Total organic carbon results from experiments 1 and 2 with trimethoprim.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6979",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases",title:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Parasitic diseases are considered nowadays as an important public health problem due to the high morbidity and mortality rates registered in the world. These diseases result in more severe consequences for the social order of tropical and subtropical countries because many of them have low economic income that makes it even more difficult to design and implement health control programs. This situation opens the door to the emergence and reemergence of these diseases; therefore, it is convenient, necessary, and essential to study and update the epidemiological behavior of tropical diseases with the objective of offering official health professionals and institutions current information for decision-making in this area to ensure social welfare.",isbn:"978-1-83880-128-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-127-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-140-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73726",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"parasites-and-parasitic-diseases",numberOfPages:98,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f55304c8bd1d92268e33689c368f9e33",bookSignature:"Gilberto Bastidas",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6979.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6658,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238219/images/system/238219.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco is a physician with degrees in Pre-hospital Emergency Care, Executive Direction for Senior Management in Health, and Occupational Health and Safety. Along with a Health Management Course equivalent to the Public Health Middle Course, Magister Scientiae in Education Management and also in Protozoology, Prof. Bastidas holds a Ph.D. in Parasitology. He is a full professor at the Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Public Health, University of Carabobo, Valencia, Venezuela. He has authored several articles published in national and international journal, and is also an arbitrator of scientific articles, member of the editorial committees of several journals, and a textbook writer and lecturer.",institutionString:"University of Carabobo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Carabobo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Venezuela"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"909",title:"Parasitology",slug:"parasitology"}],chapters:[{id:"66212",title:"Introductory Chapter: Parasitology and Parasitism Areas of Knowledge That Must Be Constantly Studied",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85181",slug:"introductory-chapter-parasitology-and-parasitism-areas-of-knowledge-that-must-be-constantly-studied",totalDownloads:2323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Bastidas Gilberto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66212",authors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco"}],corrections:null},{id:"63084",title:"Organ Pathology and Associated IFN-γ and IL-10 Variations in Mice Infected with Toxoplasma gondii Isolate from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79700",slug:"organ-pathology-and-associated-ifn-and-il-10-variations-in-mice-infected-with-toxoplasma-gondii-isol",totalDownloads:860,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Toxoplasma gondii is an important foodborne opportunistic pathogen that causes a severe disease in immunocompromised patients. The pathology and immune responses associated with the ensuing disease have not been well described in strains from different parts of the world. The aim of the present study is to determine the IFN-γ and IL-10 variations and organ pathology in immunocompetent and immunocompromised mice infected with T. gondii isolated from a Kenyan chicken. Two groups of BALB/c mice were infected with T. gondii cysts and administered with dexamethasone (DXM) in drinking water. Other two groups: infected untreated and uninfected mice were kept as controls. The mice were euthanized at various time points: blood collected for serum and assayed for IFN-γ and IL-10 variations. After infection, significant (p<0.05) elevated levels of IFN-γ and IL-10 were observed. A significant decline in IFN-γ and IL-10 levels (p<0.05) was observed after dexamethasone treatment. Histological sections in the liver, heart, and spleen of the mice administered with DXM revealed various degrees of inflammation characterized by infiltration of inflammatory cells. The dexamethasone-treated mice presented with progressively increased (p<0.001) inflammatory responses is compared with the infected untreated mice.",signatures:"John Mokua Mose, David Muchina Kamau,\nJohn Maina Kagira, Naomi Maina, Maina Ngotho,\nLucy Mutharia and Simon Muturi Karanja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63084",authors:[{id:"255664",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Kagira",slug:"john-kagira",fullName:"John Kagira"},{id:"255668",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Mokua",slug:"john-mokua",fullName:"John Mokua"},{id:"255669",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Kamau",slug:"david-kamau",fullName:"David Kamau"},{id:"255670",title:"Prof.",name:"Naomi",surname:"Maina",slug:"naomi-maina",fullName:"Naomi Maina"},{id:"255671",title:"Dr.",name:"Maina",surname:"Ngotho",slug:"maina-ngotho",fullName:"Maina Ngotho"},{id:"255672",title:"Ms.",name:"Adele",surname:"Njuguna",slug:"adele-njuguna",fullName:"Adele Njuguna"},{id:"255673",title:"Prof.",name:"Simon",surname:"Karanja",slug:"simon-karanja",fullName:"Simon Karanja"},{id:"265279",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucy",surname:"Mutharia",slug:"lucy-mutharia",fullName:"Lucy Mutharia"}],corrections:null},{id:"62896",title:"Malaria Pathophysiology as a Syndrome: Focus on Glucose Homeostasis in Severe Malaria and Phytotherapeutics Management of the Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79698",slug:"malaria-pathophysiology-as-a-syndrome-focus-on-glucose-homeostasis-in-severe-malaria-and-phytotherap",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Severe malaria presents with varied pathophysiological manifestations to include derangement in glucose homeostasis. The changes in glucose management by the infected human host emanate from both Plasmodium parasitic and host factors and/or influences which are aimed at creating a proliferative advantage to the parasite. This also includes morphological changes that that take place to both infected and uninfected cells as structural alterations occur on the cell membranes to allow for increased nutrients (glucose) transportation into the cells. Without the availability, effective and efficient intervention there is a high cost incurred by the human host. Hyperglycaemia, hypoglycaemia and hyperinsulinemia are critical aspects displayed in severe malaria. Conventional treatment to malaria renders itself hostile to the host with negative glucose metabolism changes experiences in the young, pregnant women and malaria naïve individuals. In malaria, therefore, host effects, parasite imperatives and treatment regimens play a pivotal role in the return to wellness of the patient. Phytotherapeutics are emerging as treatment alternatives that ameliorate glucose homeostasis alternations as well as combat malaria parasitaemia. The phytochemicals e.g. triterpenes, have been shown to alleviate the “disease” and “parasitic” aspects of malaria pointing at key aspects in ameliorating malaria glucose homeostasis fallings-out that are experienced in malaria.",signatures:"Greanious Alfred Mavondo, Joy Mavondo, Wisdom Peresuh, Mary\nDlodlo and Obadiah Moyo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62896",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62896",authors:[{id:"202805",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfred Mavondo-Nyajena Mukuwa",surname:"Greanious",slug:"alfred-mavondo-nyajena-mukuwa-greanious",fullName:"Alfred Mavondo-Nyajena Mukuwa Greanious"},{id:"263433",title:"Dr.",name:"Obadiah",surname:"Moyo",slug:"obadiah-moyo",fullName:"Obadiah Moyo"},{id:"263434",title:"Mrs.",name:"Joy",surname:"Mavondo",slug:"joy-mavondo",fullName:"Joy Mavondo"},{id:"263435",title:"Ms.",name:"Mary",surname:"Dlodlo",slug:"mary-dlodlo",fullName:"Mary Dlodlo"},{id:"263436",title:"Mr.",name:"Wisdom",surname:"Peresu",slug:"wisdom-peresu",fullName:"Wisdom Peresu"}],corrections:null},{id:"62893",title:"Prevalence and Intensity of Intestinal Parasites and Malaria in Pregnant Women at Abobo District in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79699",slug:"prevalence-and-intensity-of-intestinal-parasites-and-malaria-in-pregnant-women-at-abobo-district-in-",totalDownloads:866,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A prospective study was carried out from 2010 to 2012 at the Hôpital Général d’Abobo (HGA) in Abidjan, in order to determine the impact of infectious and parasitic diseases on child cognitive development. Blood samples were examined by means of drop thick and blood smear, as for stool by direct examination and concentration by formalin-ether method. We evaluated the prevalence and the parasite load of malaria and gastrointestinal parasites and then investigated the risk factors for these disorders. Overall, 331 pregnant women in the last trimester of their pregnancy were enrolled. The plasmodic index was 3.9% with an infestation specific rate for P. falciparum of 100%. Concerning digestive protozoa, it has been observed 71.3% of nonpathogenic, against 9.7% of pathogens, either an overall prevalence of 51.4% of digestive parasites. The calculated average parasitic loads revealed 3089.2 tpz/μl of blood (95% CI, 591.1–5587.3) for malaria, 6.5 eggs per gram of stool (95% CI, 0.4–13.4) for intestinal helminths, and one (1) parasite by microscopic field for protozoa (common infestation). It has been shown that the occurrence of malaria has been linked to the nonuse of impregnated mosquito nets (χ2 = 0.012, p = 0.018) to age. No link could be established between the presence of digestive parasites and the age of pregnant women or socioeconomic conditions (level of education, profession, type of toilet). Malaria is less common in pregnant women, while the rate of digestive parasites remains high.",signatures:"Gaoussou Coulibaly, Kouassi Patrick Yao, Mathurin Koffi, Bernardin\nAhouty Ahouty, Laurent Kouassi Louhourignon, Monsan N’Cho and\nEliézer Kouakou N’Goran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62893",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62893",authors:[{id:"254981",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Gaoussou",surname:"Coulibaly",slug:"gaoussou-coulibaly",fullName:"Gaoussou Coulibaly"}],corrections:null},{id:"63554",title:"Current Aspects in Trichinellosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80372",slug:"current-aspects-in-trichinellosis",totalDownloads:1355,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, it is estimated that more than 11 million humans in the world are infected by helminth parasites of Trichinella species, mainly by Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis), responsible for causing Trichinellosis disease in both animals and humans. Trichinellosis is a cosmopolitan parasitic zoonotic disease, which has direct relevance to human and animal health, because it presents a constant and important challenge to the host’s immune system, especially through the intestinal tract. Currently, there is an intense investigation of new strategies in pharmacotherapy and immunotherapy against infection by Trichinella spiralis. In this chapter, we will present the most current aspects of biology, epidemiology, immunology, clinicopathology, pharmacotherapy and immunotherapy in Trichinellosis.",signatures:"José Luis Muñoz-Carrillo, Claudia Maldonado-Tapia, Argelia López-\nLuna, José Jesús Muñoz-Escobedo, Juan Armando Flores-De La\nTorre and Alejandra Moreno-García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63554",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"254888",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Armando",surname:"Flores-De La Torre",slug:"juan-armando-flores-de-la-torre",fullName:"Juan Armando Flores-De La Torre"},{id:"254889",title:"Dr.",name:"José Jesús",surname:"Muñoz-Escobedo",slug:"jose-jesus-munoz-escobedo",fullName:"José Jesús Muñoz-Escobedo"},{id:"254890",title:"Dr.",name:"Argelia",surname:"López-Luna",slug:"argelia-lopez-luna",fullName:"Argelia López-Luna"},{id:"254891",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Maldonado-Tapia",slug:"claudia-maldonado-tapia",fullName:"Claudia Maldonado-Tapia"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9025",title:"Parasitology and Microbiology Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d9a211396d44f07d2748e147786a2c8b",slug:"parasitology-and-microbiology-research",bookSignature:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco and Asghar Ali Kamboh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9025.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1692",title:"Parasitology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2110e81c765897e4ffdfbd340495e25",slug:"parasitology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5527",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d705be119e74a50305952521b2b5ece0",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",bookSignature:"Hanem Khater, M. Govindarajan and Giovanni Benelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5527.