding allows for direct on-line mobilisation of funds for entrepreneurial and innovation projects, particularly the ones at the early-stage, from clusters of small investors (equity crowdfunding) or from group of potential consumers of the project (reward-based crowdfunding). This channel is a disintermediated finance source of small investors with no standard financial intermediaries. What makes crowdfunding successful are strong network of personal investors, underlying quality of the entrepreneurial projects and geography of the entrepreneurship [28].
There are also accelerators and incubators funding channels which focus on gathering network and mentors for the entrepreneurship innovation. These channels are cohort-based funding supports that also provide financing in exchange for equity [25]. Although, the aforementioned financing options are induced by supply-push factors, however, with some shortcomings in the financial industry, government intervention in funding entrepreneurship innovation has become a response to a demand-pull factor of technology transfer [27]. Some countries are coming out to support new business creation, innovation and corporate venturing by direct intervention of venture funding through relevant agencies, while others are supporting the financial industry with tax and other public investment policies to mitigate prevalent bottlenecks between the investors and the entrepreneurs.
Conversely, the challenge is how the informal sector could explore these new alternative sources of funds to support its emerging inventions, innovations, and other entrepreneurial opportunity discovery in the sector. The issue of legitimacy, informal ownership and financial structure do not position informal entrepreneurship appropriately to benefit from venture capitalist. However, crowdfunding and angel investor network can be of immense benefits to the potential entrepreneurs in the informal sector.
In the extant literature of entrepreneurial financing, no significant work has yet been done on the peculiarity of informal sector entrepreneurship funding. This apparent gap could be attributed to the afore-mentioned agency problems of information asymmetry and moral hazard, lack of formal financial contract agreement, ambiguous ownership and financial structure, and the issue of legitimacy. It follows that the informal sector entrepreneurship has long been stigmatised with these problems. However, the terrain of financing entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation is not so different for formal and informal entrepreneurs, particularly for new business creation, opaque firms, and young entrepreneurship. Therefore, the streams of funds emanating from the traditional bank loans and trade credits, informal loan from friends and families, coupled with the emergence of alternative sources such as angel investor network, venture capital, crowdfunding, accelerator financing and specialised venture capital, can no longer be overemphasised in the emerging financial markets and technologies [21, 26].
In this regard, scholars are expected to position the phenomenon of entrepreneurial financing in the literature as an important link between entrepreneurial opportunity and economic growth of which the informal sector is paramount. Unfortunately, the literature of finance, strategic management and accounting are yet to fully extend the informality perspective into the theory of finance. Hence, the necessity to integrate into the theory of financing, those gaps associated with the informal entrepreneurship sector in order to bridge the theoretical laxity.
First and foremost, the issue of information asymmetry as a principal-agent problem between two related parties has largely been stressed in some literature [29, 30, 31, 32]. However, little has been done to extend this notion of agency theory to the relationship between entrepreneurial firms and potential investors [21], particularly in the area of informal entrepreneurship-investor nexus. This issue which is profound in the informal market suggests that the entrepreneurs are likely to hold or hide vital information from the knowledge of potential investors when seeking for external funds [33]. This attitude is usually as a result of fear that competitors or rivals might take undue advantages of the innovative ideas or products, hence the reluctance of the entrepreneurs to divulge the core information of such innovation to the potential investors [34].
Aside the withholding or divulging of vital information by the entrepreneurs, the other dark side of informational asymmetry that create gaps in the financing of informal entrepreneurial opportunities is the failure to provide good track of business records and the commitment to business acumen and demonstration of credit worthiness. In this situation, the cost of screening or ascertaining credible information on the history of business endeavours in the informal sector which is considered opaque by investors, is usually prohibitive [24]. Moreover, the opacity of the informal firms dictates the financing strategy and tactics that may be employed by the potential investors [25]. This is because some of the new and young firms, particularly the informal ones have no track records, either with suppliers, customers, lending institutions and other stakeholders.
The second agency related issue that contributes to the financing gap of informal entrepreneurship is the moral hazard conflict. In this instance, informal entrepreneurs might misallocate funds raised from investors and utilise same for their benefits rather than for mutual benefits which was the original purpose of financing [23]. In the extant literature, moral hazard is simply referred to as ‘shirking’ of responsibility by an agent in a principal-agent relationship [32], meaning that the agent has not effectively render his efforts as agreed in the relationship. It has also been argued that moral hazard conflict stems from the fact that investors often lack the ability to fully incentivise the information asymmetries of the entrepreneurs [35]. For instance, dispersed investors like crowdfunding providers or angel investor network might not have the capacity to monitor or coordinate the activities of the investors to identify manifestations of moral hazard. Thus, goal-congruence is lacking between the potential investor and informal entrepreneurs where the entrepreneurs may disregard the interests of the potential investors [21].
Although, assumptions of self-interest, bounded rationality, risk aversion and information asymmetry play key roles as precursors to agency problems in the relationship between the agent and his principal, the fact that the two parties have different and divergent interests often leads to goal incongruency and once this issue manifests, necessary governance mechanisms and incentives need to be put in place to mitigate the problems [36].
The other fundamental issues facing the informal entrepreneurship sector in raising adequate funding is the lack of formalised financial contract agreement and the high probability of enforcement failure. Contractual relationship between the informal entrepreneurs and potential investors are substantially informal and relational, meaning that the variability by the third party such as court or arbitration, is absent, often lacks rigours, ambiguous, and such contract agreement suffers from incompleteness or holding-up which could result in ‘arm-twisting’ between the entrepreneurs and the investors [20, 37, 38].
Although, many informal firms and individual actors are organised to some extent, as some of them belong to umbrella associations or recognised professions, nonetheless, the financial contract existing in this environment is largely relational and as such, does not guarantee establishing an appropriate financial contract and agreement within the sector. Moreover, the transactional costs and enforcement are prominent issues surrounding informal contracts. It is costly to establish and enforce informal contract agreements because of the failure to provide adequate and convincing evidences of the breach of contract before the courts or arbitration [37].
In most of the literature on entrepreneurial financing and particularly, the financial contracting between investors and entrepreneurs, the issues that stand out are, the finding of equilibrium in the shared risks among the contracting parties, incentives to mitigate incongruency at the early stage of entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation, and enforcement of financial contractual agreement. Therefore, the quest for investors’ robustness on financing decisions, either in the anticipation or against the potential information asymmetry, inexperience or moral hazard conflict of the entrepreneurs has become very important element in the financial contract agreement and transactional costs for informal entrepreneurial opportunities [39].
Most importantly is the enforcement of the contractual agreement. The dichotomy between weak and strong enforcement is significant in determining the default rate of entrepreneurial finance made available by investors. Thus, the supply of funds by investors and the ability to repay by the entrepreneurs are determinants to the enforcement resources available to the investors [40].
Similarly, the nature of ownership structure of most informal firms is either family-oriented or sole actors which do not necessarily have formal organisational structure, standardised financial bookkeeping and financial disclosure, robust financial planning and controls. The absence of these structures can lead to ‘cognitive bias’ in making financing decisions from both the entrepreneurs and the investors [26]. To illustrate, informal entrepreneurs depend much more on cognitive bias to appeal to investors to fund their entrepreneurial opportunities, regardless of their structure, the amount and accuracy of information they disclose.
In fact, the cognitive bias carries different levels of persuasion and risk mitigation towards entrepreneurial financing. In the literature, cognitive bias is conceptualised in the context of ‘perception and reasoning’ errors that could influence judgement and decision-making to deviate from the normative rationality [41]. Unlike in the formal sector, informal entrepreneurial intents, opportunity discovery and innovation are shrouded in cognitive bias than in organisational structure and standardised financial disclosure.
Equally, it is very important to note that ‘mental accounting’ bias also play prominent roles on how informal entrepreneurs keep and present their financial records for the purpose of seeking funds from investor or for any other requirements [42]. This follows that the entrepreneurs organise, process, keep, and report their accounting records based on variety of criteria that are mostly subjective.
Finally, the policy and regulatory environment that informal entrepreneurship sector resides and share with the formal sector is also one of the determining factors that constrain easy funding accessibility to informal entrepreneurs and often pose some disincentives for the entrepreneurial firms and the investors to take calculative risks. Although, it is argued that non-conformity with the institutionalised policies and regulations of taxes, financial credit facility, compliance, etc., deprive informal entrepreneurship sector of some of the privileges of legitimacy accorded to the formal sector, however the same environment has helped informal entrepreneurs with the emergence of various financing outlets and technology that are specific to informal debt financing [43].