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8806",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"514ab85661e01a47575e845792ef5bdc",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",bookSignature:"Wanderley De Souza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8806.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"161922",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanderley",surname:"De Souza",slug:"wanderley-de-souza",fullName:"Wanderley De Souza"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8122",title:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5a088c3ab82e499c8d5d2f8ceec6a601",slug:"vectors-and-vector-borne-zoonotic-diseases",bookSignature:"Sara Savić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8122.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66300",slug:"corrigendum-to-recovery-intervention-to-promote-social-connectedness-through-social-recreational-pro",title:"Corrigendum to: Recovery Intervention to Promote Social Connectedness through Social Recreational Programs for Persons with Dementia: A Critical Analysis",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66300.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66300",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66300",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66300",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66300",chapter:{id:"65375",slug:"recovery-intervention-to-promote-social-connectedness-through-social-recreational-programs-for-perso",signatures:"Winnie Sun, Shelby-Lynne Clarke, Hanaan Madahey and Ping Zou",dateSubmitted:"November 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"January 28th 2019",datePublished:"April 10th 2019",book:{id:"8268",title:"Advances in Dementia Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Dementia Research",slug:"advances-in-dementia-research",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Ghulam Md. Ashraf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8268.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199287",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam Md",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"ghulam-md-ashraf",fullName:"Ghulam Md Ashraf"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"219759",title:"Dr.",name:"Winnie",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Winnie Sun",slug:"winnie-sun",email:"winnie.sun@uoit.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Ontario Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"284558",title:"Dr.",name:"Shelby-Lynne",middleName:null,surname:"Clarke",fullName:"Shelby-Lynne Clarke",slug:"shelby-lynne-clarke",email:"shelbylynne.clarke@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284561",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanaan",middleName:null,surname:"Madahey",fullName:"Hanaan Madahey",slug:"hanaan-madahey",email:"hanaan.madahey@uoit.net",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284562",title:"Dr.",name:"Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Zou",fullName:"Ping Zou",slug:"ping-zou",email:"pingz@nipissingu.ca",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"65375",slug:"recovery-intervention-to-promote-social-connectedness-through-social-recreational-programs-for-perso",signatures:"Winnie Sun, Shelby-Lynne Clarke, Hanaan Madahey and Ping Zou",dateSubmitted:"November 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"January 28th 2019",datePublished:"April 10th 2019",book:{id:"8268",title:"Advances in Dementia Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Dementia Research",slug:"advances-in-dementia-research",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Ghulam Md. Ashraf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8268.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199287",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam Md",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"ghulam-md-ashraf",fullName:"Ghulam Md Ashraf"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"219759",title:"Dr.",name:"Winnie",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Winnie Sun",slug:"winnie-sun",email:"winnie.sun@uoit.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Ontario Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"284558",title:"Dr.",name:"Shelby-Lynne",middleName:null,surname:"Clarke",fullName:"Shelby-Lynne Clarke",slug:"shelby-lynne-clarke",email:"shelbylynne.clarke@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284561",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanaan",middleName:null,surname:"Madahey",fullName:"Hanaan Madahey",slug:"hanaan-madahey",email:"hanaan.madahey@uoit.net",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284562",title:"Dr.",name:"Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Zou",fullName:"Ping Zou",slug:"ping-zou",email:"pingz@nipissingu.ca",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8268",title:"Advances in Dementia Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Dementia Research",slug:"advances-in-dementia-research",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Ghulam Md. Ashraf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8268.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199287",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam Md",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"ghulam-md-ashraf",fullName:"Ghulam Md Ashraf"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11814",leadTitle:null,title:"Liposomes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tLiposome, a versatile lipid vesicle, is licensed to use for effective delivery of drugs, candidate vaccines, and nucleic acids. Also, drug-loaded ligand anchored liposomes are used to induce selective apoptosis in cells of monocyte and macrophage lineage. Therefore this book aims to cover all spheres of drug and antigen delivery for developing therapeutic interventions and vaccines against infectious diseases and beyond.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will shed light on various methods for the preparation and characterization of liposomes and their engineered versions. Technological advancements have enabled us to develop newer methods of formulating liposomes. Over time, liposomes have been modified to a larger extent and engineered to meet our growing needs for sustained and controlled delivery for developing therapeutic interventions vaccines. Further, this book will throw light on the various methods of preparation and characterization of liposomes, and discuss several biochemical and indirect methods to understand the biological and physicochemical mechanisms of action of liposomes that decide their efficiency in vivo.
\r\n\tDespite their limitations such as encapsulation efficiency, liposomes are a well-established choice for a number of unconventional and conventional biological applications. The versatility of these lipid-based vesicles presents the importance of these nanoparticles in the future applications of nanotechnology besides targeted drug delivery. Overall, this book provides the necessary and relevant information about various aspects of liposomes and their use in nanomedicine.
\r\n\t
Unregulated emerging pollutants enter aquatic systems through wastewater treatment plants after consumption and use by humans and animals [1].
This poses a significant risk to aquatic organisms and to public health. Among the main effects described to date are the appearance of changes in fish reproduction due to the presence of hormones and inhibition of photosynthesis in algae by the presence of these [2]. We know that the presence of antibiotics in the environment can make bacteria in wastewater relatively more resistant to them and resistant microorganisms develop.
To make clear how these molecules act as endocrine disruptors, we must indicate that they interfere with the body’s homeostasis, usually by mimicking the natural hormones that lead to the activation or blocking of their receptors [3].
Trimethoprim in Mexico is one of the most used drugs for treating urinary tract infections, and it is commonly used in the foreign tourism for attending the traveler’s diarrhea [4]. Trimethoprim is incompletely metabolized by humans during the therapeutic process and approximately 80% is excreted in the pharmacologically active form, which can promote the development of bacterial resistance to this compound’s form promoting it as an emerging contaminant [5].
Clavulanic acid-amoxicillin is a mixture of two drugs in typical commercial compositions of 185/125 and 500/125 mg and commercially known in México as Augmentin and Clamoxin or Gimaclav, respectively. It is indicated for the treatment of acute and chronic infections of the upper and lower respiratory tracts, meningitis and genitourinary, skin, soft tissue, gastrointestinal and biliary infections, and in general for the treatment of infections caused by pathogens sensitive to this mixture of drugs [6].
Both drugs have been studied by our research group as emerging pollutants with an effect of endocrine disruptors due to their high presence in wastewater of domestic and hospital effluents in México (work in process of being published) and their consequent impact on all types of aquifers, which could act as final receiving bodies. However, in our research group, different advanced oxidation processes have been used and improved for the removal of these kinds of contaminants, these processes include cavitation, photo-catalytic oxidation, or Fenton chemistry, but they have high costs. New expectations were found when it has been applied an electrochemical process.
Electrochemical oxidation is based on the application of an electric current or a potential difference between two electrodes (anode and cathode), wherewith hydroxyl radicals or other oxidizing species can be generated, depending on the anode material used and the type of electrolyte support used [7].
In this chapter, the use of electrolysis for the removal of pharmaceutical-type pollutants is based on the chemical reactions that are carried out between the electrodes submerged in electrolytic solutions by effect of the passage of the electric current, being the function of the electrolyte to serve as a means of transporting electrical loads and provoke the reactions of oxidation-reduction for the degradation of compounds in order to transform them into less hazardous compounds for the environment. The electrolyte being of the family of salts allows the anions to carry negative loads toward the anode and the cations transport the positive loads to the cathode [8]; the effectiveness of several visible light-activated TiO2 photocatalysts has been proven for the treatment of emerging contaminants. Doping or co-doping of titanium dioxide using nitrogen, nitrogen-silver, sulfur, carbon, and copper and incorporating graphene nano-leaves increases its effectiveness. The use of titanium dioxide is to improve photocatalytic activity [9]. Considering all the above backgrounds, the experiments reported hereby were performed in order to establish if the proposed system could breakdown or transform the pollutants (drugs) into simpler molecules.
Based on different references, it is known that the trimethoprim can be determined with an absorbance at 237.6 nm [10] or that it can be displayed at a wavelength of 283–350 nm [11], and it is mentioned that in visible light, it is still observed at a wavelength between 400 and 600 nm [12]. In the case of amoxicillin-clavulanic acid mixture, the spectra recorded are in a wavelength range of 200–380 nm [13]. Therefore, the results on the UV-Vis spectrum were analyzed within these intervals.
For the preparation of synthetic wastewater (SWW) contaminated by trimethoprim and clavulanic acid-amoxicillin, three samples with 500 mL of clean water (0.1 mS/cm) were added with different drug concentrations (trimethoprim 0.1%, trimethoprim 0.2%, and clavulanic acid-amoxicillin 0.2%). Type curves for each drug were prepared with 2 g/L (0.2%) as the highest concentration and 0.1 g/L (0.01%) as the lowest concentration.
The drugs supplied by Merck | Sigma-Aldrich were white powders, and the solutions prepared were kept in refrigeration (6°C) until needed.
For the construction of the electrodes, two glass tubes were used, each one of 6.1 cm length and 0.7 cm width, containing the following elements: an electrode connected to the negative pole (cathode) was handcrafted with mineral carbon introducing a copper wire (0.3 mm Ø) and the electrode connected to the positive pole (anode) was also handcrafted with mineral carbon doped with TiO2 and it was used a platinum wire (0.1 mm Ø). In the cathode, the reduction processes take place and oxidation occurs in the anode, where both are connected to a power supply with a 5 V electrical potential (Figure 1).
TiO2-doped electrodes and coal.
Platinum is an inert metal that does not participate in the redox reaction but only exchanges electrons [14] since it has a low reactivity with oxygen and with water [15]. Copper is a metal with great ductility and high electrical conductivity [16], which leads to the conclusion that both metal wires are good conductors and will show little corrosion. Furthermore, platinum has catalytic activity and low reactivity. Due to these characteristics, the platinum and copper wires were selected for the electrodes. Doping carbon with TiO2 aids a better oxidation process at the anode, in addition to having photocatalytic properties that can improve the dissociation reaction in the electrolytic cell.