In the developing economies, microfinancing, cooperative societies, ‘esusu’ group contributions and lending and on-line loan facility are the new financing opportunities that are reshaping the informal sector entrepreneurship. This attests to the fact that the traditions, rules and conventions that govern the financing of informal entrepreneurship opportunity could be moderated by the formal institutional policy and regulation [44]. Nevertheless, regulative and policy incentives are also part of the environmental variables that can influence the opportunity and innovation of informal entrepreneurship, create a favourable climate for enhancing productive relationship between investors and the entrepreneurs and also create avenues to ease information asymmetry and incongruency of interests in the informal sector [45].
Having discussed and problematised the phenomena of informality and entrepreneurial financing in the developing economy, this paper further attempts to expand the domains of entrepreneurship and accounting by developing a theoretical model that conceptualises the interconnectedness among informal entrepreneurship, institutional environment that constrain the legitimacy of informal entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial financing together with bottlenecks arising from informality and the potential contributions to the conceptual and theoretical framework of financing (Figure 1).
Conceptual model of informal entrepreneurship financing. Source: Author’s adaptation, 2021.
This model has implications for the theoretical underpinning of strategic management, finance and accounting disciplines and exposes agency theory, resource-based theory, transaction cost theory, financial contracting theory and new institutional theory as relevant underlying theories. However, the context of this paper delimits elucidation and amplification of these theories.
The potential theoretical contributions to the literature are limited to the discipline of accounting, and specifically to the management accounting research which is perceived as an applied and quantitative study of strategic management, and belongs to ‘method theory’ rather than ‘domain theory’ [27]. In essence, management accounting research is regarded as an interventionist research area that could be explored to demonstrate the practicability of some theoretical postulations of entrepreneurial financing in the informal sector of an economy.
This thought process has two consequences. First, the bridging of entrepreneurship and finance domains in the context of informal entrepreneurial financing. Consequently, the underlying but diverse theories would also be unified into a single and augmented scholastic platform. Second, accounting practitioners, knowledgeable entrepreneurs, and policy makers can leverage on the knowledge enhancement in form of management accounting information and tools to further the practice that will develop the accounting profession and also inform appropriate policies for enhancing informal entrepreneurship in the developing economies.
Informal entrepreneurship is conceptualised into two-fold; the entrepreneurial opportunity and innovativeness emerging from informal sector of the economy. Entrepreneurial opportunity is expressed in terms of recognition and motivation of intents and can be geared towards search or alertness, meaning that potential informal entrepreneur can desire (i.e., to create) or notice (i.e., to discover) opportunity to innovate product, process or service in the informal market. In this context, opportunity can be operationalised in terms of (i) percentage of the unemployed population that recognises start-up of new business, and (ii) percentage informal business activity initiated because of opportunity start-up motive.
Innovativeness refers to innovative ideas and projects that culminate in the newness of product, process, technology amidst competitive brands and varieties in both the formal and informal markets. Innovation can be radical (i.e., completely new) or can be incremental (i.e., renovated). Operationalisation of innovativeness can take the form of (i) number of new products in the market, (ii) number of renovated products in the market, (iii) new technology in the market and (iii) new informal market in the economy.
Both the opportunity discovery and innovativeness exist in the informal environment which is influenced or moderated by institutional policies, regulations and informal rules, conventions and shared values. Although, informality as an environment may be difficult and ambiguous to measure because it is largely seen as a shadow economic unit with the prevalence of numerous informal activities such as small firms trading including street-trading, subsistence farming and agricultural occupation, self-employment, it nevertheless comprises of organised sectors of artisans, technicians, professionals, transporters of goods and persons that are grouped into household businesses and non-wage workers.
It follows that the informal environment has a relationship with the entrepreneurial opportunity and innovativeness respectively. This linkage could therefore establish whether informal firms drive the discovery of entrepreneurial opportunities and innovativeness in the informal markets amidst the disruption in the entire economy.
The interlinkage between the environment and the informal entrepreneurship leads to the emergence on how the new products, technology and process are being financed and brought into the market. Entrepreneurial financing in the context of the informal sector is conceptualised as the process of seeking for and raising appropriate financing for business start-up, renovating new products or technological process and the expansion of capacity that is driven by product and technological innovation. This process runs through informal lending outlets such as borrowing from family, friends, savings, or through financial intermediary such as banks, cooperative societies, microfinance institutions or through the emerging new investment platforms such as crowdfunding, corporate venture, angel investor, accelerators and government specialist financing.