The mineral coal was obtained from zinc-carbon battery carbon cylinders free of cadmium (0% Cd) and (0% Mg) magnesium, confirmed by atomic absorption; so, the mineral coal is free of these elements. Extracted amounts were obtained from different brands of batteries (MARKS rocket, explosive, Panasonic super hyper, King Kong, Sony-new ultra, and Kodak extra heavy-duty, among others). The cylinders were washed by immersion overnight (almost 8 hours) and rinsed with deionized water type I. The zinc and manganese content were also analyzed by atomic absorption of all the carbon cylinders obtained; determination of ammonium chloride was also performed but in the remaining rinse water used to clean the cylinders (the chlorides were quantified by the Mohr method and ammonia by the selective electrode method). Curiously after washing and rinsing the carbon cylinders, the concentrations of zinc and ammonium chloride were not detectable and there is only less than 0.1% impregnation of manganese, which was considered negligible for the experiment.
The coal cylinders were divided into two portions, one was ground directly and the other portion was doped with TiO2 and ground.
The mineral carbon was added into a TiO2 solution at 3.46 g/L (3.46%) and after that it was introduced to a stove at 100°C for approximately 2 hours. Finally, the mineral carbon doped with TiO2 was crushed, until a homogenous fine powder (0.65–1 μm) was obtained.
Having prepared both coals (doped and not doped), the glass cylinders were filled separately with them and the copper and platinum wires were placed along leaving 7.5 cm of free wire.
To assemble the electrochemical cell, it was designed with an acrylic cell, a power supply (5 V DC) from STEREN, a porous rectangle glass membrane (length 8.5 cm, height 3.8 cm, and width 7.0 mm), and the handcrafted electrodes. For the proper functioning of the electrolyte cell, moving of charges from the anode to the cathode and to balance the aqueous solution, a KOH electrolyte (0.01 M) from Merck | Sigma-Aldrich was used. The experiments were performed using 50 mL of the mentioned electrolyte solution and about 200–240 mL of SWW, inside the cell. All the experiments were performed in triplicate.
Twenty milliliters of samples of treated synthetic wastewater (TSWW) were taken every half an hour for an experimentation time period between 1.5 and 2 hours, and at time 0, intermediate and final time samples were collected for each experiment. Parameters such as pH, conductivity, and temperature for each sample were measured. A Hach brand Pro HR pocket conductivity tester was used; the temperature is given in °C and the conductivity in mS/cm.
Determination of total organic carbon (TOC) was performed for all the samples using a Thermo Scientific HiperTOC using the US standard US EPA 415.3. Another analytical method performed also for all the samples was the chemical oxygen demand (COD) under the Mexican Standard NMX-AA-030/2-SCFI-2011. Both methods were carried out by an IPN reference laboratory, which is certified by the Mexican Accreditation Entity (MAE). Also, each sample was taken for analyzing with thin layer chromatography (TLC) and UV-Vis spectrometry analysis at different wavelengths.
A visible ultraviolet spectrometer BECKMAN brand model DU 7500i was used for the UV-Vis spectrometry technique. First, an absorbance sweep was performed with the SWW samples at different concentrations, in order to find the highest absorbance wavelength to perform their type curves for both drugs. Subsequently, each of the TSWW samples was also measured at a wavelength ranging from 200 to 350 nm (UV absorbance) and 400 to 800 nm (Vis absorbance) in order to observe the degree of degradation or breakage that was achieved.
In order to validate the analytical methodology, the technical guide on traceability and uncertainty is used with those analytical measurements performed with an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry technique, which supports the application of the NMX-17025-IMNC-2006 standard, the foregoing established by the National Metrology Center (NMC) and the Mexican Accreditation Entity (MAE) [17].
For thin-layer chromatography, a 2.5 cm by 4 cm thin gel plate was used as a stationary phase; also, both drug standards from Merck | Sigma-Aldrich, two glass chromatographic cameras, and a 254 nm wavelength UV frame were needed. Polar and non-polar (intermediate) solutions were used as mobile phases (eluents). The polar and non-polar (intermediate) eluent solutions were prepared with different concentrations of hexane and ethyl acetate, both from chromatographic grade (Merck | Sigma-Aldrich). The non-polar (intermediate) contained a 4:6 ratio of ethyl acetate and hexane. The polar eluent does a 6:4 ratio of ethyl acetate and hexane. The TSWW samples were mixed with ethyl acetate in a 4:3 ratio inside a test tube and agitated for 30 seconds.
From the test tube, an aliquot of the TSWW samples was taken with a capillary. For each experiment, the TSWW samples were taken at the start, intermediate, and final times, the aliquots were placed subsequently on the thin plate, and the plate was introduced to the chromatographic chambers each with a different eluent (polar and non-polar). After taken out from the camera, plates were revealed under the 254 nm ultraviolet light. The running fronts for standards and sample components were calculated. The intention to use this method is because it is applied in the pharmaceutical industry as a compound purity determination. Therefore, with this technique, it has been able to see qualitatively whether there is a decrease or breaking of the contaminants in the TSWW sample compared against a SWW sample.
The model designed and constructed for the electrolytic cell used in the breakdown of the trimethoprim and acid clavulanic-amoxicillin is described in Figure 2.
Main components of an electrolytic cell.
The type curves for both drugs that were obtained and are showed in Figures 3 and 4 with their corresponding equations and linear coefficient.
Type curve of trimethoprim at a wavelength of 300 nm.
Clavulanic acid-amoxicillin type curve with a wavelength of 300 nm.
Eq. (1) shows the linearity, for the trimethoprim.
Equation (3) shows the linearity for the acid clavulanic.
The results obtained from the UV-Vis spectrometry technique at 350 nm is shown in Figure 5 and results with a 400 nm wavelength is shown in Figure 6, where the absorbance units were plotted with respect to the treatment time. When handling a compound that has rings and double bonds in its molecular structure, it is able to absorb ultraviolet light, and according to the Lambert-Beer law, the absorbance of a substance is proportional to the concentration of the compound.
Mean absorbance decreasing of trimethoprim at different treatment times, at a wavelength of 350 nm.
Absorbance units of the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture at different treatment times, at a wavelength of 400 nm.
From the graphs above, we can observe a decay of the absorbance in the trimethoprim at 90 minutes and an increase in the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture experiment after 30 minutes of treatment. These results indicate that there is surely a breakdown in both molecules, but the structure of the molar fragments for trimethoprim differs with respect to the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture. In the first one, the absorbance decreases, but in the second, it increases. It is known that the molecules whose absorbance decays in an electrochemical process present a process of chemical reduction (electron gain), while the compounds whose absorbance increases are understood to undergo chemical oxidation processes (loss of electrons).
For the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture, the increase in absorbance may be due to structural changes in the molecule, so the chemical structure was modified during the reaction, generating resonance systems that will show higher absorbances. Furthermore, this increase in absorbance may be due to the formation of other compounds in the electrolysis reaction, such as hydrogen near the cathode and oxygen near the anode. In the disintegration of water, both ozone and hydrogen peroxide are formed in small quantities [18]; it is known that ozone strongly absorbs radiation in the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet regions [19]. The maximum absorption occurs at a wavelength of 253.7 nm [19], which can be observed in the scanning of the spectrophotometer in Figure 7. For these experiments, the wavelength was taken at 400 nm because the sample presented a light yellow hue coloration, which may be due to the fact that the spectral properties of organic molecules depend on the type of valence electrons, on their quantum possibilities of absorption of UV-Vis radiation, and on the presence of chromophoric groups in their structures [20]; therefore, the sigma (σ) electrons make up the single saturated bonds or molecular bonding orbitals of the sigma type, while the pi (π) electrons make up the multiple unsaturated bonds or pi orbitals. These unsaturated groups are called chromophoric groups [21]. The appearance of color in some organic substances is related to the presence of one or more chromophoric groups whose pi electrons are easily excited by the absorption of radiation from the near and visible ultraviolet region (200–800 nm), of corresponding energy (specific length) to the quantum possibilities for the electronic transition [21]. Therefore, it is not certain that in the case of the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture, there is an adequate decomposition, but for the trimethoprim component, this degradation is observed.
Full scan of the UV-Vis spectrometer for samples at different treatment times of the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture.
The electrical conductivity is in correlation of the amount of ionizable molecules or radicals present in the water as shown in Figures 8 and 9; as time passes, conductivity increases, meaning that the drug molecules are being broken and more ionizable fragments are generated.
Conductivity against time for experiments with trimethoprim.
Conductivity against time for experiments with the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture.
The COD graph that was obtained from the Trimethoprim TSWW samples showed a tendency to decrease according to the time elapsed. The initial COD at time 0 for the first experiment (trimethoprim 0.2%) had a concentration of 199.1 mg/L and the second experiment (trimethoprim 0.1%) had the lowest drug concentration of 90.3 mg/L of COD; you can see that in 1 hour, the COD concentration of the first trimethoprim 0.2% experiment dropped to 142.8 mg/L, and in the second experiment, it dropped to a concentration of 88.5 mg/L. This shows that the degree of contamination of the water by organic compounds (TSWW) decreases, that is, the organic matter (drug) decreases, and therefore there is a break in the contaminant.
It is also observed that in the second experiment (trimethoprim 0.1%), there is a slightly lower concentration of drug and that when passing through the electrolysis treatment it presents a greater removal efficiency, since the COD decreases more as time passes, compared to the trimethoprim 0.2%, which has a slight increase and decay (Figure 10).
Chemical oxygen demand with respect to time.
The results of total organic carbon can be seen in Figure 11. It is observed in the graph that there is a tendency to decrease the concentration of carbon as time goes by. The initial TOC of the first experiment had a concentration of 98.5 mg/L and the second experiment had an initial concentration of 59.4 mg/L. In both cases, from the 30th minute on, it is observed that trimethoprim 0.2% decreases to a concentration of 56.5 mg/L and trimethoprim 0.1% to a concentration of 33.5 mg/L. The above proves that the electrolytic system is an alternative for trimethoprim decomposition.
Total organic carbon with respect to time.
Table 1 shows that during the electrolytic breakdown, carbon portions are mineralized but some fragments must have been ionized in different forms that affects the UV-Vis absorbance.
TOC (mg/L) | |
---|---|
Trimethoprim 0.2% | Trimethoprim 0.1% |
98.5 | 59.4 |
90 | 53.9 |
71.6 | 45.2 |
67.4 | 40.8 |
56.5 | 33.5 |
Total organic carbon results from experiments 1 and 2 with trimethoprim.
Finally, Table 2 shows the maximum percentage of degradation that was obtained from the synthetic wastewater when it was treated with the electrolytic cell, for the first and second experiments with trimethoprim.
%Degradation according to TOC | |
---|---|
The first experiment (trimethoprim 0.2%) | The second experiment (trimethoprim 0.1%) |
91.3706 | 90.7407 |
Maximum percentages of degradation obtained from TSWW samples with electrolysis treatment.
In the case of the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin TSWW mixture, the COD had an oscillating behavior because at 1 minute it began to decrease and at 60 minutes it abruptly increased and then it decreased again. The initial COD at time 0 for the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin TSWW sample (0.2%) has a concentration of 266.5 mg/L, after 30 minutes, there is a concentration of 257.3 mg/L, but it is observed that at 60 minutes, the COD concentration abruptly increased to 261.2 mg/L. This experiment ended his treatment with a concentration of 242.3 mg/L. According to the bibliography analyzed, the phenomenon obtained in Figure 12 by the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin (TSWW) mixture could be due to the fact that when the sample is subjected to radiation, the molecule fragments and groups with free electron pairs are exposed and they absorb more radiation, generating increase in the values obtained. These formed fragments absorb a greater amount of energy after 60 minutes and as they continue to degrade and lose this capability.
Chemical oxygen demand against to time.
The total organic carbon (TOC) results for clavulanic acid-amoxicillin TSWW can be seen in Figure 13; there is a tendency to decrease the carbon concentration as time passes. The initial TOC of the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin TSWW mixture had a concentration of 182.8 mg/L and drops to a concentration of 164.6 mg/L. The above indicates the decrease in the sample of organic compounds due to the breakdown of the organic molecules to molecules with simpler structures.
Total organic carbon over time.
The results from the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture experiments presented for the UV-Vis spectrophotometric studies give negative absorbance values, which is observed in Figure 6, probably due to the effects of the breakage of the molecule by chemical changes suffered in its structure, which generated ions or fragments with higher absorbances. This is because UV-Vis spectrophotometry excites the free electrons of oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur that are present in both molecules, just as the molecule contains double bonds in its structure. In the pi bond, the electrons are excited and migrate to a higher energy level, modifying the structure. Therefore, the TOC was not used because negative values were being given in the absorbance.
The results of the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture experiments presented for UV-Vis spectrophotometric studies in Figure 6 give high absorbance values, probably due to the effects of the breakdown of the molecule due to the electrochemical changes suffered in its structure, whereby ions or fragments with higher absorbances are generated. The modification of its structure is due to the fact that UV-Vis spectrophotometry excites the oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur free electrons that are present in both molecules, as well as the pi electrons of the conjugated double bonds in its structure. In the pi bond, the electrons are excited but they can be delocalized by resonance effects, modifying the energy absorbed by the structure.
During the reaction, the formation of free radicals like HO• could occur, which are species with high reactivity, which allows them to attack organic molecules. It is worth mentioning that the photochemical process is not developing in the electrolytic cell, despite the fact that TiO2 reacts with light.
For the thin layer chromatography (see Figure 14), it is observed that there is a change of displacement between the 0 time and 60 minutes of the experiment. That is, the RF pattern for both drugs is not observed in comparison with the standards of trimethoprim and clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture; this indicates that the molecules at 60 minutes do not present the same structure. This is an expected result because in an electrolytic cell when an electric potential is applied, it generates an electric current passage, which is a flow of electrons between the electrodes creating a circuit of ionic and electric charges transport, besides getting the help of the electrolyte that maintains a balance of charges, which improves the transport of the charges between electrodes, causing the oxidation of fragments of the molecule in the surface of the anode and a reaction of reduction of other fragments of the molecule in the cathode.
Results of the thin layer chromatography demonstrating the rupture or breakdown of trimethoprim as also in the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture, in which a great modification is observed, being less polar the product obtained with the treatment.
In addition, the electrode that is doped with titanium dioxide generates a greater oxidative effect, debt to its catalytic properties and the mineral carbon, has a porous structure and a large contact surface, and allows an adsorption process to take place between the organic compounds and the mineral carbon. Another advantage of using charcoal is that the problem of forming products that may be toxic does not arise, due to its high absorption capacity as mentioned before, although its efficiency may depend on the amount of material organic present in the solution.
The electrolyte cell demonstrated based on the results that it has the feasibility of breaking or/and debugging emerging endocrine disrupting contaminants like trimethoprim. The work developed by Sirés et al. in 2005 on the electrochemical degradation of water acetaminophen by catalytic action of Fe2+, Cu2+, and light showed that the acidic aqueous solutions of the drug acetaminophen were degraded by anodic oxidation in an undivided electrolytic cell with a Pt anode and an O2 supply [22], proving that the electrolysis process is functional. However, the materials and reagents to be used in this project are cheaper, and for a process tested in a single drug, there is no certainty how it will work in others.
Hirose et al. applied electrolysis for degradation of epirubicin, bleomycin, and mitomycin C with Pt/Ir electrodes and a NaCl solution as electrolyte. The results obtained were a partial degradation of the antibiotics but their cytotoxic and mutagenic activity was absolutely eliminated [23].
This research establishes that an elimination or rupture of different drugs can be carried out with an electrolytic cell, based on the work performed by Giraldo Aguirre et al. in 2016 on the electrochemical treatment of waters containing β-lactam antibiotics, where by means of electrolysis, the degradation of the drugs oxacillin (OXA), cloxacillin (CLX), and dicloxacillin (DCX) was achieved. Those drugs are also used as antibiotics [7] like trimethoprim and the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture and can affect aquatic systems and health due to the fact that antibiotics are among the most consumed and released drugs to the environment [24]. This release is also due to the unwarranted prescription with antibiotics, its inadequate dispensing, and the laxity in the regulation on the sale of medicines that allows self-medication with antibiotics, which are some of the factors that have been related to this high consumption [24] because it is a chemically defined substance capable of modifying the biochemical and physiological activity in an organism and therefore can produce a biological, beneficial, or toxic effect depending on the dose delivered [25]. Another problem is based on worldwide studies that have evidenced the presence of pharmaceutical compounds in effluents from fully operational treatment plants and with their respective control parameters, apparently operating with a high wastewater purification efficiency [26]; so, it is now known that with conventional wastewater treatments, it is not possible to eliminate this type of compounds in an efficient level [26], having as a consequence the proliferation of bacteria resistant to antibiotics, which will cause major problems in aspects of public health. In the research of Giraldo Aguirre et al. [7], a Ti/IrO2 electrode was used which led to the oxidation process being better, which is due to the characteristics already mentioned for titanium and oxygen; also, the electrolyte that used sodium chloride helped them in the inhibition of microbial activity. This is because during the electrolysis reaction, chlorine gas is released from the electrolyte, but in our case, potassium hydroxide was used with the intention that the system can be incorporated to a wastewater treatment plant, since this technology usually uses biological reactors; therefore, only the breakdown of the molecule was sought without affecting the bio-catalytic bacteria during the subsequent processes. However, Giraldo Aguirre et al. conclude that electrochemical oxidation induces structural changes in antibiotic molecules and their results also indicate that electrochemical treatment is an effective technique for reducing the antibiotic potential that these compounds present, reducing the environmental risk due to the proliferation of bacteria resistant to antibiotics [7]. The aforementioned was also demonstrated within our experimentation when observed the graph of total organic carbon for the two experiments with trimethoprim and the thin layer chromatography for results with the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture. This helps us show that the systems that use electrolysis break these compounds down into compounds that are less harmful to organisms and the environment. This experiment ends up being an important contribution to science in drug treatment and for a later use of electrolytic cells at higher levels, in addition to being highly versatile and to some extent economical oxidation processes.
The electrolytic cell modifies the structures of both molecules through different mechanisms, but in functional aspects, the electrolytic cell achieves the efficient degradation of trimethoprim unlike the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture. It is established that the electrolytic cell can degrade some molecules more easily than others; so, we can establish that those compounds with a structure similar to trimethoprim could be degraded efficiently. However, it is also shown that to achieve the degradation of other compounds, it is necessary that the conditions of the electrolytic cell are adjusted again.
Addressing the problem of emerging pollutants that are endocrine disruptors is something really important and urgent, due to the impact they have not only on the environment but also on the health of living beings; so, it is important to transform them into less dangerous compounds for environment. Unfortunately, the methods of removing these contaminants are now expensive. That is why the implementation of the electrolytic cell is intended to create an economical option for the possible removal of these compounds, as it was shown to have a good degradation rate of trimethoprim. However, in the case of the clavulanic acid-amoxicillin mixture, it is necessary to modify its operating conditions.
All the authors appreciate the financial support given by the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) through the projects: SIP 20181685, SIP 20180081, and SIP 20190101.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
nm | nanometer |
ml | milliliter |
μm | micrometric |
L | liter |
g | gram |
min | minute |
Abs | absorbance |
ECED | emerging contaminants endocrine disruptors |
TOC | total organic carbon |
COD | chemical oxygen demand |
Redox | reduction-oxidation reaction |
V | volts |
SWW | untreated synthetic waste water |
STWW | synthetic wastewater with treatment |
TLC | thin-layer chromatography |
mS | millisiemens |
The treatment of patients with intravenous drug use (IVDU) has evolved to include a wide range of medications, psychiatric rehabilitation, and surgical interventions, especially for life-threatening complications such as infective endocarditis (IE). These interventions, however, remain at the discretion of surgeons, and the healthcare team, whose treatment decisions are influenced by several medical factors, unfortunately not without bias. The stigma associated with substance use disorder is prevalent, especially toward IVDU, which leads to significant biases, even in the healthcare system [1]. This bias is heightened when IVDU patients require multiple or repeat valve replacement surgeries for IE due to continued drug use, which can be quite costly for healthcare institutions.
We explore various barriers when considering repeat heart valve surgeries, especially the implicit bias that can negatively influence the duty of physicians and their decision to provide comprehensive patient care. Patients who receive a valve replacement and continue to use illicit drugs intravenously, often return to their medical providers months to years later with a re-infection of their prosthetic valve; many of these patients have several medical comorbidities and require extensive care. The topic of multiple or repeat heart valve surgeries are the center of many ethical discussions due to the high mortality rates associated with both the inherent mortality from ongoing drug abuse and the risks of often complex and technically challenging high-risk re-operative cardiac surgery.
This chapter examines the ethics of repeat heart valve replacement surgery for patients who are struggling with addiction, and the important factors that ought to guide health care professionals in making future treatment decisions. Considerations of justice, the fiduciary therapeutic relationship, and guiding ethical principles justify medically beneficial repeat heart valve replacement surgeries for IVDU patient populations. We will present and analyze two cases, which were presented to a hospital ethics committee, and provide justification for a narrative-based ethical approach to identify those factors for when patients ought to receive multiple heart valves and the conditions for pursuing this surgical intervention despite chemical dependency challenges.
To better examine the ethical and social issues significant to discussions about heart valve replacement surgery among IVDU populations, particularly those seeking repeat surgeries due to chemical dependency relapse, it is important to understand the current climate in the United States with respect to IVDU and IE, as well as the need for comprehensive surgical and mental health care for patients who are committed to their recovery.