The next phase of the model shows that the paths to seek for fund providers and source appropriate finance for informal entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation are clogged with bottlenecks. Unlike formal entrepreneurial firms, in formal entrepreneurs are faced with informality-specific bottlenecks which are; information asymmetry, moral hazard conflict, ambiguous and unformalized financial contract agreement that is laden with enforcement problems, informal ownership structure and unstandardised financial structure, and mental accounting bias.
In the last phase of the conceptual model, redress propositions in form of contributions to the theory, are made to address the financing bottlenecks in the informal entrepreneurship sector. These contributions are contingent on the frontiers of management accounting research, considering similar theoretical propositions from other disciplines such as finance, economics, strategic management. The contributions to the theory and practice are linked to the relevant bottlenecks that should be addressed in the flow accordingly. For instance, the theoretical expansion envisaged on goal congruence is focused on the agency problems of moral hazard conflict and information asymmetry. Similarly, information management and controls, search and match model are also expected to hinge on the issue of information asymmetry.
The problems of ownership structure would be addressed by the enhancement of management accounting literature in the areas of financial contract agreement and policy and regulative incentives, while the issue of the informal financial structure would be addressed via the expanded theory of the financial contract agreement, search and match model and policy and regulative incentives.
Management accounting is considered a purely applied discipline of strategic management. Hence, it is believed that its relevance and intervention in the issues of entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial financing in the informal sector of the economy is prominent.
In the views of some scholars, management accounting research carries a dichotomy of roles in theory While some scholars are of the view that management accounting being a pure applied field, can only adapt or import theories from other disciplines to use in its research, others believe that the field is distinct, and has its own sets of theories [46]. In my view, these two roles are indistinguishable.
Further, management accounting has often been challenged for not doing enough in providing practical solutions to some theoretical or conceptual issues which are fundamental in expanding the knowledge of the field [6, 28]. Thus, it is important to know how accounting research situates in the realms of knowledge and examine how it intervenes in the research theories of other domains.
In the context of management accounting research, this paper contributes in multiple fold to the literature and theories that underly the phenomenon of entrepreneurial financing by identifying how the bottlenecks of information asymmetry, moral hazard conflict, ownership and financial structure hampering informal entrepreneurship could be bridged.
First, the issue of moral hazard conflict is an agency problem, and could be further theorised using the concept of Goal Congruence. This means that the extant theory of agency should be extended to ‘goals model’ which emphasises the congruency of goals between two or more contrasting parties. In other word, the theory of agency should be expanded to harness the nexus of informal entrepreneurship and financing. Normally, incentives management are employed in resolving goal congruency issues between agent and his principal, but in the context of entrepreneur and investor relationship, resolution should start with modelling of the interests and goals of informal entrepreneurs and investors, after which the two goals are harnessed to anticipate reduction in monitoring cost, reduce bad investment decisions and mitigate impacts of individual opportunism.
The goal congruency modelling should be able to differentiate ostensible and actual goal congruence, whilst proffering different views of congruency that can harmonise common goals and mutual benefits regarding the funding of entrepreneurial opportunities and innovativeness in the informal sector of the economy. In designing the goal model, cooperative behaviours, consensus and control mechanism should all be embedded in order to derive economic benefits of the goal congruency [47].
Second, the problem of information asymmetry could be theoretically salvaged through accounting information management and control, search and match model, and goal congruence. In the nexus of entrepreneurship and financing, information asymmetry occurs when the relevant oversight by investors who normally finance informal entrepreneurial opportunities and innovation is mostly lacking [48]. For instance, angel investors, crowdfunding investors, traditional fund providers like banks, etc. are mostly passive in the management of the entrepreneurship projects, coupled with lack of standardised information systems in the informal sector.
Likewise, the possibility of informal firms concealing vital information to his advantage which is hidden to the potential investor, or the same behaviour posed by investor [23]. These two issues are common in the informal entrepreneurship and financing nexus and contribute to information asymmetry in the financial industry.
Management accounting research will add value to the theory of organisation when it focuses on the design of ‘combined control mechanism’ that encompasses both behavioural and information systems management and control [49], and to the theory of contingency, when the contingent nature of accounting and management information in the constantly changing environment of financing is explored and included as an additive package to the combined information system mechanism [50]. Management accounting research needs to adapt the model of contingency to the disruptive environment of financial industry, focusing on the prevalence of funding outlets, platforms and providers which are dynamic, to help informal entrepreneurs and investors share and match relevant information which enable both parties to derive economic benefits of standardised accounting and management information.