There is an increasing body of literature prompted by the rapid increase of prescription and non-prescription opioid drugs in the United States that emerged in the 1990s and is at epidemic levels today. In 2016, 64,000 Americans died from drug overdoses, which was a 21% increase from the year before [2]. Some states are struggling more than others to combat this leading cause of death among Americans under age 50 [2]. Unfortunately, there is more discussion about public health and law enforcement interventions, rather than focusing on individualized medical care in persons who are in critical need of comprehensive therapy, which includes high-risk surgeries, detoxification programs, and extensive mental health care for chemical dependency among other related mental health disorders. Helping the addict is discussed less frequently as an important step to fight this epidemic [3], which is relevant to our ethical and social examination as to why we need to re-think the standards of medical care and treat patients holistically by incorporating mental health care into every aspect of their overall care. This is especially pertinent to the treatment of IE secondary to IVDU.
With the rise of the opioid epidemic in the past few years, high-risk valve replacement surgeries have become a growing medical, financial, and ethical burden. Historically, IVDU represented a small percentage of patients with IE. In one study, the proportion increased from 14.8% in 2002–2004 to 26% in 2012–2014 during which time, heroin use doubled [4, 5]. Today, approximately 11% of IVDU are at risk for developing IE [6], which is characterized by infection of the inner lining of the heart, leading to the growth of vegetation on heart valves that disrupt the ability to pump blood. Overall, IE is an extremely morbid disease: in-hospital mortality rates range from 11 to 26% with an estimated 5-year mortality of up to 50% [7]. Complications include heart failure, valve insufficiency, embolic strokes, and intracerebral hemorrhage. IE secondary to IVDU is most commonly caused by bacteremia from
Studies have shown that patients with IE secondary to IVDU are younger than patients with no IVDU and more likely to be young Caucasian males, with some regional variability among populations [4]. The average age of patients who suffer from IE secondary to IVDU is 30 years old, and 90% of them are heroin addicts [7, 8]. Approximately 75% of individuals admitted to treatment for heroin abuse or dependency reported using injection as the primary method of drug use [10].
Despite IVDU representing a significantly younger patient population with less cardiovascular and comorbid risk factors, long-term outcomes are compromised by reinfection [4] and continued drug abuse. A patient who receives a valve replacement yet continues to use intravenous drugs is likely to re-infect their bioprosthetic or homograft valves, requiring additional valve replacement surgeries. However, such treatment opportunities may not be offered to this patient population due to high mortality rates. For example, studies have found that patients who resume IVDU after their initial valve replacement have high mortality compared to patients who abstain from drug use after their surgery [11]. A patient who resumes IVDU may get an extra 1–5 years of life out of their new valve rather than the 10–15 years of life that a new valve (mechanical or biological) can give without IVDU. Such decision-making must also be done in the setting of the overall poor and limited (but somewhat incompletely defined) life-expectancy of the habitual use of IV drugs.
In general, many surgical professionals identify repeat valve replacement surgery as non-beneficial for patients with IVDU, and thus, refuse or are reluctant to offer this procedure or refer patients to other surgeons who are willing to treat this patient population. Even when the valve replacement surgery may provide some benefit and give a few more years of quality life for patients, surgical professionals and the healthcare team may feel as though the financial burdens to patients and healthcare institutions is a reasonable justification for not replacing infected valves. This is especially true given the high relapse rates for IVDU and readmission with active IVDU. In addition, because the IVDU patient population contributes to increased unemployment and reliance on publicly funded insurance [12], some health care professionals may feel as though they have a duty to the community by not prolonging the lives of patients with IE secondary to IVDU, and thus adding additional financial burdens for communities and an already resource-limited health system.
Smyth et al. (2010) conducted a prospective study of patients who were dependent on opioids and admitted to a residential chemical dependency service for treatment. The authors found that 91% of 109 patients interviewed had relapsed; 59% relapsed just within one week of discharge [13]. Those who had earlier relapse were characteristic of our patient population; patients are younger in age, have a history of IVDU, did not complete the recommended length of time in the addiction program, and did not enter in or commit to aftercare programs. The authors also found that delayed relapse occurred among those who completed their entire program, as well as those individuals who were in a relationship with an opiate user, which was an unexpected finding and deserves further research [13].
Furthermore, given the significant rise of IVDU with the opiate epidemic in the United States, further research on relapse is needed, including the multitude of factors that contribute to relapse. Without addressing the factors that contribute to relapse, the rate will continue to rise, perpetuate stigma, fuel healthcare professionals’ reluctance to provide multiple heart valve replacement surgeries, among other medical interventions. A study in China examined heroin addiction relapse and the effects of detoxification medications (methadone) combined with psychological counseling and social support measures, which were found to be essential to on-going recovery and reduction of relapse rates along with patient compliance [14]. Additional studies have found that patients who recur to IVDU after the initial valve replacement procedure have very high mortality compared to patients who undergo rehabilitation [15].
From a medical perspective, the relationship between IE and substance use disorder is no different than nephropathy and diabetes, coronary artery disease and smoking, or the countless other chronic medical problems that are worsened by “life-style” choices. However, the negative connotations and stigma associated with IVDU lead to patients being treated differently in the health care system and among physicians, who deny life-saving care and devalue their patients as persons in need of advocacy and support to combat their addictions.
Unfortunately, little research has been done on the value of extensive psychiatric and behavioral health interventions prior to, during, and following surgical treatment and the overall clinical, psychosocial, and legal outcomes (e.g., improved medical compliance, reduced recidivism in drug use and criminal acts). One study found that only 7.8% of patients treated for IE were discharged with plans to receive medication-assisted treatment during the 10-year period of the study. In that same study, 25% of patients were readmitted with active IVDU [16]. Aggressive treatment for IE, including antibiotics and valve transplants, is neither effective nor advantageous without targeting the underlying addictive behaviors that contribute to poor health outcomes and mortality.
Addiction treatment, particularly for opioid users, is limited by factors that are beyond the control of physicians and drug users who may be willing to seek recovery. A study published by Jones
Furthermore, little theoretical work has been done to identify the complex ethical issues surrounding this IVDU patient population who qualify for valve replacement surgery but who may be denied this life-sustaining intervention due to a number of factors including, but not limited to, financial cost, perceived poor quality of life, suspected non-compliance in post-surgical care and addiction treatment, and social worth. This chapter aims to start closing these gaps and to provide guidance to surgeons and healthcare teams when confronted with difficult medical, social, and ethical dilemmas.
Thus, through the presentation of two cases of IE secondary to IVDU, we will identify the medical, social, and ethical issues, recommendations for whether we should provide repeat valve replacements, and how we ought to treat patients who are struggling with mental health issues, including, but not limited to chemical dependency. Our case analyses will also identify the limits of justice and the duty of health care professionals in providing repeat heart valve surgeries.
The following two case presentations are based on actual patients with identifying information removed so as to protect their identities. These cases were presented to an ethics committee for an initial recommendation; however, the analysis and discussion presented here extends beyond committee consultation or even those guiding ethical principles that contribute to decision-making and resolution. These cases reveal a need for a narrative ethical approach to best understand individual patients and their medical, psychosocial, and value-based needs from diagnosis through recovery. The cases presented in this chapter are montages of health care team members’ stories about their interactions with patients through medical evidence, patient interviewing, and clinical observation. However, there is an equal need for the medical team and the patient to co-author or construct a joint narrative of illness and medical care [18, 19]. These cases, however, do represent the multiple voices of the multidisciplinary medical team about the patient in a brief, accessible case presentation. The features of these cases serve as valuable starting points for understanding the complexity of medical decision-making, unifying repeat heart valve replacement, post-operative care, and mental health treatment, and the need for ongoing recognition of the patient’s story.
A 24-year-old homeless, female patient is brought into the emergency department by a family member and presents for sepsis related to IVDA. The patient has a 10-year history of drug use with previous endocarditis, requiring cardiac surgery and debridement of an infected tricuspid valve approximately 14 months prior to the current admission. She has a history of untreated depression. The patient is admitted for complaints of joint pain, swelling, and general malaise. She reports injecting heroin and crack cocaine in her extremities (feet, arms, and hands) daily. The patient was drug-free for a short period of time with the assistance of residential treatment and hospitalization at a nursing facility where she received IV antibiotics for the endocarditis. However, the patient missed a dose of Suboxone (buprenorphine and naloxone) due to lack of transportation, did not seek support from health care professionals, and was unsuccessfully attempting to stop her persistent drug use on her own. Her continued drug use and failure of medical management have resulted in the need for pre-operative cardiac surgery for large vegetation in the tricuspid valve. The patient is willing to pursue addiction treatment following surgery and post-operative care and has had a history of taking Suboxone as an effort to stay clean and sober. An ethics consult is called to provide a recommendation on whether it is ethically permissible to re-operate in this patient with infective endocarditis from persistent IVDU. The ethics committee further weighed in on recommendations for achieving a unified care model in which the immediate medical needs namely, heart valve replacement, antibiotic therapy, and acute peri-operative pain management. Critical in the discussion was also providing a pathway that includes comprehensive mental health care for the patient’s depression and addiction.
A 29-year-old married male with a history of depression, multiple suicide attempts, polysubstance intravenous drug use (heroin and methamphetamines), and a history of endocarditis was brought to the emergency department by EMS following a suspected overdose. The patient was unresponsive until EMS delivered multiple doses of naloxone in route to the emergency department. Upon arrival, the patient was alert but had difficulty speaking. The patient’s wife, who is a recovering addict, alerted EMS to her husband’s overdose. Upon questioning the patient’s current drug use, he admits to using methamphetamine cut with Fentanyl over the past week. The patient was drug-free for approximately 1.5 months after a prior hospital admission for septic mitral valve endocarditis due to IVDA, as well as renal failure, which was resolved following treatment. He received a bioprosthetic mitral valve and antibiotic therapy. Aside from his brief period drug-free, he has never been in treatment specifically for his chemical dependency and currently feels like he doesn’t need such treatment. The patient suffers from multiple cerebral septic emboli with hemorrhagic transformation, aphasia, and distal limb emboli. He currently reports feeling feverish with body chills, headache, and joint pain; lab results show
The above cases are representative of several medical, social, and ethical issues presented when patients are suffering from IE secondary to IVDU and who may require a repeat heart valve surgery and extensive mental health care for addiction and other related mental disorders (e.g., depression). In situations where patients have IE secondary to IVDU and need a new heart valve—their first surgical intervention—surgeons and others are more likely to treat the typical young patient with a probable successful surgical outcome without a need to seek ethical counsel. In our experiences, while most patients receive minimal chemical dependency treatment post-surgery, relapse (as discussed above) is likely, and a comprehensive mental health care program with monitoring, social support, and a recognition of the social determinants that contribute to the relapse are often not sufficiently addressed.
Thus, these patients return with IE and in need of a second, third, or more heart valve replacement surgeries. Surgeons and other healthcare professionals, particularly those working in community hospitals with limited financial resources, may question their duties to this patient population while considering their obligations to their medical community and society at large. Heart valve replacement surgeries, post-operative care, and addiction treatment are costly, and the financial burdens to patients, healthcare institutions, and the general community may deter surgeons from moving forward despite the patient’s need. We can add the statistic about how the cost is increasing using the data from NC either here or in the paragraph with all the other statistics. Furthermore, the social stigma and biases against drug-addicted patients impact medical decisions, particularly when combined with the potential risk to health outcome measures, which can affect individual health care professional evaluations, work satisfaction, and trust among the general patient population.
The emotional impact of providing surgical care with the likelihood the patient will be back again for repeat heart valves due to IVDU can prompt moral distress, cynicism, and resentment of this patient population regardless of the moral obligations to treat when medically necessary, or beneficial. All of these considerations for repeat heart valve replacement surgeries should not be dismissed. They are essential for building a case for comprehensive just care, which is guided by core ethical principles of beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice, as well as a recognition of the individual patient’s story through narrative medicine. Narrative medicine prompts healthcare professionals to absorb, interpret, and co-author the dynamic story-telling in patient care. By co-authoring the illness narratives of patients, providers are able to acquire deeper insight into each patient’s understanding of their illness, their goals for recovery, and the triggers that act as obstacles to recovery. Furthermore, through these illness narratives, providers will bear witness to the individuality of medical cases and recognize that some patients really can be helped even with the likelihood of relapse and future harm, which can reduce moral distress and clinical cynicism (e.g., “why try to help if these patients will end up abusing drugs again”) [20, 21, 22]. However, the illness narratives need to be sustained; patients’ stories do not end once they complete their post-operative care (e.g., antibiotic therapy).
It is our general position that repeat heart valves for patients with IE secondary to IVDU ought to be given if they are medically beneficial and if the patient is willing to commit to addiction recovery and ongoing, comprehensive mental health treatment that aims to address the social triggers, existing mental health disorders, and other factors that influence the chemical dependency. This is not the responsibility of the surgeon alone, but a medical team that has access to hospital and community resources, appropriate skills, knowledge to address the whole patient and their medical and psychosocial needs, and the ability to combat social stigma by treating the patient as a person with a very specific narrative. When repeat heart valves are not medically necessary or ethically beneficial, may cause undue suffering, and/or the patient is unwilling to commit to a comprehensive treatment program after thorough guidance by the health care team, then it is ethically justifiable to refuse surgery. However, each case is unique, and there may arise unique considerations that have not yet been previously addressed or ethically analyzed. Thus, it is essential that a narrative ethical approach that calls attention to the nuances of the case, i.e., the elements of the patient’s story, is automatically part of the medical assessment and a sustainable chronic care plan.
In this first case, there are a number of social factors that are contributing to the patient’s current medical state. First, this is a young, homeless patient who does not have the means to acquire sustainable basic human needs. Regardless of whether her drug use led to the homelessness or vice versa, she is surviving in an unhealthy, unsupportive, and harmful environment, which is an obstacle to addiction recovery and overall health. When living in a residential treatment facility, she was able to have security, shelter, food, warmth, and community support, in addition to, medical treatment, all of which are essential for a recovering addict who, unfortunately, did not have these resources prior to her first valve surgery. However, these resources are limited; they are only available for the duration of her medical treatment for the endocarditis, and not for the ongoing recovery for her addiction. Her lack of essential resources, social instability, and homelessness are likely to have played a role in her subsequent relapse while on Suboxone; this demonstrates the necessity for holistic and comprehensive care in order to fully rehabilitate a patient with a chronic condition. Furthermore, this patient has a history of untreated depression—another significant factor that could have led to her current medical state.
The use of IV drugs to combat feelings of depression and despair are not uncommon among untreated patients. Reasons for why she did not seek medical attention for her depression are unknown, but given the difficulties of navigating the health care system, federal insurance programs, and community programs that can aid a patient in accessing mental health care, it is not surprising that her depression went untreated. A person already addicted to IV drugs may have even more difficulty accessing mental health care due to the cognitive effects of the drugs, the stigma of drug use, and the lack of social support in seeking help. This patient tried to stop her drug use, but could not stop without the necessary social support and addiction therapy. Because she was previously successful at recovery, is a good surgical candidate for a medically indicated tricuspid valve replacement, and has a strong commitment to seeking post-operative care and addiction treatment, the surgical intervention should be granted. An ethics committee convened with this case and further recommended that it is critical for a team-based approach to be utilized for patients with IVDU who are seeking valve replacements.
A range of medical specialists and addiction experts, along with the surgical team, are essential for developing and implementing a treatment plan. It is also recommended that these patients sign a behavioral agreement in addition to the standard surgical consent form that details the patient’s level of understanding about the risks and benefits of the surgery, addiction interventions, and any other medical and psychosocial care that promotes a good clinical outcome. Clinical outcomes are often determined by the success of the surgeries and post-operative care. However, we need to begin to look more critically at the long-term success of recovery, factors contributing to relapse, and how a team-based approach can aid the patient in quickly getting back into recovery. Recovery is a life-long process and a good clinical outcome may take years to fully measure and understand despite the more immediate surgical successes.
In the end, this patient did receive re-operative tricuspid and aortic tissue valve replacement. However, the behavioral contract, a non-legally binding contract, was not used. This contract prompts the patient to understand the need to get comprehensive treatment beyond a valve replacement, as well as empower the patient to take charge of her life, and maintain physical and mental health through ongoing counseling, therapy, and pharmaceutical interventions to treat her depression and addiction. The value of the contract is that it is a way to understand the patient’s illness narrative and her commitment to recovery; although not used for this particular patient, it is a useful tool that can be beneficial for other patients. Of course, basic human needs (home, food, social support) are also needed, yet securing these resources for patients can be a challenge without having social work, nursing, and community support. There are limitations to what a surgeon can do beyond immediate surgical care, so it is critical for a wider health care community to recognize their ethical obligations to this patient population.
In regard to the second case, this young male patient is struggling with mental health issues—particularly untreated depression and addiction—and is married to a recovering addict, who either can be a positive or negative influence in his recovery depending on their willingness to work together toward mutual recovery. Without mental health treatment, his depression, suicidal ideations, and addiction will continue. One of the primary problems with this case is the patient’s reluctance (which might be confounded by potential neurologic dysfunction due to his embolic strokes) to mental health treatment, feeling as though he does not need it despite the magnitude of health complications arising from his pervasive drug use. Specifically, the IVDU has led to multiple hospitalizations, a mitral valve replacement, and multiple, serious co-morbidities that have left him with ongoing physical pain and cognitive impairment. Prior to testing for valve functionality, this patient, too, was presented to an ethics committee, which prompted discussion regarding whether valve re-operation would be beneficial to this patient with serious comorbidities that may increase his surgical risk and lead to a poorer quality of life.
Similar to the first case, discussions surrounding addiction stigma, the need for social support, a need for the patient’s commitment to seek addiction treatment, and a team-based approach to patient care were presented. However, unlike the first case, this particular patient is suffering from a number of medical issues that each need to be taken into consideration in the evaluation for a replacement valve, as well as an acknowledgment of the patient’s lack of commitment to comprehensive mental health treatment. The ethical guidance sought is grounded in the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence, as well as a narrative-based justice approach that details the specifics of the patient’s medical history, social support, quality of life, and his preferences and commitment to recovery. The goals of the medical team, from an ethical perspective, are to very carefully look at his medical condition, and whether he even has a chance for survival and future quality of life with a second valve replacement surgery. Second, it is critical for the medical team to revisit the topic of comprehensive mental health care, including treatment for depression and chemical dependency. Objective consideration must also be given if there are overwhelming evidence of medical/surgical futility—but this concept can be extremely difficult to determine in young patients.
The need for aggressive inpatient chemical dependency treatment is essential to this patient’s recovery. However, unlike the first case in which valve replacement surgery and addiction treatment are simultaneously discussed as a holistic approach to patient care, for this patient, the addiction treatment becomes an interesting topic of discussion due to the gravity of his medical condition and his resistance to treatment. That is, the first case had less medical ambiguities in terms of the surgical candidacy for valve replacement combined with a clear indication of the patient’s commitment to recovery. Thus, due to the immediate and justifiable medical need, the decision to move forward with surgery came simultaneously with a team-based plan and patient contract for recovery. Here, the patient’s condition warrants an initial discussion about whether replacement valve surgery would be non-beneficial treatment. Causing further harm either during surgery or postoperatively should be avoided so as to ensure the best quality of life while living with a terminal condition. Furthermore, if the replacement valve surgery would be deemed beneficial, there remains the issue of the patient’s lack of commitment to recovery. If there is persistent resistance to mental health care, ethically it would be unjust to proceed with a surgical intervention.
Following the ethics consult, the patient’s valves with small vegetation were functioning, and his bacteremia was responding well to antibiotic therapy. The surgical team determined that after he completed extended care, he then should seek aggressive inpatient chemical dependency treatment to limit the risk of relapse and recurrence. However, the medical team may be at an impasse given the patient’s current resistance and lack of commitment to addiction recovery.
While it is recommended the medical team should have ongoing dialog with the patient to understand his reluctance at undergoing mental health treatment, and continuing to identify providers, care facilities, etc., that could aid in his recovery, additional steps may be needed before proceeding with any future medical interventions (e.g., valve replacement). If medical therapy alone fails e.g. progression of disease, worsening valve functioning, or recurrent emboli that lead to further complications, treatment options will need to be re-evaluated. Depending on his medical state, the patient may not be a future candidate for a replacement valve, and thus other medical resources and personnel, such as palliative care, may be required for the care of this patient.
In our first case, it is recommended the patient sign a behavioral contract to strengthen her existing commitment toward recovery, which further illustrates she does not have to go through recovery alone, i.e., the medical team will not give up on her if she maintains her commitment. In this second case, however, a behavioral contract may not be enough, since such non-legally binding contracts are symbolic gestures of the medical team’s medical/social/legal relationship to a patient the shared responsibilities of both parties. When a patient is not willing to share responsibilities in the relationship and is resistant to addressing serious mental health disorders, the first step is to understand why.
Valve replacements in IVDU must be administered regardless of the negative connotations associated with addiction or illicit drug use, with the patient’s health, surgical success, and access to comprehensive addiction treatment being the goals of treatment. Both conscious and unconscious biases can affect clinical judgments that lead to unjust decision-making and disrespectful treatment of patients.