Similarly, feedback control should also be embedded in the overall management information mechanism to give prominence to ‘cognitive dissonance’ in the relationship between informal entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial financing. The feedback control should be designed to guard against either of the party hiding information for selfish tendency and to achieve goal congruence, since there is inherent control weakness in the human interaction system between the informal entrepreneurs who are likely to be dominant in information retention and the potential investors who exploit such information are also passive in the relationship.
Cognitive dissonance implies that a party in the relationship agree with and accommodate information, data and reports that is favourable to his position while discerning the ones at variance with his position. In the process, factual information that is vital to make decisions that could be of mutual benefits to the contractual parties are withheld or grossly be absent. Thus, the antecedents and consequence of cognitive biases in an informal setting of entrepreneurial financing in the twenty-first century, should provide both the informal entrepreneurs and investors with adequate and open information that reflects the symmetry of information that is persuasive of good decision making.
On the other hand, accounting scholars can also theoretically bridge the gap of information asymmetry in the relationship between informal entrepreneur-investor relationship, by leveraging on the extant theoretical work on the search cost model and extend it to the ‘
With the advent of Fintech and a variety of new financing instruments, the cost of searching and accessing investors for promising entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation in the informal sector of the economy are fast becoming a concern for informal firms and individual actors within the sector. It follows that search and match model is a valuation tool used in calibrating and matching of demand and supply forces of labour market [52]. Normatively, search and match tool is designed to exploit wealth of information between two contrasting parties (i.e., employer and employee groups) in response to a change in environmental variable and market friction (i.e., job opening requirements or policy changes). Further, it is an estimating tool designed to provide behavioural responses to the employment issues confronting the labour market [53].
In the context of search and matching model, management accounting research needs to extend the model to bridge the gaps of information asymmetry and financial structure in the relationship of informal entrepreneurship and financing. Quantitative calibration, using empirical data appropriate to the relationship such as background data of informal entrepreneurs and investors, parameters for choice of funds, geographical consideration in terms of financing outlets and providers, cost of search, intermediation cost, cost of fund, forecast data on innovation projects, etc., should be factored in the model calibration.
The third implication centres on the inadequacy of financial contracting in the informal entrepreneurship sector, and its consequential effects on the financial and ownership structures. The underlying theory is the transaction cost and contract. Unlike the formal sectors where contractual agreement, financial and ownership structure are formalised and registered in line with some institutionalised directions, informal firms and individual actors within the informal sector are naturally outside such coverage of legality and formal institutional environment. However, the illegitimacy arising from this externality to informal entrepreneurship could be addressed with two accounting tools.
First, the melding of financial models that aim to put informality around the boundary of formality. In this instance, the financial modelling should encompass financial lending, a structure-oriented funding sources and investor-compliance ownership structure. Second, informal incentive contract model should be explored in quantitative terms to evaluate and analyse the standardised setting of the entrepreneur-investor relationship in the context of informal sector. In this instance, the incentive model should be designed to induce the entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation towards acceptability by potential investors based on predetermined criteria that include unhindered flow of information, remediation, and arbitration process amidst other consideration.
Overall financing contract model should reflect a valid intermediation role and also have the capability to serve as a robust check on the internal logic of decision making and controls for the informal sector entrepreneurship which consequently should assist in standardising bookkeeping, accounting records, budgetary controls and management information system.
One of the implications of this paper is the dematerialisation of the impacts that some regulatory policy has on the informality of entrepreneurship and financing. Management accounting research should expand its frontier to accommodate studies on economic incentives of regulatory policy that is peculiar to informal markets. In this respect, management accounting research should explore the designs and qualitative analysis for tailor-made economic incentive model that brings informal markets closer to the border of formalities and regulatory framework and which can also avail informal entrepreneurs with some of the benefits that formal firms do enjoy, particularly in the areas of taxes, registration and compliance. Such an incentive model should provide governance authority with constructive directions for taking policy decisions, enhance entrepreneurship blueprint and good advocacy for standardised information system for informal entrepreneurship rather than an accounting model.
In this paper, the focus is mainly on the domains of observation and their relationships. That means, the domains of entrepreneurship, finance and accounting. The underlying theories of agency, new institutions, financial contract, transaction costs are not explored, but are justified as the basis for theoretical expansion.