Similar to the health disparities we see in organ transplantation cases, where racial and ethnic biases have affected the length of time on a transplant waiting list, or lifestyle behaviors (e.g., alcohol addiction) have affected judgments about probability of success for organ replacement surgeries, medical judgments are not immune to bias when determinations about medical outcomes are being made. That is, it is all too easy for a surgeon to determine that her patient does not qualify for a valve replacement because of the high surgical risk, which may be based on the patient’s untreated addiction, probability of relapse, and co-morbidities due to the effects of IVDU (e.g. the inherent risks of recurrent overdoses), rather than on the patient’s survivability on the surgical table and success of the valve replacement itself. A surgeon may also exhibit conscious biases toward her patient when considering the continued burden of having to provide ongoing treatment, which increases the financial and personnel cost to the medical institution. Thus, such attitudes and feelings lead to a biased clinical judgment, but may also be generated out of concern for professional evaluation and outcomes-based, performance measures.
The first step in reducing the need for repeat valve replacement and improving patient health outcomes and survivability is to understand the patient’s own unique story that prompted the IVDU, their goals for treatment, and their overall understanding of their own responsibilities toward successful, comprehensive treatment. By motivating them with a behavioral contract that speaks to the healthcare team’s responsibility to the patient’s care and the patient’s own commitment, this may be a positive step.
Second, patients will not have a chance for successful recovery if they are not provided with needed resources and appropriate guidance to motivate them to seek long-term treatment. Such treatment should involve methods ranging from psychotherapy to pharmaceutical interventions.
Unfortunately, most current care is focused on the infective pathology; in IE patients only the acute problem is addressed, but no effort seems to be placed on preventing readmissions or improving the patient’s quality of life. Addressing the lack of care and support IVDU patients are receiving, rather than trying to limit patient access to replacement procedures provides the just treatment these patients deserve, in addition to reducing the financial burden on healthcare systems and society. Health care providers often fail to identify addiction as the significant comorbidity that it is, and do not treat it as aggressively and appropriately using drugs that specifically target opioid use disorders; this results in under-treatment of addiction [16]. Such a limited care approach needs to change.
Third, surgeons and the healthcare team also require the support of ethics teams when complex social and ethical questions arise with patients. Personal biases lead to social stigmatization of patients with IVDU, influence medical decisions, lead to provider burnout, moral distress, and cynicism among health care providers. Having ongoing team-based discussions about these negative experiences, attitudes, and emotions is one step in the right direction, Recognizing the ethical and social issues that penetrate the medical problems can also help navigate and resolve dilemmas and elicit a deeper understanding of the individual patient and their illness narrative. It is important for healthcare providers to engage in self-care, and to have the opportunity to address issues before they devolve into negative emotions and attitudes that can be harmful to self and other.
Finally, it is critical for the health care team to know when additional treatment is futile. There are limits to justice. However, such limits to therapies must be based upon objective evidence supported by the medical literature rather than poorly grounded assumptions, biases, and outdated, or erroneous knowledge or datasets.
Unless physicians treat the chronic and acute illnesses in patients with IE due to IVDU, their ethical duties toward their patients remain unfulfilled, and they fail to provide just care. This issue becomes more precarious when considering patients who require additional valve replacements due to continued IVDU.
The American Medical Association’s
Unfortunately, it is not unusual for patients with recurrent IE secondary to IVDU to experience social stigmatization and bias at the hands of the healthcare system and to be denied the comprehensive care that is needed in such cases. While some patients are justifiably denied due to a significant medical risk over benefit, patients are also denied simply because they are perceived as non-compliant, or because their potentially risky surgical treatments may negatively affect the health reviews and ratings of the surgeons performing the valve replacements. It is not ethically just to penalize viable surgical candidates when their addiction has neither been addressed nor treated. Citing high rates of treatment failure and non-compliance is not a valid excuse when the substance use disorder has not been treated as aggressively as the IE, especially when taking into considerations the lack of resources available for these patients to seek and maintain recovery.
The authors have no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
",metaTitle:"Publishing Process Steps and Descriptions",metaDescription:"This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with InTechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Publishing Process Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/publishing-process-steps",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"1. SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\\n\\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\\n\\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\\n\\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\\n\\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\\n\\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\\n\\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\\n\\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\\n\\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\\n\\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\\n\\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\\n\\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\\n\\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\\n\\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\\n\\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\\n\\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\\n\\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\\n\\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'1. SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\n\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\n\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\n\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6675},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5955},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2460},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12718},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1018},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17721}],offset:12,limit:12,total:134178},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"-dateEndThirdStepPublish",src:"N-T-0-T2"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9985",title:"Geostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. Yarus, Dr. Marko Maucec, Dr. Timothy C. Coburn and Associate Prof. Michael Pyrcz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9985.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"78011",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey M.",surname:"Yarus",slug:"jeffrey-m.-yarus",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Yarus"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12058",title:"Future Housing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e7f4a1e57fab392b61156956c1247b9e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ivan Oropeza-Perez and Dr. Astrid Helena Petzold-Rodríguez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12058.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12215",title:"Cell Death and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dfd456a29478fccf4ebd3294137eb1e3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ke Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12215.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12112",title:"The Colorectal Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"21c65e742d31d5b69fb681ef78cfa0be",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Shamim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12112.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235128",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Shamim",slug:"muhammad-shamim",fullName:"Muhammad Shamim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12079",title:"Strategies Towards the Synthesis of Heterocycles and Their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bc4022af925c0883636e0819008971ee",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Premlata Kumari and Dr. Amit B Patel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12079.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"177041",title:"Dr.",name:"Premlata",surname:"Kumari",slug:"premlata-kumari",fullName:"Premlata Kumari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11998",title:"Biocomposites - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8bc7ffd7544fff1901301c787e64fada",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Magdy Elnashar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11998.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"12075",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdy",surname:"Elnashar",slug:"magdy-elnashar",fullName:"Magdy Elnashar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11999",title:"Earthquakes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b2af07109b13b76e5af9583532ab5bee",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Walter Salazar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11999.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"236461",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",surname:"Salazar",slug:"walter-salazar",fullName:"Walter Salazar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11500",title:"Multi-Objective Optimization - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"842f84f308439c0a55c4e8e6a8fd9c01",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Adel El-Shahat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11500.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"193331",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",surname:"El-Shahat",slug:"adel-el-shahat",fullName:"Adel El-Shahat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12172",title:"Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f6aa23b1045d266d0928fcef04fa3417",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sajid Arshad and Mr. Waseem Khalid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12172.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"192998",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Sajid",surname:"Arshad",slug:"muhammad-sajid-arshad",fullName:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12113",title:"Tendons - Trauma, Inflammation, Degeneration, and Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2387a4e0d2a76883b16dcccd452281ab",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Nahum Rosenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12113.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"68911",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahum",surname:"Rosenberg",slug:"nahum-rosenberg",fullName:"Nahum Rosenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12196",title:"Sepsis - New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3590e6f6047122bd96d1d57da29c4054",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Lixing Huang, Dr. Youyu Zhang and Dr. Lingbin Sun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12196.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"333148",title:"Dr.",name:"Lixing",surname:"Huang",slug:"lixing-huang",fullName:"Lixing Huang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12050",title:"Advanced Biodiesel - Technological Advances, Challenges, and Sustainability Considerations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bb86ab5c5ca0dab95f01941eb350f920",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. IMR Fattah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12050.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"463663",title:"Dr.",name:"IMR",surname:"Fattah",slug:"imr-fattah",fullName:"IMR Fattah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:22},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:63},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:112},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:404},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4431},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"747",title:"Mathematical Modeling",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-mathematical-modeling",parent:{id:"116",title:"Electrical and Electronic Engineering",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:58,numberOfWosCitations:98,numberOfCrossrefCitations:71,numberOfDimensionsCitations:133,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"747",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7413",title:"Oscillators",subtitle:"Recent Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"718135f9929dd8eb1b260ecc70a5f97f",slug:"oscillators-recent-developments",bookSignature:"Patrice Salzenstein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18345",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrice",middleName:null,surname:"Salzenstein",slug:"patrice-salzenstein",fullName:"Patrice Salzenstein"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7501",title:"Fault Detection and Diagnosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5143fb77b96f488e4ec5dd6e7947904c",slug:"fault-detection-and-diagnosis",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7501.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7334",title:"Advances in Memristor Neural Networks",subtitle:"Modeling and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0f2ee1e1269d235ae65ca392b26b4729",slug:"advances-in-memristor-neural-networks-modeling-and-applications",bookSignature:"Calin Ciufudean",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7334.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"11000",title:"Prof.",name:"Calin",middleName:null,surname:"Ciufudean",slug:"calin-ciufudean",fullName:"Calin Ciufudean"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"842",title:"Infrared Thermography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a89cc7f60b5f96812ec173b89de294c4",slug:"infrared-thermography",bookSignature:"Raghu V. Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/842.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69736",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghu",middleName:"Vasu",surname:"Prakash",slug:"raghu-prakash",fullName:"Raghu Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32033",doi:"10.5772/29135",title:"Thermographic Applications in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"thermographic-applications-in-veterinary-medicine",totalDownloads:5045,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"842",slug:"infrared-thermography",title:"Infrared Thermography",fullTitle:"Infrared Thermography"},signatures:"Calogero Stelletta, Matteo Gianesella, Juri Vencato, Enrico Fiore and Massimo Morgante",authors:[{id:"76631",title:"Prof.",name:"Calogero",middleName:null,surname:"Stelletta",slug:"calogero-stelletta",fullName:"Calogero Stelletta"},{id:"76636",title:"Prof.",name:"Massimo",middleName:null,surname:"Morgante",slug:"massimo-morgante",fullName:"Massimo Morgante"},{id:"76637",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Gianesella",slug:"matteo-gianesella",fullName:"Matteo Gianesella"},{id:"140869",title:"Dr.",name:"Juri",middleName:null,surname:"Vencato",slug:"juri-vencato",fullName:"Juri Vencato"},{id:"140870",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrico",middleName:null,surname:"Fiore",slug:"enrico-fiore",fullName:"Enrico Fiore"}]},{id:"32034",doi:"10.5772/30268",title:"Infrared Thermography in Sports Activity",slug:"infrared-thermography-in-sports-activity",totalDownloads:3703,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"842",slug:"infrared-thermography",title:"Infrared Thermography",fullTitle:"Infrared Thermography"},signatures:"Ahlem Arfaoui, Guillaume Polidori, Redha Taiar and Catalin Popa",authors:[{id:"42496",title:"Prof.",name:"Guillaume",middleName:null,surname:"Polidori",slug:"guillaume-polidori",fullName:"Guillaume Polidori"},{id:"55942",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahlem",middleName:null,surname:"Arfaoui",slug:"ahlem-arfaoui",fullName:"Ahlem Arfaoui"},{id:"55943",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin",middleName:null,surname:"Popa",slug:"catalin-popa",fullName:"Catalin Popa"},{id:"81693",title:"Prof.",name:"Redha",middleName:null,surname:"Taiar",slug:"redha-taiar",fullName:"Redha Taiar"}]},{id:"32035",doi:"10.5772/28282",title:"Thermography Applications in the Study of Buildings Hygrothermal Behaviour",slug:"thermography-applications-in-the-study-of-buildings-hygrothermal-behaviour",totalDownloads:3468,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"842",slug:"infrared-thermography",title:"Infrared Thermography",fullTitle:"Infrared Thermography"},signatures:"E. Barreira, V.P. de Freitas, J.M.P.Q. Delgado and N.M.M. Ramos",authors:[{id:"13295",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuno",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos",slug:"nuno-ramos",fullName:"Nuno Ramos"},{id:"17110",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Delgado",slug:"joao-delgado",fullName:"João Delgado"},{id:"23770",title:"Prof.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Barreira",slug:"eva-barreira",fullName:"Eva Barreira"},{id:"23771",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasco",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto de Freitas",slug:"vasco-peixoto-de-freitas",fullName:"Vasco Peixoto de Freitas"}]},{id:"32032",doi:"10.5772/27788",title:"Infrared Thermography - Applications in Poultry Biological Research",slug:"infrared-thermography-applications-in-agriculture-and-biological-research",totalDownloads:4177,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"842",slug:"infrared-thermography",title:"Infrared Thermography",fullTitle:"Infrared Thermography"},signatures:"S. Yahav and M. Giloh",authors:[{id:"71534",title:"Prof.",name:"Shlomo",middleName:null,surname:"Yahav",slug:"shlomo-yahav",fullName:"Shlomo Yahav"}]},{id:"32036",doi:"10.5772/27488",title:"Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening Systems Bonded on RC Structures Using Pulsed Stimulated Infrared Thermography",slug:"pulsed-stimulated-infrared-thermography-applied-to-a-nondestructive-evaluation-of-frp-strengthening-",totalDownloads:3384,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"842",slug:"infrared-thermography",title:"Infrared Thermography",fullTitle:"Infrared Thermography"},signatures:"Frédéric Taillade, Marc Quiertant, Karim Benzarti, Jean Dumoulin and Christophe Aubagnac",authors:[{id:"70362",title:"Dr.",name:"Frédéric",middleName:null,surname:"Taillade",slug:"frederic-taillade",fullName:"Frédéric Taillade"},{id:"78761",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Quiertant",slug:"marc-quiertant",fullName:"Marc Quiertant"},{id:"78763",title:"Dr.",name:"Karim",middleName:null,surname:"Benzarti",slug:"karim-benzarti",fullName:"Karim Benzarti"},{id:"78765",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Dumoulin",slug:"jean-dumoulin",fullName:"Jean Dumoulin"},{id:"78768",title:"Mr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Aubagnac",slug:"christophe-aubagnac",fullName:"Christophe Aubagnac"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62542",title:"Memristive Systems Based on Two-Dimensional Materials",slug:"memristive-systems-based-on-two-dimensional-materials",totalDownloads:1675,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The unique electronic and optical properties of newly discovered 2D crystals such as graphene, graphene oxide, molybdenum disulfide, and so on demonstrate the tremendous potential in creating ultrahigh-density nano- and bioelectronics for innovative image recognition systems, storage and processing of big data. A new type of memristors with a floating photogate based on biocompatible graphene and other 2D crystals with extremely low power consumption and footprint is considered. The photocatalytic oxidation of graphene is proposed as an effective method of creating synapse-like 2D memristive devices with photoresistive switching for nonvolatile electronic memory of ultrahigh density. Particular attention is paid to the new concept of the formation of self-assembled nanoscale memristive elements interfacing artificial electronic neural networks. 2D photomemristors with a floating photogate exhibit multiple states controlled in a wide range of electromagnetic radiation and can be used for neuromorphic computations, pattern recognition and image processing needed to create artificial intelligence.",book:{id:"7334",slug:"advances-in-memristor-neural-networks-modeling-and-applications",title:"Advances in Memristor Neural Networks",fullTitle:"Advances in Memristor Neural Networks - Modeling and Applications"},signatures:"Gennady N. Panin and Olesya O. Kapitanova",authors:[{id:"246520",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennady",middleName:null,surname:"Panin",slug:"gennady-panin",fullName:"Gennady Panin"}]},{id:"32029",title:"Application of Thermography in Materials Science and Engineering",slug:"applications-of-thermography-in-materials-science-and-engineering",totalDownloads:5432,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"842",slug:"infrared-thermography",title:"Infrared Thermography",fullTitle:"Infrared Thermography"},signatures:"Alin Constantin Murariu, Aurel - Valentin Bîrdeanu, Radu Cojocaru, Voicu Ionel Safta, Dorin Dehelean, Lia Boţilă and Cristian Ciucă",authors:[{id:"70428",title:"Dr.",name:"Alin Constantin",middleName:"C.",surname:"Murariu",slug:"alin-constantin-murariu",fullName:"Alin Constantin Murariu"},{id:"82175",title:"BSc",name:"Aurel - Valentin",middleName:null,surname:"Bîrdeanu",slug:"aurel-valentin-birdeanu",fullName:"Aurel - Valentin Bîrdeanu"},{id:"82179",title:"Prof.",name:"Voicu Ionel",middleName:null,surname:"Safta",slug:"voicu-ionel-safta",fullName:"Voicu Ionel Safta"},{id:"82225",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorin",middleName:null,surname:"Dehelean",slug:"dorin-dehelean",fullName:"Dorin Dehelean"},{id:"82232",title:"MSc.",name:"Radu",middleName:null,surname:"Cojocaru",slug:"radu-cojocaru",fullName:"Radu Cojocaru"},{id:"82235",title:"MSc.",name:"Lia",middleName:null,surname:"Botila",slug:"lia-botila",fullName:"Lia Botila"},{id:"82240",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Ciuca",slug:"cristian-ciuca",fullName:"Cristian Ciuca"}]},{id:"62198",title:"The Roadmap to Realize Memristive Three-Dimensional Neuromorphic Computing System",slug:"the-roadmap-to-realize-memristive-three-dimensional-neuromorphic-computing-system",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Neuromorphic computing, an emerging non-von Neumann computing mimicking the physical structure and signal processing technique of mammalian brains, potentially achieves the same level of computing and power efficiencies of mammalian brains. This chapter will discuss the state-of-the-art research trend on neuromorphic computing with memristors as electronic synapses. Furthermore, a novel three-dimensional (3D) neuromorphic computing architecture combining memristor and monolithic 3D integration technology would be introduced; such computing architecture has capabilities to reduce the system power consumption, provide high connectivity, resolve the routing congestion issues, and offer the massively parallel data processing. Moreover, the design methodology of applying the capacitance formed by the through-silicon vias (TSVs) to generate a membrane potential in 3D neuromorphic computing system would be discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"7334",slug:"advances-in-memristor-neural-networks-modeling-and-applications",title:"Advances in Memristor Neural Networks",fullTitle:"Advances in Memristor Neural Networks - Modeling and Applications"},signatures:"Hongyu An, Kangjun Bai and Yang Yi",authors:[{id:"245542",title:"Mr.",name:"Kangjun",middleName:null,surname:"Bai",slug:"kangjun-bai",fullName:"Kangjun Bai"},{id:"246324",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hongyu",middleName:null,surname:"An",slug:"hongyu-an",fullName:"Hongyu An"},{id:"246727",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi"}]},{id:"32035",title:"Thermography Applications in the Study of Buildings Hygrothermal Behaviour",slug:"thermography-applications-in-the-study-of-buildings-hygrothermal-behaviour",totalDownloads:3466,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"842",slug:"infrared-thermography",title:"Infrared Thermography",fullTitle:"Infrared Thermography"},signatures:"E. Barreira, V.P. de Freitas, J.M.P.Q. Delgado and N.M.M. Ramos",authors:[{id:"13295",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuno",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos",slug:"nuno-ramos",fullName:"Nuno Ramos"},{id:"17110",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Delgado",slug:"joao-delgado",fullName:"João Delgado"},{id:"23770",title:"Prof.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Barreira",slug:"eva-barreira",fullName:"Eva Barreira"},{id:"23771",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasco",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto de Freitas",slug:"vasco-peixoto-de-freitas",fullName:"Vasco Peixoto de Freitas"}]},{id:"64281",title:"Mathematical Models of Oscillators with Memory",slug:"mathematical-models-of-oscillators-with-memory",totalDownloads:1051,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The chapter proposes a mathematical model for a wide class of hereditary oscillators, which is a Cauchy problem in the local formulation. As an initial model equation, an integrodifferential equation of Voltaire type was introduced, which was reduced by means of a special choice of difference kernels to a differential equation with nonlocal derivatives of fractional-order variables. An explicit finite-difference scheme is proposed, and questions of its stability and convergence are investigated. A computer study of the proposed numerical algorithm on various test examples of the hereditary oscillators Airy, Duffing, and others was carried out. Oscillograms and phase trajectories are plotted and constructed.",book:{id:"7413",slug:"oscillators-recent-developments",title:"Oscillators",fullTitle:"Oscillators - Recent Developments"},signatures:"Roman Ivanovich Parovik",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"747",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:58,paginationItems:[{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82357",title:"Caries Management Aided by Fluorescence-Based Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105567",signatures:"Atena Galuscan, Daniela Jumanca and Aurora Doris Fratila",slug:"caries-management-aided-by-fluorescence-based-devices",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81894",title:"Diet and Nutrition and Their Relationship with Early Childhood Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105123",signatures:"Luanna Gonçalves Ferreira, Giuliana de Campos Chaves Lamarque and Francisco Wanderley Garcia Paula-Silva",slug:"diet-and-nutrition-and-their-relationship-with-early-childhood-dental-caries",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82013",title:"Streamlining Laboratory Tests for HIV Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105096",signatures:"Ramakrishna Prakash and Mysore Krishnamurthy Yashaswini",slug:"streamlining-laboratory-tests-for-hiv-detection",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81972",title:"The Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa; Current Understanding of the Host Immune System and New Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105086",signatures:"Kwame Kumi Asare",slug:"the-submicroscopic-plasmodium-falciparum-malaria-in-sub-saharan-africa-current-understanding-of-the-",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:64,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",value:4,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:2,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:3,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:4,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Pollution",value:38,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"