In the same way, the proposed focus for expanding the frontiers of entrepreneurial financing is hinged on the management accounting research instead of multiple disciplines such as finance, economics and strategic management. This intentional focus is to explore the interventionist research agenda of management accounting, being the perceived applied strategic management study. It is also to re-awaken accounting practitioners of their vital roles in the knowledge building of entrepreneurship studies, using accounting information controls and tools.
Informality in the setting of the entrepreneurial economy in developing countries connotes that, informal firms and individual actors within the informal sector do not add significant values to the economy as much as formal firms add, irrespective of the fact that the informal sector employs large numbers of workers and also harness much bigger resources in the value chain of the economy.
Notwithstanding, entrepreneurship opportunity and innovativeness dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation have relevance in the informal sector entrepreneurship, but with the constraints of sourcing and accessing adequate financial resources to fund innovative products, services and new localised technology in the informal markets.
The apparent emergence of financial technology platforms (FINTECH) and new sources of funding, such as crowdfunding, accelerators and incubators are alternative complements to the traditional and informal financing outlets of bank loans, family and friends, as well as angel investor network, venture capital and government venture fund. The new alternative sources are also filling the gaps for considering small firms and start-ups financing, albeit with no visible informal projects in the envelopes. Nevertheless, the on-line provision of capital funds for entrepreneurship has been enormous.
In the informal sector, an opportunity to take advantage of such new sources to close funding gaps are usually marred by the lack of collaterals, poor accounting records, illegitimacy concerns of no formal registration, tax avoidance, no formal contracting and non-coverage of institutionalised policies. These concerns also extend to the issues of information asymmetry, moral hazard, financial and ownership structure.
In an attempt to reposition the understanding of informality in the context of entrepreneurship and financing, and to expand the frontiers of strategic management and accounting literature, this paper suggests that management accounting research could play vital roles in further exploring the problematised issues of entrepreneurial informality and financing by bridging the domains of accounting, finance and entrepreneurship. In this arena, five areas for theoretical contributions were highlighted as, goal congruence, accounting and management information controls, financing contract modelling, regulative policy incentives and search and matching model.
Theoretical model that conceptualises interrelationship among different variables with their underlying theories was proposed. The model demonstrates that informal entrepreneurship has opportunity discovery and innovativeness as antecedents of entrepreneurial orientation. The informal entrepreneurs operate in an institutionalised environment where regulation, policies, culture, traditions and shared values play prominent roles. In this institutionalised environment, it is contingent for the informal entrepreneurs to seek for funds to finance their innovative products, process or technology. There are diverse sources and platforms in the financial industry for the choice either direct or through financial intermediation. However, there many bottlenecks confronting informal entrepreneurship innovation in accessing appropriate and adequate funding.
In this paper, management accounting research is focused to explore various management information systems, models and tools to bridge the theoretical gaps, while also focuses on economic incentives for regulative policy to address gap in policy making concerning informal entrepreneurship sector. The justification for the choice of management accounting research is to position the literature to contribute and expand the frontiers of agency theory, contingency theory, organisational theory, transaction cost theory, financial contracting theory and the model of search and match, all of which underly the highlighted bottlenecks of the informal sector financing.
The other cogent reason is that, management accounting is positioned in between the paradigms of positivism and interpretivism, however, the focus is more on the ontology, epistemology and methodology of interpretivist paradigm, simply because of the social science nature of the discipline rather than considering it as a pure natural science which confers positivist paradigm [54]. While positivism is a scientific paradigm and focus on a realistic natural phenomenon that is independent of the researcher, the interpretivist paradigm is subjective, it focuses on relativism where meanings to objects are discovered and constructed through interaction between researcher conscience and the real world [55].
The knowledge realm of management accounting research is also informed by inductive reasoning for analysing and evaluating qualitative data that will produce reliability and validity of findings [56]. It therefore follows that the perspectives of management accounting research are dynamic and has metamorphosed from just number analysis to qualitative and quantitative decision making and human interaction facilitator [57]. There are instances where management accounting has influenced entrepreneurship studies adopting inductive and qualitative approach such as case studies, interviews, focus groups, etc. Moreover, management accounting has also been found as an important resource and capability for international entrepreneurship and assumes effectuation and causality logic [58]. In these instances, this paper suggests that the theoretical contributions highlighted can be taken through qualitative or quantitative methodology as each case may warrant.
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",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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